CHAPTER ONE: FOUNDATION IN OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

 Give reasons why organisations should manage safety and health.

 Give three direct and indirect costs that might arise from a workplace accident.
1.1 Scope and Nature of OSH

The study of occupational safety and health involves the study of many different subjects
including the sciences (chemistry, physics and biology), engineering, psychology, sociology
and law.

1.2 Key terms used in Occupation Safety and Health (OSH).

i. HEALTH: the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO,1948).
ii. SAFETY: the condition of being protected from harm or other non-desirable
outcomes. It means keeping oneself and others free from danger.
iii. WELFARE: is the provision of facilities to maintain the health and wellbeing of
individuals at the work place. Employee welfare is a comprehensive term, it includes
various services, benefits and facilities offered to employees by employers. E.g.
portable water, sanitary conveniences, changing rooms, canteens etc..
iv. Hazard: the potential of a substance, person, or activity or process to cause harm.
E.g. electricity, chemicals, noise, dust etc..
v. RISK: is the probability of a substance, person, activity or process to cause harm. A
risk is a chance high or low that any hazards will actually cause harm.
vi. ACCIDENT: undesired circumstances which give rise to ill health or injury, damage
to property, plants (industries), products or the environment. Accidents can also be
production losses or increased liabilities.
vii. NEAR MISS: any form of event which could have resulted in injury or loss but did
not in fact do so.
viii. OCCUPATIONAL INJURY: An injury that take place in the course of a persons
employment activities
ix. OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES: any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work
or occupational activities, e.g. respiratory infections

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 x. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY (OSH): is a multi-disciplinary field
concerned with the safety, health and welfare of people at work.

GOALS/AIMS OF OSH

 To protect and maintain the highest degree of mental, physical and social well-being
of workers in all occupations.
 To prevent adverse health effects caused by working conditions at the work place
 Placing of workers in occupational environments adapted to physical and mental
needs.

1.3 Safety and Health Management Systems (SHMS)

A Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) is a systematic approach to managing

safety and health activities by integrating occupational safety and health programs, policies,
and objectives into organizational policies and procedures. Simply stated, a SHMS is a set of
safety and health program components that interact in an organized way. An effective SHMS
must be uniquely designed for each organization. It is not a “one size fits all.”

An effective SHMS consists of five critical elements that apply safety and health
management practices of employers who have been successful in protecting the safety and
health of their employees. An effective SHMS depends on:

 Management Commitment and Planning- Top management must provide visible ongoing
commitment and leadership for implementing the SHMS covering all workers, including
contract workers.

 Employee Involvement – The best SHMSs involve employees at every level of the
organization. Employees are often those closest to the hazard and have first-hand knowledge
of workplace hazards.

 Safety and Health Training – Training is the means to help assure employees and
management understand safety and health hazards and know how to protect themselves and
others from the hazards while doing their job.

 Worksite Analysis – Worksite analysis is a comprehensive evaluation of the hazards and

potential hazards in the workplace.

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 Hazard Prevention and Control – Effective management actively establishes procedures for
timely identification, correction and control of hazards. Once hazards and potential hazards
are recognized, a hazard prevention and control program can be designed.

Integrating these elements into the way you conduct business will help develop or strengthen
the safety and health culture and identify safety and health as a core organizational value.

A management system allows us to decide what needs to be done, how best to do it, and
monitor our progress toward the goals we have established. Evaluation of results over time
permits the process and results it creates to continue to improve.

1.3.1 Why Implement a Safety and Health Management System (SHMS)?

i. Moral reasons- the most important reason for maintaining a robust health and safety
management system is that it is right to do so. No one should be injured or made ill at
work!
Employers have a moral duty to look after the health, safety and welfare of their
employees. In other words, employees have the right to be kept safe at work.
ii. Economic reasons- accidents costs money as a result of injured people, damaged
assets and wasted time. These may include:
a) Insurance costs
b) Sickness cover
c) Loss of production
d) Penalties and fines
e) Reputation

iii. Legal reasons- employers and employees must comply with the safety and health
laws. Both the employer and employee have a common law of duty of care to each
other and other employees.

Successfully managing hazards and exposures can lead to an injury-free culture. This requires
that everyone proactively seek potential for injuries before they occur. This is accomplished
when employees understand the value placed on safety and health by top leadership, their
own performance responsibilities and continuous learning about safety and health.

1.4 Iceberg Theory

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It is a calculation method developed to estimate the indirect costs of an accident in the
workplace.

It states that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can befall ten times greater than the
direct costs or even more.

1.4.1 Direct costs to the employer

i. Payment of work not performed

ii. Medical and compensation payments
iii. Repair and replacement of damaged machinery or equipment
iv. Reduction or temporally halt in production
v. Increased training expenses and administration costs
vi. Possible reduction in the quality of work (e.g. loss of a competent worker)

1.4.2 Indirect costs to employers

i. The injured or ill must be replaced

ii. New workers must be trained and given time to adjust

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 iii. Loss of time in investigating and writing accident or incident reports

1.4.3 Direct costs on workers

i. The pain and suffering due to an injury or illness

ii. Loss of income
iii. Possible loss of the job
iv. Health care costs

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 CHAPTER 2. WORKPLACE HAZARDS AND RISK CONTROL

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Explain the effects of substance misuse on health and safety at work and control
measures to reduce such risks
2. Explain the hazards and control measures for the safe movement of people in the
workplace
3. Explain the hazards and control measures for safe working at height
4. identify and classify the occupational health and safety hazards in a workplace

2.1 Workplace

A workplace can be described as anywhere where work is done, or where work is to be

performed by a worker or a person conducting a business or an undertaking. Therefore,
settings such as workshops, construction sites, factory, business shop, offices, farm shops,
home, playground etc. could be regarded as a workplace.

