International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies

ISSN: 2202-9478
www.ijels.aiac.org.au

The Effect of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) on Reading Comprehension in English for

Specific Purposes Courses

Fahimeh Farahani*
Department of Foreign Languages, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran
Corresponding author: Fahimeh Farahani, Email: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) has potential to help language learners; however, it has
Received: October 07, 2017 received scant attention. The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of NLP
Accepted: January 29, 2018 techniques on reading comprehension of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners at an
Published: January 31, 2018 English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course. To achieve this goal, two intact classes of students
Volume: 6 Issue: 1 were selected to form an experimental group (n=30) and a control group (n=30). A reading pretest
(based on the course content) was given to all participants. The sensory learning styles of the
participants were diagnosed using Reid’s (1987) leaning style questionnaire, and the participants
Conflicts of interest: None in the experimental group were familiarized with NLP techniques to be able to implement
Funding: None these techniques in their reading. In the control group, the conventional approach to teach ESP
reading was used. Considering the analysis of posttest results through ANCOVA, it was found
that implementation of NLP techniques can have significant effect on reading comprehension of
Iranian undergraduate EFL learners. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

Key words: Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), Read-
ing Comprehension, Iranian Undergraduate EFL Learners

INTRODUCTION learning in many contexts. NLP involves not only the use
Reading comprehension is among the most significant lan- of language but also behavior and strategic thinking in the
guage skills for the students at tertiary level. There is no learning process. The combination of strategic thinking,
behavior and language together is more likely to result in
doubt that most material presented to the university students
effective language learning compared to focusing on lan-
is in form of written text, and those who have adequate read-
guage alone. As a result, learners can get into the deep struc-
ing comprehension ability can tackle the difficulty of reading
ture of a task. Baker and Rinvolucri (2005) introduce NLP
texts (Hu, 2004).
as “a complex set of beliefs, skills and behaviors that can
Reading comprehension also plays a significant role in En-
help a person communicate more accurately, effectively and
glish for Specific Purposes (ESP) language courses. Much of
respectfully” (p.4). Richards and Rogers (2000) note that
learning material is also presented to the language learners in
along many language teaching methods which rely on the
ESP courses in the written form, and they should be able to
language learners’ intelligence, including the Silent Way,
read the text to comprehend it. However, as a number of prob- Suggestopedia, and the use of NLP in language classes, the
lems exist in ESP courses in the context of Iran, the outcome last one has received scant attention. Therefore, the main
of these courses has not been promising (Amirian & Tavakoli, objective of this study was to find out whether or not utiliza-
2009). In the first place, most learners who attend ESP courses tion of NLP can solve the reading comprehension problem
wish to improve their Speaking skill; therefore, little atten- of language learners in ESP courses in the context of Iran.
tion is accorded to reading comprehension. On the other hand, Focus was mainly accorded to students at ESP course which
although most materials presented to the learners are in the is among compulsory, and cumbersome courses for these
written form, they are usually used to teach content vocabu- students. The possible outcome of this study could also
lary to language learners and do not serve the purpose of read- guide other educators who conduct similar courses in other
ing comprehension (Akbari & Tahririan, 2009). Moreover, medical schools in Iran.
learners’ preferences and learning styles are not considered by
the educators, and their potential effect is ignored (Isazadeh,
Makui, Ansarian, 2016; Wang, Wang & Huang, 2008). Research Question
Recent research has also shown that Neuro Linguistic To pursue the purpose of the study, the following research
Programming (NLP) has helped the problem of language question was proposed:

Published by Australian International Academic Centre PTY.LTD.

Copyright (c) the author(s). This is an open access article under CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
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80 IJELS 6(1):79-85