2.1.1 Safe workplace

A safe workplace is any work environment in which hazard occurrences are reduced to the
barest minimum by observing in strict compliance the principles of safe-work procedures.
The following principles have been identified for a safe operation in any workplace. It is the
responsibility of workers to always bear in minds that:

1. Safety is an ethical responsibility

2. Safety is a culture, not a program
3. Management (employer) is responsible for workers safety
4. Employees (workers) must be trained to work safely
5. Safety is a condition of employment
6. All workplace injuries are preventable
7. Safety programs must be site specific, with constant safety audit of the workplace
8. Prompt corrective action could prevent an injury
9. Accidents never occur unless there is a mistake. Avoid one

2.2 Hazards in the workplace

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Hazard

Hazard is described as any situation, condition or extreme events (natural or caused) with a
certain degree of probability of having adverse consequences on safety or health of workers.
Workplace hazard expresses any activity having potential to adversely or negatively impact
(affect) human health, property, or the environment within the workplace. Such hazards could
cause harm, injury or death in extreme cases.

2.2.1 Classes of hazard

Hazard can be classified as either safety hazard or health hazard according to OSHA 3157
(1999).

Safety hazards refer to those circumstances that can cause immediate injury to a worker. For
example, if electrical equipment is not properly grounded, could become energized and
possibly electrocute an employee. Or, if a worker’s hands were to contact a saw blade, he or
she could have one or more fingers cut off instantly.

2.2.2 Sources of safety hazards includes:

1. Machine/machinery such as:

a. Point of operation

b. Rotary and reciprocating movements

c. In-running nip points (pinch points) etc.

2. Kickbacks from machine due to sudden loading and impact

3. Flying chips, material etc. such as flying stone propelled by mower blade etc. 4. Tool
projection e.g. anvil edge, projecting object in load vehicles tec.

5. Fire and explosion hazards

6. Electrical hazards as a result of exposed or un-insulated life wire

Health hazards are associated with long term exposure to certain substances or to excessive
noise levels or vibrations. Health hazards can cause both immediate (acute) and longer-term
(chronic) health effects. For example, exposure to turpentine, a chemical used in some

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furniture waxes and finishes, can result in a range of health effects, from temporary irritation
of the eyes and skin to kidney and bladder damage.

2.2.3 Sources of health hazards include:

1. Excessive Noise

2. Vibration from machine operation

3. Wood dust—carcinogens

4. Chemicals—from exposure to coatings, finishing, adhesives, solvent vapours

2.3 Workplace hazard

Workplace hazards include those points, areas, materials, or situations that could endanger,
harm, injure, or cause death in extreme cases to man within the workplace. Such conditions
include moving parts of machinery, working at heights, slippery surfaces, electrical energy,
excessive noise, toxic substances, and lifting of heavy objects.

Many of these hazards leading to fatal or non-fatal incidents had similar circumstances and
common associated factors, regardless of the working category or location of the work in
which they were included. These circumstances and contributing factors are with emphasis
on the type of fatal events, rather than the working category of the affected persons.

Imminent/potential hazard: This is any activity or situation that is likely to result in serious
injury, death, or significant environmental or property damage.

2.4 Working at height

 Examples of work activities involving a risk of injury from falling from height, and
the significance of such injuries
 Basic hazards and factors affecting risk from working at height (including vertical
distance, fragile roofs, deterioration of materials, unprotected edges, unstable/poorly
maintained access equipment, weather and falling materials).

2.4.1 Methods of avoiding working at height

Main precautions necessary to prevent falls and falling materials, including proper planning
and supervision of work:

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  avoiding working in adverse weather conditions.
 Provision of equipment, training, instruction and other measures to minimise distance
and consequences of a fall.
 Head protection
 Safe working practices for common forms of access equipment, including ladders,
stepladders, scaffolds (independent tied and mobile tower), mobile elevating work
platforms, trestles, staging platforms and leading edge protection systems.
 Inspection of access equipment.

2.5 Hazard Classification

Some items are hazardous by nature, while others only become hazardous if used
inappropriately or carelessly. Often, accidents don’t just happen – they are a result of workers
neglecting or ignoring hazardous situations.

There are two basic categories of hazard:

Acute hazards are those that have an obvious and immediate

Acute hazard
impact.
Chronic hazard Chronic hazards have a more hidden, cumulative, long-term impact.
An example of an acute hazard is a slippery floor where there is an immediate danger of
someone slipping and being injured. A chronic hazard could be workplace bullying, where
the long-term impact may result in stress or other psychological injury.

Hazards generally fall into one of six groups:

1. Physical – Slippery floors, objects in walkways, unsafe or misused machinery,

excessive noise, poor lighting, fire.
2. Chemical – Gases, dusts, fumes, vapours and liquids.
3. Ergonomic – poor design of equipment, workstation design, (postural) or
workflow, manual handling, repetitive movement.
4. Radiation – Microwaves, infra-red, ultraviolet, lasers, X-rays and gamma rays.
5. Psychological – Shiftwork, workload, dealing with the public, harassment,
discrimination, threat of danger, constant low-level noise, stress.
6. Biological – Infection by bacteria, virus, fungi or parasites through a cut, insect
bite, or contact with infected persons or contaminated object.

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CHAPTER THREE: HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT (HRA) AND CONTROL

3.1 AIM

The aim of occupational HRAs is to systematically and proactively identify health hazards in
the workplace, assess their potential risks to health and determine appropriate control
measures to protect the health and wellbeing of workers. The HRA process is a partnership
between occupational health advisors, occupational/ industrial hygiene advisors, managers
and operational staff with each-depending on the circumstances-using their knowledge,
experience and skills to support the HRA process.

3.2 STEPS IN AN HRA

Health risk assessment involves four key elements:

1. Identification of hazards.
2. Examination of the potential effects.
3. Measurements of exposures and.
4. Characterisation of the risk.

An Occupational Health Risk Assessment (HRA) is therefore the structured and systematic
identification and analysis of workplace hazards with the aim of reducing the risk so f
exposure to these hazards through the development and implementation of avoidance, control
and control failure recovery measures. In the occupational setting, it is the preliminary
component to health risk management. Health risk management is the decision-making
process involving considerations of political, social, economic and engineering factors
combined with risk assessment information to develop, analyse and compare options and to
select between them.

3.2.1 Steps in an HRA

An HRA is generally a cyclical and iterative process rather than a simple linear one. An HRA
is generally made up of the following steps:

1. Identify the health hazards and their harmful health effects

2. Identify the exposed individuals and groups (i.e. Similar Exposure Groups)
3. Identify the processes, tasks and areas where hazardous exposures could occur
4. Assess, measure or verify the exposures

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 5. Analyze the effectiveness of existing control measures
6. Analyze the potential health risks of the hazardous exposures (e.g. compare against
occupational exposure limits)
7. Prioritize the health risks (high, medium and low)
8. Anticipate potential new and emerging health risks
9. Establish a risk register
10. Set priorities for action
11. Develop, implement and monitor a risk control action plan or review existing risk
control action plan
12. Maintain accurate and systematic records of the HRA or amend existing Risk Control
Action Plan and use alternative and/ or additional control measures
13. Review and amend at regular intervals or earlier if changes to processes or new
developments are proposed

3.3 Types of HRA

There are three broad types of HRAs that are each conducted at different levels and at
different times:

•Baseline HRAs

•Issues based or targeted HRAs

•Continuous HRAs

A baseline HRA isused to determine the current status of occupational health risks
associated with a facility. This tends to be a very wide ranging assessment that encompasses
all potential exposures.

An issues-based or targeted HRA is designed to provide a detailed assessment of specific

processes, tasks and areas that have been identified as priorities in the base line assessment.

A continuous HRA is an ongoing monitoring program or a schedule of regular reviews to

determine whether conditions have remained the same, whether changes in processes, tasks
or areas have occurred and whether these changes have modified any hazardous exposures
and hence any potential health risks. A management of change program can also be
considered as being part of a continuous HRA program.

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An HRA can be qualitative involving a qualitative assessment of exposures and/or risks (e.g.
baseline HRAs) or quantitative involving the measurement of exposures and/or the
quantification of the potential health risks (e.g. issues based HRAs).

3.4 Assessing the Effectiveness of Control Measures

Introduction

Control measures are the interventions and actions-equipment, techniques, processes,

protocols and education- that help to eliminate or reduce the levels of hazardous
exposure.

3.4.1 Hierarchy of Control

There are several levels of control measures that can be put in place to deal with
adverse exposures. These are generally termed the Hierarchy of Control (HOC). In
order of reliability, effectiveness and likelihood of reducing exposures they are:

•Elimination

•Substitution

•Engineering (including isolation)

•Administration (including education and training)

•Personal protective equipment

Elimination

Remove a major emission source of particulates and various gases by replacing diesel
powered equipment, with electrically powered equipment.

Substitution

Electrically powered tools such as rockdrills can emit lower levels of noise and vibration than
pneumatically powered ones.

Engineering (including isolation)

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In some areas such as ore processing plants, enclosures around screens and other noisy
equipment can reduce noise levels in the remainder of the plant. Vibration reducing
mountings and damping can reduce both vibration and noise levels. The cabin design on
mobile equipment plays a large role in improving operator comfort, reducing exposure to
noise, dust, muscular stresses, extreme temperatures and reducing fatigue. Work refuges or
cabins can be used in a variety of locations to isolate workers from hazards such as dust,
noise, chemicals and heat.

Administration (including training and education)

Making changes to work procedures e.g. restricting when work is carried out or the number
of hours worked, more frequent rotation of tasks and work permits to allow workers into
designated areas can reduce exposure to hazards. Education and training to understand
hazards and the measures taken to combat them are also important, especially where health
hazards are linked to the proper use of equipment or a particular task e.g. manual handling.

Personal protective equipment

The use of personal protective equipment e.g. hearing protection devices, face masks,
bodysuits, etc. can also protect workers from noise, dust and chemical exposures. However,
this can never be regarded as an effective control as its effectiveness is very dependent on the
user.

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 CHAPTER FOUR: ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT INVESTIGATION

4.1 Background

Every year people are killed or injured at work. Over 40 million working days are lost
annually through work-related accidents and illnesses.

This topic gives you an opportunity to find out what went wrong. Learning the lessons and
taking action may reduce, or even prevent, accidents in the future.

Occupational accident is an unexpected and unplanned occurrence, including acts of

violence, arising out of or in connection with work which results in one or more workers
incurring a personal, disease or death. As occupational accidents are to be considered travel,
transport or road traffic accidents in which workers are injured and which arise out of or in
the course of work, i.e. while engaged in an economic activity, or at work, or carrying on the
business of the employer. As occupational accidents are to be considered accidents occurring
on the habitual route, in either direction, between the place of work- or work-related training
and the workers principal or secondary residence, the place where the worker usually takes

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his or her meals, or the place where he or she usually receives his or her remuneration, which
results in death or personal injury. An occupational injury is any personal injury, physical
damage to body tissues or death from an occupational accident. Occupational injuries are
responsible for more lost time from work, productivity, and working years of life than any
other health conditions. Injuries are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among the
workers. Thousands of people are killed annually in industrial accidents, and the number of
disabling injuries is also a staggering figure. Many workers suffered job related injuries that
resulted in lost work time, medical treatment, loss of consciousness, restriction of work or
motion, or transfer to another job. Today injuries continue to claim the lives, damage the
physical and psychological well-being and consume the resources of workers and their
families. The overall human, social, and financial toll of traumatic occupational injury is
enormous, rivalling the burden imposed by such health threats as cancer and cardiovascular
disease.