• What is the effect of implementing NLP techniques on NLP in 1970s (Bandler & Grinder, 1975). They incepted
reading comprehension of Iranian undergraduate EFL NLP to level interpersonal and intrapersonal communication
learners in ESP courses? between and among people (Revell & Norman, 1997). To
achieve this purpose a set of techniques and patterns were
Theoretical Framework created by scholars to attempt to develop NLP. Winch (2005)
named these patterns “the strategies that other people can
The researcher’s main interest in this study was to find out use in the pursuit of excellence”(p.1).
the extent to which NLP can affect the reading comprehen-
According to Tosey and Mathison (2003), NLP has the
sion of Iranian undergraduate EFL learners at ESP courses.
potential to be used as a theory in the field of education. He
Therefore, the researcher selected “the 4 pillars of NLP”
assumes that not only is NLP a whole-body learning theo-
theory as explained by Revell and Norman (1997, as cited
ry which fosters interpersonal and intrapersonal commu-
in Richards & Rodgers, 2000). They categorized 4 key ele-
ments for NLP as shown in Figure 1. nication, but also is it cooperative and goal-oriented. Later
In order to operationalize this theory, the researcher took NLP was used as a training procedure in training managers,
into consideration a number of issues in designing the read- trainers, sales people, market researchers, counsellors, con-
ing tasks. First of all, the main objective (outcome) of the sultants, medics, lawyers and more. Currently, NLP is used
task was made clear. Secondly, the reading tasks were con- as the underlying assumption in U.K. it is being applied
ducted cooperatively in order to maximize similarities be- through “NLPEdNet” software.
tween learners. It also helped minimizing the differences, es- Richards and Rodgers (2000) were among the schol-
pecially at non-conscious level. Thirdly, learners were asked ars who discussed the use of NLP in language education.
to pay attention to reading techniques used by other peers in They built upon the notion of NLP discussed by Bandler and
the class as a possible approach to solving reading questions. Grinder (1975) and looked at it as “ how people influence
This is a conscious and nonverbal step in the task. Fourthly, each other and in how behaviors of very effective people
leaners were briefed on the task and were asked to be flexible could be duplicated” (Richards & Rodgers, 2000, p.125).
and move from one reading strategy to another in case they Later they asserted that although NLP can have effect on
found the strategy ineffective. This had to be repeated until language learning, scant research has dealt with this issue.
the desired outcome was achieved.
Another theory which formed the basis of this study was
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as suggested by Reading Comprehension
Vygotsky (1987, as cited in Chaiklin, 2003). ZDP is based on RAND Reading Study Group (2002) defines reading com-
the effect of cooperation in learning. It is assumed that learn- prehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting and
ers should enter other peers’ proximal zone in order to learn constructing meaning through interaction and involvement
effectively. The ZDP of a person is his/her area of expertise with written language” (p. 11). They present three elements
from which others can benefit. It is also known as the aided for reading comprehension: “1) The reader who is doing
Zone. As one aspect of NLP is cooperation, it is assumed that comprehending, 2) the text that is to be comprehended, 3) the
learners can enter each other’s proximal zone through NLP activity in which comprehension is a part” (p. 11). They fur-
and benefit from more resources of knowledge. ther state that three elements define reading comprehension
as a phenomenon that occurs within a large socio-cultural
LITERATURE REVIEW content that shapes and is shaped by the reader that interacts
with each of the three elements. They further mentioned that
A Synopsis of NLP history
understanding requires acknowledging that it is a cognitive,
NLP is among recent developments in science which con- linguistic, and cultural activity.
nects mathematics to language and neurology. The prose- According to Burns, Roe, and Ross (1999), different cat-
cutors on NLP were of various backgrounds, Bandler was egories of comprehension are used by the readers to under-
a Mathematician and Grinder was a linguist who suggested stand the message of the writer: “literal comprehension” and
“higher-order comprehension” (p. 219). “To take in idea that
is directly stated is literal comprehension; this is the most ba-
sic type” (Burns et al., 1999, p. 219). They further mentioned
that Higher-order reading comprehension goes beyond literal
understanding of a text. It involves higher-order considering
processes. Higher-order reading comprehension includes:
“interpretive reading”, “critical reading”, and “creative read-
ing”. “Interpretive reading is reading between the lines or
making inferences. It is the process of deriving ideas that
are implied rather than directly stated” (Burns et al., 1999,
p. 227). Readers infer the implied information by combining
Figure 1: Four key elements of NLP (designed by the researcher the information in the text with their background knowledge
based on Revell and Norman, 1997) of the world.
The Effect of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) on Reading Comprehension in English for
Specific Purposes Courses 81