4.2 Accident Causation

Occupational accidents, work related injuries and fatalities result from multiple causes. Many
traditional theories about the causes of occupational accidents focus on the worker. Many
attempts have been made to develop a prediction theory of accident causation, but so far none
has been universally accepted. Researchers from different fields of science and engineering
have been trying to develop a theory of accident causation which will help to identify, isolate
and ultimately remove the factors that contribute to or cause accidents.

4.3 Accident Causation Theories

4.3.1 The Domino Theory

According to the domino theory, 88% of all accidents are caused by unsafe acts of people,
10% by unsafe actions and 2% by "acts of God". It proposed a "five-factor accident
sequence" in which each factor would actuate the next step in the manner of toppling
dominoes lined up in a row. The sequence of accident factors is as follows: 1. ancestry
and social environment 2. worker’s fault 3. unsafe act together with mechanical and
physical hazard 4. accident 5. damage or injury In the same way that the removal of a
single domino in the row would interrupt the sequence of toppling. Removal of one of the
factors would prevent the accident and resultant injury, with the key domino to be
removed from the sequence being number 3. Although the author provided no data for his

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theory, it nonetheless represents a useful point to start discussion and a foundation for
future research.

4.3.2 Multiple Causation Theory

The multiple causation theory is an outgrowth of the domino theory, but it postulates that
for a single accident there may be many contributory factors, causes and sub-causes, and
that certain combinations of these give rise to accidents. According to this theory, the
contributory factors can be grouped into the following two categories: 1. Behavioral
factors, which include factors pertaining to the worker, such as improper attitude, lack of
knowledge, lack of skills and inadequate physical and mental condition. 2. Environmental
factors, which include improper guarding of other hazardous work elements and
degradation of equipment through use and unsafe procedures. The major contribution of
this theory is to bring out the fact that rarely, if ever, is an accident the result of a single
cause or act.

4.3.3 The Pure Chance Theory

According to the pure chance theory, every one of any given set of workers has an equal
chance of being involved in an accident. It further implies that there is no single
discernible pattern of events that leads to an accident. In this theory, all accidents are
treated as acts of God, and it is held that there exist no interventions to prevent them.

4.3.4 The Biased Liability Theory

The biased liability theory is based on the view that once a worker is involved in an
accident, the chances of the same worker becoming involved in future accidents either
increase or decrease as compared to the rest of workers. This theory contributes very
little, if anything at all, towards developing preventive actions for avoiding accidents.

4.3.5 The Accident Proneness Theory

The accident proneness theory maintains that within a given set of workers, there exists a
subset of workers who are more liable to be involved in accidents. Researchers have not
been able to prove this theory conclusively because most of the research work has been
poorly conducted and most of the findings are contradictory and inconclusive. This theory
is not generally accepted. It is felt that if indeed this theory is supported by any empirical

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 evidence at all, it probably accounts for only a very low proportion of accidents without
any statistical significance.

4.3.6 The Energy Transfer Theory

Those who accept the energy transfer theory put forward the claim that a worker incurs
injury or equipment suffers damage through a change of energy, and that for every
change of energy there is a source, a path and a receiver. This theory is useful for
determining injury causation and evaluating energy hazards and control methodology.
Strategies can be developed which are either preventive, limiting or ameliorating with
respect to the energy transfer. Control of energy transfer at the source can be achieved by
the elimination of the source, changes made to the design or specification of elements of
the work station, preventive maintenance. The path of energy transfer can be modified by
enclosure of the path, installation of barriers, installation of absorbers, positioning of
isolators. The receiver of energy transfer can be assisted by limitation of exposure and use
of personal protective equipment.

4.3.7 The "Symptoms Versus Causes" Theory

The "symptoms versus causes" theory is not so much a theory as an admonition to be

heeded if accident causation is to be understood. Usually, when investigating accidents,
we tend to fasten upon the obvious causes of the accident to the neglect of the root causes.
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions are the symptoms, the proximate causes, and not the
root causes of the accident.

The procedures used under this topic for accident and incident investigation can be used to
guide individuals, organisations, particularly smaller businesses, to carry out their own health
and safety investigations. Investigating accidents and incidents explains why you need to
carry out investigations and takes you through each step of the process:

Step one: Gathering the information

Step two: Analysing the information

Step three: Identifying risk control measures

Step four: The action plan and its implementation

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 CHAPTER FIVE; PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
Learner Outcomes:

You will be able to:

1. Identify the requirements for PPE.

2. Evaluate a variety of PPE devices and determine the types of equipment necessary for
your type of work.
3. Understand the training requirements for your workers on proper usage of PPE.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is specialized clothing or equipment worn by staff

for protection against health and safety hazards. Examples of PPE include such items as
gloves, foot and eye protection, protective hearing devices (earplugs, muffs) hard hats,
respirators and full body suits.

The Requirement for PPE

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To ensure the greatest possible protection for employees in the workplace, the cooperative
efforts of both employers and employees will help in establishing and maintaining a safe and
healthful work environment. In general, employers are responsible for:

 Performing a hazard assessment of the workplace to identify and control physical and
health hazards.
 Identifying and providing appropriate PPE for employees.
 Training employees in the use and care of the PPE.
 Maintaining PPE, including replacing worn or damaged PPE.
 Periodically reviewing, updating and evaluating the effectiveness of the PPE program

In general, employees should:

 Properly wear PPE,

 Attend training sessions on PPE,
 Care for, clean and maintain PPE, and
 Inform a supervisor of the need to repair or replace PPE.

Selecting PPE

All PPE clothing and equipment should be of safe design and construction, and should be
maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. Employers should take the fit and comfort of PPE
into consideration when selecting appropriate items for their workplace.

PPE that fits well and is comfortable to wear will encourage employee use of PPE. Most
protective devices are available in multiple sizes and care should be taken to select the proper
size for each employee. If several different types of PPE are worn together, make sure they
are compatible. If PPE does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being safely
covered or dangerously exposed. It may not provide the level of protection desired and may
discourage employee use.

Training Employees in the Proper Use of PPE

Employers are required to train each employee who must use PPE. Employees must be
trained to know at least the following:

 When PPE is necessary.

 What PPE is necessary.

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  How to properly put on, take off, adjust and wear the PPE.
 The limitations of the PPE.
 Proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of PPE

Employers should make sure that each employee demonstrates an understanding of the PPE
training as well as the ability to properly wear and use PPE before they are allowed to
perform work requiring the use of the PPE. If an employer believes that a previously trained
employee is not demonstrating the proper understanding and skill level in the use of PPE, that
employee should receive retraining. Other situations that require additional or retraining of
employees include the following circumstances: changes in the workplace or in the type of
required PPE that make prior training obsolete.

The employer must document the training of each employee required to wear or use PPE by
preparing a certification containing the name of each employee trained, the date of training
and a clear identification of the subject of the certification.

1. Eye and Face Protection

Employees can be exposed to a large number of hazards that pose danger to their eyes and
face. Employers should ensure that employees have appropriate eye or face protection if they
are exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids
or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapours, potentially infected material or potentially
harmful light radiation.

Many occupational eye injuries occur because workers are not wearing any eye protection
while others result from wearing improper or poorly fitting eye protection. Employers must
be sure that their employees wear appropriate eye and face protection and that the selected
form of protection is appropriate to the work being performed and properly fits each worker
exposed to the hazard.

Prescription Lenses

Everyday use of prescription corrective lenses will not provide adequate protection against
most occupational eye and face hazards, so employers must make sure that employees with
corrective lenses either wear eye protection that incorporates the prescription into the design
or wear additional eye protection over their prescription lenses. It is important to ensure that

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the protective eyewear does not disturb the proper positioning of the prescription lenses so
that the employee’s vision will not be inhibited or limited.

Also, employees who wear contact lenses must wear eye or face PPE when working in
hazardous conditions.

Eye Protection for Exposed Workers

Eye protection be routinely considered for use by carpenters, electricians, machinists,

mechanics, millwrights, plumbers and pipefitters, sheet metal workers and tinsmiths,
assemblers, sanders, grinding machine operators, sawyers, welders, labourers, chemical
process operators and handlers, and timber cutting and logging workers.

Employers of workers in other job categories should decide whether there is a need for eye
and face PPE through a hazard assessment.

Examples of potential eye or face injuries include:

 Dust, dirt, metal or wood chips entering the eye from activities such as chipping,
grinding, sawing, hammering, the use of power tools or even strong wind forces.
 Chemical splashes from corrosive substances, hot liquids, solvents or other hazardous
solutions.
 Objects swinging into the eye or face, such as tree limbs, chains, tools or ropes.
 Radiant energy from welding, harmful rays from the use of lasers or other radiant
light (as well as heat, glare, sparks, splash and flying particles).

Types of Eye Protection

Selecting the most suitable eye and face protection for employees should take into
consideration the following elements:

 Ability to protect against specific workplace hazards.

 Should fit properly and be reasonably comfortable to wear.
 Should provide unrestricted vision and movement.
 Should be durable and cleanable.
 Should allow unrestricted functioning of any other required PPE.

Some of the most common types of eye and face protection include the following:

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Safety spectacles- These protective eyeglasses have safety frames constructed of metal or
plastic and impact-resistant lenses. Side shields are available on some models.

Goggles- These are tight-fitting eye protection that completely cover the eyes, eye sockets
and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and provide protection from impact,
dust and splashes. Some goggles will fit over corrective lenses.

Welding shields-Constructed of vulcanized fibre or fibreglass and fitted with a filtered lens,
welding shields protect eyes from burns caused by infrared or intense radiant light; they also
protect both the eyes and face from flying sparks, metal spatter and slag chips produced
during welding, brazing, soldering and cutting operations. OSHA requires filter lenses to
have a shade number appropriate to protect against the specific hazards of the work being
performed in order to protect against harmful light radiation.

Laser safety goggles- These specialty goggles protect against intense concentrations of light
produced by lasers. The type of laser safety goggles an employer chooses will depend upon
the equipment and operating conditions in the workplace.

Face shields-These transparent sheets of plastic extend from the eyebrows to below the chin
and across the entire width of the employee’s head. Some are polarized for glare protection.

Face shields protect against nuisance dusts and potential splashes or sprays of hazardous
liquids but will not provide adequate protection against impact hazards. Face shields used in
combination with goggles or safety spectacles will provide additional protection against
impact hazards.

Each type of protective eyewear is designed to protect against specific hazards. Employers
can identify the specific workplace hazards that threaten employees’ eyes and faces by
completing a hazard assessment as outlined in the earlier section.

Welding Operations

The intense light associated with welding operations can cause serious and sometimes
permanent eye damage if operators do not wear proper eye protection. The intensity of light
or radiant energy produced by welding, cutting or brazing operations varies according to a

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number of factors including the task producing the light, the electrode size and the arc
current.

Laser Operations

Laser light radiation can be extremely dangerous to the unprotected eye and direct or
reflected beams can cause permanent eye damage. Laser retinal burns can be painless, so it is
essential that all personnel in or around laser operations wear appropriate eye protection.