ESP Reading These participants in these two classes were assigned to

Several lines are written on the vitality of devising ESP an experimental group (n=30) and a control group (n=30).
courses. Lorenzo (2005) suggests that ESP “concentrates Their homogeneity in terms of reading was determined
more on language in context than on teaching grammar and through a reading comprehension test. In order to make sure
language structures” (p. 1). The context in the majority of the groups were homogeneous, an analysis of covariance
cases is related to learners’ occupation which is intensely was run using pre-tests data. It showed that there was no sig-
motivating for them. In a study conducted by Alemi and nificant difference between two groups in terms of reading
Ebadi (2010) on the effectiveness of pre-reading activities comprehension prior to treatment.
on ESP reading concluded that ESP course learners have
knowledge of their field and book authors have knowledge Instruments and Materials
of language. Both should be mingled to increase the success
The materials used in the present study included ten passag-
of ESP reading courses.
es, taken from ‘Reading Science and Medicine in English’
It is worth mentioning that with ample developments
authored by Kamyab, Mahboubi, Seddigh, Shokrpor (2016)
in different economic and social contexts a macro environ-
which is a reference book in the target discipline. The par-
ment has been provided ESP teaching and learning with new
ticipants were given a pretest (from the above mentioned
tendencies in ESP teaching fashions. As Spector-Cohen,
book), as pretest, and another test from the book as posttest.
Kirschner, and Wexler (2001) reveal, teachers and curricu-
The instruments used in the study included: a) Reading pre-
lum designers should find out how learners solve problems
test and posttest, and b) Reid (1987) learning style question-
in reading rather than deciding what is problematic in read-
naire. The reliability of the reading pretest and posttest was
ing texts in a foreign language. This way, insights into cogni-
checked using Cronbach Alpha and was equal to.89, and.88
tive strategies for teaching would be discovered.
for the two tests respectively. In addition, these tests are
Many of the studies that have been conducted on the ef-
considered valid, as they are designed by a panel of experts
fect of using NLP tasks on reading comprehension have dealt
at the University of Tehran, and are used to measure learn-
with increasing machine responses of the software to answer
ers’ reading comprehension at ESP courses. The researcher
reading questions. For example, Baalbaki and Zylberglejd
also checked the reliability of the results gained from Reid’s
(n.d.) studied the effect of NLP tasks on answering reading
learning style questionnaire (α=.79).
questions by a software and found the tasks to be effective. In
another study, Arivuchel Van, and Lakahmi (2017) conclude
that NLP is a possible approach to increase reading ability Data Analysis Metho
of computerized systems. However, studies dealing with the The main objective of this study was to find out whether
effect of NLP instruction in language classes on reading com- there is any statistically significant difference between the
prehension of the language learners is extremely scant. experimental and control group concerning the treatment of
the study. Based on the fact that the control and experimen-
METHOD tal groups were two intact classes of medicine students, and
might not be matched at the outset, the pretest scores (the
Research Design covariant) was adjusted and an analysis of covariance, AN-
This is an experimental study with a between-subject design, COVA was applied to find if there was any preexisting sig-
as the performance of participants in two distinct groups is nificant difference in pre-tests of both experimental and con-
compared to seek the answers to research questions. The trol group to ensure the homogeneity of the groups from the
main independent variable in the study is the effect of NLP very beginning so that any significant difference in control
and the dependent variable is reading comprehension of the and experimental group can be attributed to the effect of the
Iranian undergraduate EFL learners. In addition and due to treatment. Here it is worth mentioning that all the assump-
the quantitative nature of this research, pragmatism best tions for applying ANCOVA to the data was investigated to
describes the philosophy of the researcher and conclusions meet the conditions under which ANCOVA is permitted to
were drawn based on observable data. be applied.

Participants Procedure
To fulfill the goal of this study, 60 undergraduate students The treatment phase in the experimental group was based
majoring in medical sciences took part in the study. These upon a series of topics, each presented in one of the ten ses-
participants were of different genders and their age ranged sions. The topics were among the most popular issues in re-
between 19 and 21. The participants took part in the study in lation to NLP practices. Listed below:
form of two intact classes; therefore, non-random sampling 1. Introduction; NLP presuppositions and core concepts
through the convenience approach can best describe the par- 2. Goal Setting (Outcome)-Guided Fantasy
ticipants’ sampling procedure in this study. These partici- 3. Sensory Language (Reid’s Test)
pants formed two cohorts for this study, i.e. an experimental 4. Sensory Language (Continue)
group (n=30) and a control group (n=30). Table 1 reveals the 5. Metaphor- Accentuate the Positive
demographics of the participants. 6. Emotion
82 IJELS 6(1):79-85