Laser safety goggles should protect for the specific wavelength of the laser and must be of
sufficient optical density for the energy involved. Safety goggles intended for use with laser
beams must be labelled with the laser wavelengths for which they are intended to be used, the
optical density of those wavelengths and the visible light transmission.

2. Head Protection

Protecting employees from potential head injuries is a key element of any safety program. A
head injury can impair an employee for life or it can be fatal. Wearing a safety helmet or hard
hat is one of the easiest ways to protect an employee’s head from injury. Hard hats can
protect employees from impact and penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and
burn hazards.

Employers must ensure that their employees wear head protection if any of the following
apply:

 Objects might fall from above and strike them on the head;
 They might bump their heads against fixed objects, such as exposed pipes or beams;
or
 There is a possibility of accidental head contact with electrical hazards.

Some examples of occupations in which employees should be required to wear head

protection include construction workers, carpenters, electricians, linemen, plumbers and
pipefitters, timber and log cutters, welders, among many others. Whenever there is a danger
of objects falling from above, such as working below others who are using tools or working
under a conveyor belt, head protection must be worn. Hard hats must be worn with the bill
forward to protect employees properly.

In general, protective helmets or hard hats should do the following:

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  Resist penetration by objects.
 Absorb the shock of a blow.
 Be water-resistant and slow burning.
 Have clear instructions explaining proper adjustment and replacement of the
suspension and headband.

Types of Hard Hats

There are many types of hard hats available in the marketplace today. In addition to selecting
protective headgear, employers should ensure that employees wear hard hats that provide
appropriate protection against potential workplace hazards. It is important for employers to
understand all potential hazards when making this selection, including electrical hazards.
This can be done through a comprehensive hazard analysis and an awareness of the different
types of protective headgear available.

Hard hats are divided into three industrial classes:

Class A hard hats provide impact and penetration resistance along with limited voltage
protection (up to 2,200 volts).

Class B hard hats provide the highest level of protection against electrical hazards, with
high-voltage shock and burn protection (up to 20,000 volts). They also provide protection
from impact and penetration hazards by flying or falling objects.

Class C hard hats provide lightweight comfort and impact protection but offer no protection
from electrical hazards.

Another class of protective headgear on the market is called a “bump hat,” designed for use
in areas with low head clearance.

They are recommended for areas where protection is needed from head bumps and
lacerations. It is essential to check the type of hard hat employees are using to ensure that the
equipment provides appropriate protection. Each hat should bear a label inside the shell that
lists the manufacturer, designation and the class of the hat.

Size and Care Considerations

Head protection that is either too large or too small is inappropriate for use, even if it meets
all other requirements. Protective headgear must fit appropriately on the body and for the

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head size of each individual. Most protective headgear comes in a variety of sizes with
adjustable headbands to ensure a proper fit. A proper fit should allow sufficient clearance
between the shell and the suspension system for ventilation and distribution of an impact. The
hat should not bind, slip, fall off or irritate the skin.

Some protective headgear allows for the use of various accessories to help employees deal
with changing environmental conditions, such as slots for earmuffs, safety glasses, face
shields and mounted lights. Optional brims may provide additional protection from the sun
and some hats have channels that guide rainwater away from the face. Protective headgear
accessories must not compromise the safety elements of the equipment.

Periodic cleaning and inspection will extend the useful life of protective headgear. A daily
inspection of the hard hat shell, suspension system and other accessories for holes, cracks,
tears or other damage that might compromise the protective value of the hat is essential.
Paints, paint thinners and some cleaning agents can weaken the shells of hard hats and may
eliminate electrical resistance. Consult the helmet manufacturer for information on the effects
of paint and cleaning materials on their hard hats. Never drill holes, paint or apply labels to
protective headgear as this may reduce the integrity of the protection. Do not store protective
headgear in direct sunlight, such as on the rear window shelf of a car, since sunlight and
extreme heat can damage them.

Hard hats with any of the following defects should be removed from service and replaced:

 Perforation, cracking, or deformity of the brim or shell;

 Indication of exposure of the brim or shell to heat, chemicals or ultraviolet light and
other radiation (in addition to a loss of surface gloss, such signs include chalking or
flaking).

Always replace a hard hat if it sustains an impact, even if damage is not noticeable.
Suspension systems are offered as replacement parts and should be replaced when damaged
or when excessive wear is noticed. It is not necessary to replace the entire hard hat when
deterioration or tears of the suspension systems are noticed.

3. Foot and Leg Protection

Employees facing possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling objects or from crushing
or penetrating materials should wear protective footwear. Also, employees whose work

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involves exposure to hot substances or corrosive or poisonous materials must have protective
gear to cover exposed body parts, including legs and feet. If an employee’s feet may be
exposed to electrical hazards, non-conductive footwear should be worn. On the other hand,
workplace exposure to static electricity may necessitate the use of conductive footwear.

Examples of situations in which an employee should wear foot and/or leg protection include:

 When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on the
employee’s feet;
 Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles or
uppers of ordinary shoes;
 Exposure to molten metal that might splash on feet or legs;
 Working on or around hot, wet or slippery surfaces; and
 Working when electrical hazards are present.

Foot and leg protection choices include the following:

Leggings protect the lower legs and feet from heat hazards such as molten metal or welding
sparks. Safety snaps allow leggings to be removed quickly.

Metatarsal guards protect the instep area from impact and compression. Made of
aluminium, steel, fibre or plastic, these guards may be strapped to the outside of shoes.

Toe guards fit over the toes of regular shoes to protect the toes from impact and compression
hazards. They may be made of steel, aluminium or plastic.

Combination foot and shin guards protect the lower legs and feet, and may be used in
combination with toe guards when greater protection is needed.