Table 1. Demographics of the Participants

Group N Gender Proficiency level Language learning experience ethnicity Age
Experimental 30 14 male Intermediate Average Iranian 19‑20
16 female 24 months
Control 30 12 male intermediate Average Iranian 19‑21
18 female 22 months

7. Belief (Flexibility) language learning or behavior. Nor can we be sure that the
8. There is no Failure; only Feed back methods used are exclusive and the treatments really never
9. Finding the Best Strategy (Flexibility) overlapped. In the current study, the independent variable
10. Review of the strategies was considered as teaching methodology with two levels
The participants in the experimental group were famil- (with and without NLP), and the dependent variable was the
iarized with each of the abovementioned techniques in one measure of undergraduate medical students’ reading com-
session. They were guided on how to set objectives, what prehension.
learning styles are, how to learn language by using human The main objective of this study was to find out whether
senses, the role of emotion in learning languages, and vari- there is any statistically significant difference between the
ous strategies they could implement to facilitate their learn- experimental and control group concerning the treatment of
ing through using senses. The presentation of each technique the study. Based on the fact that the control and experimen-
was followed by reading a medical text and answering the tal groups were two intact classes of medicine students, and
questions which followed the text. After taking VAK (1997) might not be matched at the outset, the pretest scores (the
learning style test, the teacher (researcher) asked the partici- covariant) was adjusted and an analysis of covariance, AN-
pants to read the text and answer the questions that followed. COVA was applied to find if there was any preexisting sig-
The questions were related to the presented NLP material, nificant difference in pre-tests of both experimental and con-
especially the sensory language. Now that the participants trol group to ensure the homogeneity of the groups from the
knew their sensory style, they were asked to read the text very beginning so that any significant difference in control
using their own style. For example, one who was visual (ac- and experimental group can be attributed to the effect of the
cording to the test) attempted to use visual aids in compre- treatment. Here it is worth mentioning that all the assump-
hending the text, such as glosses, covering visual clue, bold- tions for applying ANCOVA to the data was investigated to
ness of words, Italic forms, headings, etc. Auditory learners meet the conditions under which ANCOVA is permitted to
could read the text aloud to him/herself, or listen to the audio be applied.
material, or possibly have background music while reading
the text. Kinesthetic ones were asked to do activities of mov-
Exploratory Data Analysis Results
ing their hands, and writing down information. They were
also allowed to stand up and walk for some seconds if they To make sure that parametric tests are suitable to be used
would feel better, or even role-play the text for themselves. in this study, there are two main assumptions; the normal-
The participants in the control group underwent the tra- ity of data distribution, and the homogeneity of variances.
ditional method of teaching the reading texts. They were Table 2 shows the frequency and descriptive statistics for
taught scanning and skimming reading techniques. Finally, pretest scores.
a reading posttest was assigned to both groups. The posttest According to Table 2, the mean and standard deviation of
consisted of 20 multiple choice questions. Both groups took pre-test distribution is reported. The skewedness of the scores
the posttest for reading. The results were then analyzed using in NLP group is.385, and for control group.,116 and the kur-
SPSS software. tosis for NLP and control group is.519, and.523, respective-
ly. According to Pallant (2011), when the skewedness, and
kurtosis indexes are less than one, the normality of scores is
RESULTS
proved. Also according to the table, the skewedness of the
Statistical Package in Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22 scores in NLP group is.129, and for control group.,641, re-
was used to analyze the data. Based on the objectives of the spectively proving the normality of scores (Pallant, 2011).
study, the following research question was addressed: The observed mean of experimental group (NLP), is 16.57,
What is the effect of NLP on reading comprehension of while it is 13.93 for the control group.
Iranian undergraduate EFL learners in ESP courses?
Due to the fact that the participants of the study were in
two intact classes of ESP, experimental and control group, Inferential Statistics
the study was designed as quasi-experimental. In addition, In order to statistically adjust the means for posttest scores
meticulously defining many of the numerous variables in- for any initial difference between the groups on the pre-test,
volved in most applied linguistics research is quite a de- an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was applied to the
manding task. One can hardly be certain that some specific scores. The ANCOVA technique removes the portion of each
treatment involves just that treatment and no other aspect of participant’s posttest score which is in common with his or
The Effect of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) on Reading Comprehension in English for
Specific Purposes Courses 83