Safety shoes have impact-resistant toes and heat-resistant soles that protect the feet against
hot work surfaces common in roofing, paving and hot metal industries. The metal insoles of
some safety shoes protect against puncture wounds. Safety shoes may also be designed to be
electrically conductive to prevent the build-up of static electricity in areas with the potential
for explosive atmospheres or nonconductive to protect workers from workplace electrical
hazards.

Special Purpose Shoes

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Electrically conductive shoes provide protection against the build-up of static electricity.
Employees working in explosive and hazardous locations such as explosives manufacturing
facilities or grain elevators must wear conductive shoes to reduce the risk of static electricity
build-up on the body that could produce a spark and cause an explosion or fire. Foot powder
should not be used in conjunction with protective conductive footwear because it provides
insulation, reducing the conductive ability of the shoes.

Silk, wool and nylon socks can produce static electricity and should not be worn with
conductive footwear. Conductive shoes must be removed when the task requiring their use is
completed. Note: Employees exposed to electrical hazards must never wear conductive shoes.

Electrical hazard, safety-toe shoes are nonconductive and will prevent the wearers’ feet
from completing an electrical circuit to the ground. These shoes can protect against open
circuits of up to 600 volts in dry conditions and should be used in conjunction with other
insulating equipment and additional precautions to reduce the risk of a worker becoming a
path for hazardous electrical energy. The insulating protection of electrical hazard, safety-toe
shoes may be compromised if the shoes become wet, the soles are worn through, metal
particles become embedded in the sole or heel, or workers touch conductive, grounded items.
Note: Nonconductive footwear must not be used in explosive or hazardous locations.

Foundry Shoes

In addition to insulating the feet from the extreme heat of molten metal, foundry shoes keep
hot metal from lodging in shoe eyelets, tongues or other shoe parts. These snug-fitting leather
or leather-substitute shoes have leather or rubber soles and rubber heels. All foundry shoes
must have built-in safety toes.

Care of Protective Footwear

As with all protective equipment, safety footwear should be inspected prior to each use.
Shoes and leggings should be checked for wear and tear at reasonable intervals. This includes
looking for cracks or holes, separation of materials, broken buckles or laces. The soles of
shoes should be checked for pieces of metal or other embedded items that could present
electrical or tripping hazards. Employees should follow the manufacturers’ recommendations
for cleaning and maintenance of protective footwear.

4. Hand and Arm Protection

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If a workplace hazard assessment reveals that employees face potential injury to hands and
arms that cannot be eliminated through engineering and work practice controls, employers
must ensure that employees wear appropriate protection. Potential hazards include skin
absorption of harmful substances, chemical or thermal burns, electrical dangers, bruises,
abrasions, cuts, punctures, fractures and amputations. Protective equipment includes gloves,
finger guards and arm coverings or elbow-length gloves.

Employers should explore all possible engineering and work practice controls to eliminate
hazards and use PPE to provide additional protection against hazards that cannot be
completely eliminated through other means. For example, machine guards may eliminate a
hazard. Installing a barrier to prevent workers from placing their hands at the point of contact
between a table saw blade and the item being cut is another method.

Types of Protective Gloves

There are many types of gloves available today to protect against a wide variety of hazards.
The nature of the hazard and the operation involved will affect the selection of gloves. The
variety of potential occupational hand injuries makes selecting the right pair of gloves
challenging. It is essential that employees use gloves specifically designed for the hazards
and tasks found in their workplace because gloves designed for one function may not protect
against a different function even though they may appear to be an appropriate protective
device.

The following are examples of some factors that may influence the selection of protective
gloves for a workplace.

 Type of chemicals handled.

 Nature of contact (total immersion, splash, etc.).
 Duration of contact.
 Area requiring protection (hand only, forearm, arm).
 Grip requirements (dry, wet, oily).
 Thermal protection.
 Size and comfort.
 Abrasion/resistance requirements.

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Gloves made from a wide variety of materials are designed for many types of workplace
hazards. In general, gloves fall into four groups:

 Gloves made of leather, canvas or metal mesh;

 Fabric and coated fabric gloves;
 Chemical- and liquid-resistant gloves;
 Insulating rubber gloves

Leather, Canvas or Metal Mesh Gloves

Sturdy gloves made from metal mesh, leather or canvas provides protection against cuts and
burns. Leather or canvass gloves also protect against sustained heat.

Leather gloves protect against sparks, moderate heat, blows, chips and rough objects.

Aluminized gloves provide reflective and insulating protection against heat and require an
insert made of synthetic materials to protect against heat and cold.

Aramid fibre gloves protect against heat and cold, are cut and abrasive-resistant and wear
well.

Synthetic gloves of various materials offer protection against heat and cold are cut and
abrasive-resistant and may withstand some diluted acids. These materials do not stand up
against alkalis and solvents.

Fabric and Coated Fabric Gloves

Fabric and coated fabric gloves are made of cotton or other fabric to provide varying degrees
of protection.

 Fabric gloves protect against dirt, slivers, chafing and abrasions. They do not provide
sufficient protection for use with rough, sharp or heavy materials. Adding a plastic
coating will strengthen some fabric gloves.
 Coated fabric gloves are normally made from cotton flannel with napping on one side.
By coating the unnapped side with plastic, fabric gloves are transformed into general-
purpose hand protection offering slip-resistant qualities. These gloves are used for
tasks ranging from handling bricks and wire to chemical laboratory containers. When
selecting gloves to protect against chemical exposure hazards, always check with the

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 manufacturer or review the manufacturer’s product literature to determine the gloves’
effectiveness against specific workplace chemicals and conditions.

Chemical and Liquid Resistant Gloves

Chemical-resistant gloves are made with different kinds of rubber: natural, butyl, neoprene,
nitrile and fluorocarbon (viton); or various kinds of plastic: polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polyvinyl alcohol and polyethylene. These materials can be blended or laminated for better
performance. As a general rule, the thicker the glove material, the greater the chemical
resistance but thick gloves may impair grip and dexterity, having a negative impact on safety.