her pretest score. The report of the analysis of covariance DISCUSSION

is in Table 3. Prior to that, as mentioned earlier, one of the The ultimate goal of the present study was to investigate the
assumptions to apply ANCOVA is the equality of variances. effect of NLP on Iranian undergraduate EFL learner’ reading
Table 3 shows the measurement of equality of variances for comprehension. The results showed a statistically significant
the dependent variable, posttest. difference between experimental and control group learners
The results of the Levene’s test for the posttest (F=.368,
in terms of posttest reading comprehension which means
df= 1, 58, p=.546>.05) showed no significant difference be-
that implementing NLP tasks (increasing participants of
tween the variances of the two groups and thus the second
NLP strategies) is an effective approach to improving their
assumption was also met.
reading skill. This was mostly done by 1) informing the par-
The statistical significance value (ρ-value) is reported
ticipants of their sensory learning styles, and 2) instructing
to be.000 which shows a statistically significant difference
reading strategies related to the learners’ learning styles.
between the adjusted means (ρ<.0005). Therefore, it can
Alongside with the researcher’s coming up with a signif-
be concluded that NLP reading techniques have significant
icant difference between the two teaching methods in terms
effect on reading comprehension of Iranian undergraduate
of their effect on ESP reading comprehension, the value of
EFL learners at ESP course.
NLP methods is undeniable. In other words, NLP proved
Later, post-hoc comparison was conducted to report
to be an effective means of improving learning language in
where the difference lies. Table 4 shows the results of pair-
general and language skills in particular. As most of NLP
wise comparison.
techniques such as mind-mapping and goal setting are meta-
As seen from Table 4, the results of pairwise compari-
cognitive strategies, the effect of these strategies on reading
son show the significant difference between the control and
comprehension has been promising. Results of a study con-
experimental group of this study (p=.000<.05) leading to
reject the null hypothesis which stated that there is no sta- ducted by Siriphanich and Laohawiriyanon (2010, as cited
tistically significant difference between the means of exper- in Hariri & Tahriri, 2013) indicated the significant effect of
imental and control group, proving that the treatment was mind-mapping on improving the performance of reading
effective. comprehension of EFL learners in Taiwan. Other study by
Arivuchel Van and Lakahmi (2017) had revealed that NLP
can increase reading performance of computerized systems.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Pretests Arivuchel Van and Lakahmi (2017) had also urged the need
NLP Control NLP Control for investigating the effect of NLP on reading comprehen-
Pretest Pretest Posttest Posttest sion of the language learners.
Mean 12.67 12.63 16.57 13.93 NLP as an important concept in humanistic psychology
Std. Deviation 2.294 2.470 1.870 2.625 deals with the art of communication and the study of the
Skewness 0.385 0.116 ‑0.129 0.641
structure of subjective experience (Tosey, Mathison, & Mi-
chelli, 2005, as cited in Pishghadam, Shayesteh, Shapoori,
Kurtosis ‑0.519 ‑0.523 ‑0.837 ‑0.452 2011, p. 909). As a result, the researcher attempted to pro-

Table 3. Tests of Between‑Subjects Effects

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p Partial Eta Squared
Corrected Model 154.018a 2 77.009 16.975 0.000 0.373
Intercept 378.423 1 378.423 83.417 0.000 0.594
pretest 0.418 1 0.418 0.092 0.763 0.002
Teaching*method 153.541 1 153.541 33.846 0.000 0.373
Error 258.582 57 4.537
Total 12682.000 60
Corrected Total 412.600 59
a. R Squared=0.373 (Adjusted R Squared=0.351)

Table 4. Pairwise Comparisons

(I) teaching method (J) teaching method Mean Difference (I‑J) Std. Error p 95% Confidence Interval
for Difference
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
NLP Control 3.218* 0.553 0.000 2.110 4.326
Control NLP ‑3.218* 0.553 0.000 ‑4.326 ‑2.110
84 IJELS 6(1):79-85

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