Some examples of chemical-resistant gloves include:

Butyl gloves are made of a synthetic rubber and protect against a wide variety of chemicals,
such as peroxide, rocket fuels, highly corrosive acids (nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric
acid and red-fuming nitric acid), strong bases, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters and nitro
compounds. Butyl gloves also resist oxidation, ozone corrosion and abrasion, and remain
flexible at low temperatures. Butyl rubber does not perform well with aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons and halogenated solvents.

Natural (latex) rubber gloves are comfortable to wear, which makes them a popular
general-purpose glove. They feature outstanding tensile strength, elasticity and temperature
resistance. In addition to resisting abrasions caused by grinding and polishing, these gloves
protect workers’ hands from most water solutions of acids, alkalis, salts and ketones. Latex
gloves have caused allergic reactions in some individuals and may not be appropriate for all
employees. Hypoallergenic gloves, glove liners and powder less gloves are possible
alternatives for workers who are allergic to latex gloves.

Neoprene gloves are made of synthetic rubber and offer good pliability, finger dexterity,
high density and tear resistance. They protect against hydraulic fluids, gasoline, alcohols,
organic acids and alkalis. They generally have chemical and wear resistance properties
superior to those made of natural rubber.

Nitrile gloves are made of a copolymer and provide protection from chlorinated solvents
such as trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Although intended for jobs requiring
dexterity and sensitivity, nitrile gloves stand up to heavy use even after prolonged exposure
to substances that cause other gloves to deteriorate. They offer protection when working with

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oils, greases, acids, caustics and alcohols but are generally not recommended for use with
strong oxidizing agents, aromatic solvents, ketones and acetates.

Care of Protective Gloves

Protective gloves should be inspected before each use to ensure that they are not torn,
punctured or made ineffective in any way. A visual inspection will help detect cuts or tears
but a more thorough inspection by filling the gloves with water and tightly rolling the cuff
towards the fingers will help reveal any pinhole leaks. Gloves that are discoloured or stiff
may also indicate deficiencies caused by excessive use or degradation from chemical
exposure.

Any gloves with impaired protective ability should be discarded and replaced. Reuse of
chemical-resistant gloves should be evaluated carefully, taking into consideration the
absorptive qualities of the gloves. A decision to reuse chemically-exposed gloves should take
into consideration the toxicity of the chemicals involved and factors such as duration of
exposure, storage and temperature.

5. Body Protection

Employees who face possible bodily injury of any kind that cannot be eliminated through
engineering, work practice or administrative controls, must wear appropriate body protection
while performing their jobs. In addition to cuts and radiation, the following are examples of
workplace hazards that could cause bodily injury:

 Temperature extremes;
 Hot splashes from molten metals and other hot liquids;
 Potential impacts from tools, machinery and materials;
 Hazardous chemicals.

There are many varieties of protective clothing available for specific hazards. Employers are
required to ensure that their employees wear personal protective equipment only for the parts
of the body exposed to possible injury. Examples of body protection include laboratory coats,
coveralls, vests, jackets, aprons, surgical gowns and full body suits.

If a hazard assessment indicates a need for full body protection against toxic substances or
harmful physical agents, the clothing should be carefully inspected before each use, it must fit

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each worker properly and it must function properly and for the purpose for which it is
intended.

Protective clothing comes in a variety of materials, each effective against particular hazards,
such as:

 Paper-like fibre used for disposable suits provide protection against dust and
splashes.
 Treated wool and cotton adapts well to changing temperatures, is comfortable, and
fire-resistant and protects against dust, abrasions and rough and irritating surfaces.
 Duck is a closely woven cotton fabric that protects against cuts and bruises when
handling heavy, sharp or rough materials.
 Leather is often used to protect against dry heat and flames.
 Rubber, rubberized fabrics, neoprene and plastics protect against certain
chemicals and physical hazards. When chemical or physical hazards are present,
check with the clothing manufacturer to ensure that the material selected will provide
protection against the specific hazard.
6. Hearing Protection

Determining the need to provide hearing protection for employees can be challenging.
Employee exposure to excessive noise depends upon a number of factors, including:

 The loudness of the noise as measured in decibels (dB).

 The duration of each employee’s exposure to the noise.
 Whether employees move between work areas with different noise levels.
 Whether noise is generated from one or multiple sources.

Generally, the louder the noise, the shorter the exposure time before hearing protection is
required. For instance, employees may be exposed to a noise level of 90 dB for 8 hours per
day (unless they experience a Standard Threshold Shift) before hearing protection is required.
On the other hand, if the noise level reaches 115 dB hearing protection is required if the
anticipated exposure exceeds 15 minutes.

Some types of hearing protection include:

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 Single-use earplugs are made of waxed cotton, foam, silicone rubber or fibreglass
wool. They are self-forming and, when properly inserted, they work as well as most
moulded earplugs.
 Pre-formed or moulded earplugs must be individually fitted by a professional and
can be disposable or reusable. Reusable plugs should be cleaned after each use.
 Earmuffs require a perfect seal around the ear. Glasses, facial hair, long hair or facial
movements such as chewing may reduce the protective value of earmuffs.

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Leigh JP, Cone JE, Harrison R. Costs of occupational injuries and illnesses in California.
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Keogh JP, Nuwayhid I, Gordon JL, Gucer PW. The impact of occupational injury on
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Carlesi R, Casini A, Bonalumi F. Post-traumatic aneurysm of the hand: clinical cases.

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Carstensen O, Rasmussen K, Hansen ON. Post-traumatic stress disorder following an

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HERAG (2007) Health Risk Assessment Guidance for Metals. ICMM, EBRC,
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