3.

0 ACTUAL ENGINE CYCLE

Reciprocating internal combustion engines operate on actual engine cycles, which are
classified mainly into two groups: (i) Spark Ignition engines and (ii) Compression Ignition
engines and these classifications are dependent on the mode of the ignition of the air/fuel
mixture (charge) in the cylinder. The spark ignition engines operate based on the Otto cycle
principle while the compression ignition engines operate basically on the Diesel cycle
principle.
The sequence of operations required by a reciprocating engine to perform a mechanical
work could either be two or four strokes of engine piston motion which translates to one or
two crankshaft revolution respectively. The piston of a reciprocating internal combustion
engine could be termed as double acting (as seen in steam engines) or single acting (as is seen
in most reciprocating internal combustion engines). If the engine cycle of operation takes
place in only one side of the piston, its termed single acting while it is termed double acting
when the cycle takes place on both sides of the piston.
For an internal combustion engine to be efficient the following requirements are to be
met:
 The mixture of fuel and air in the engine cylinder must be in the right proportion.
 Compression must take place on the mixture of air and fuel or air only before the
addition of fuel (this is dependent on the engine cycle operation).
 The compressed mixture is to be ignited (which could be through the introduction of
spark or auto-ignition) and the expanding combustion products used to drive the
engine.
 Expulsion of the exhaust products must take place to give room for fresh charge
intake.
3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A FOUR STROKE ENGINE
Reciprocating internal combustion engines operating on a four stroke cycle require
four strokes of the piston to complete an engine cycle of operation. The sequence of operation
of in a four-stroke cycle is: induction stroke, compression stroke, power stroke and the
exhaust stroke.
Induction Stroke
In a four-stroke engine, during the induction stroke, the inlet valve opens while the
exhaust valve remains closed. In a spark ignition engines, a mixture of air and fuel is drawn
in while in a compression ignition engine only air is drawn in during this stroke. In naturally
aspirated engines, the process takes place as a result of the pressure difference between the
cylinder and atmospheric pressure while in a supercharged or turbocharged engine,
compressed air or a mixture of air and fuel is forced into the engine cylinder.
Compression Stroke
During this stroke in all reciprocating internal combustion engines, the intake and
exhaust valves are closed and remain closed throughout this process. The fuel and air mixture
in the case of a spark ignition engine and in the compression ignition engine, air alone is
compressed during this process. At the top dead center (TDC), the charge occupies a volume
equal to the clearance volume of the cylinder. In the case of a Spark Ignition (SI) engine,
spark is timed to be initiated before TDC while in a compression ignition (CI) engine,
injection of fuel is timed to start before TDC.
Power Stroke
The intake and exhaust valves remain closed during this process while the ignited
charge combust and expand pushing the piston downward and useful mechanical work is
developed during this process. Towards the Bottom Dead Center (BDC), the exhaust valves
open and the product of combustion blow down the exhaust duct until the pressure in the
cylinder has fallen to approximately the atmospheric pressure.

Exhaust Stroke
The piston changes direction towards the Top Dead Center (TDC) while the exhaust
valve remains opened with the piston pushing out the remaining burned gas products through
the engine cylinder swept volume. During the process, the in-cylinder pressure is slightly
higher than the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 3.0: An actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine P-V diagram with the Otto
cycle superimposed.
3.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A TWO STROKE ENGINE
Engines that operate on two-stroke cycles have their valves partly or fully replaced by
ports which are opened and closed by the piston movements. The two stroke cycle carries out
the same operation as the four-stroke cycle but completes the operation in two strokes or one
revolution of crankshaft. The number of working strokes per second in a two stroke cycle
engine is equal to the number of crankshaft revolution per second.
The two stroke operation can be described by the following:
(i) Compression and induction stroke
(ii) Power and exhaust stroke

Compression and Induction Stroke

The piston at BDC allows the inflow of pre-compressed charge into the cylinder. As
the piston moves up it closes the intake and the exhaust ports and the compression of the
charge takes place. Close to the Top dead Center (TDC), the charge is ignited and the charge
combusts. While the piston moves up to the TDC, fresh charges are drawn into the crankcase
of the engine to be pre-compressed.
Power and Exhaust Stroke
Close to TDC, the charge is ignited and the high pressure generated by the combusted
charge force the piston downward which leads to the generation of useful work. Close to the
end of the power stroke, the exhaust port opens and the burned gases are expelled to the
atmosphere. When the piston moves to BDC, the inlet port is also opened the fresh charge
moves in and helps in pushing out the burned gases.

Figure 3.1: A P-V diagram for the two-stroke Diesel cycle (naturally aspirated)
3.3 ENGINE PERFORMANCE
The performance of an engine is determined by a lot of factors. The factors
considered include: (i) indicated power (ip) (ii) brake power (bp) (iii) friction power (fp)
(iv) indicated and brake mean effective pressures (mep) (v) mechanical and thermal
efficiencies (vi) fuel consumption (specific fuel consumption) (vii) volumetric efficiency.
The performance of an engine can be determined if the characteristics or parameters of the
engine can be evaluated. The engine parameters may be obtained by the measurement of the
engines quantities and the results plotted graphically in the form of performance curve.

3.3.1 Indicated Power

Indicated power can be defined as the rate of work done by the combusting charge on
the piston as evaluated from the indicator diagram obtained from the engine. If the cross-
sectional area of a piston is given as A and the expanding combusting charge in the engine
cylinder exerts a pressure P on the piston’s cross sectional area A, the total force exerted on
the piston is given as: Force F = P.A (N).
Assuming the pressure exerted on the piston remains constant and the piston is forced
through a distance L which is equal to 1 meter.
The work done W = FL = PAL.
If the piston makes n working strokes per second, then the work done per second is
given as:
Power Developed = PLAn (W)
In real engine operation, the engine cylinder pressure is not constant throughout the
cycle. The mean effective pressure of the engine cylinder is calculated and used as P. The
power calculated from the in-cylinder engine pressure is called the indicated power.
Indicated Power (ip) = PLAn (W) or PLAn *10-3 (KW).
The number of firing strokes per second in an engine is expressed as n while N represents the
engine speed per second.
For a two-stroke engine n = N
For a four-stroke engine n = N/2
For a double acting engine n = 2N
QUESTION 1
Calculate the indicated power of a diesel engine running at 4200rpm; given that the
mean effective pressure is 540KN/m2 and the engine bore and stroke are 70mm and 105 mm
respectively. The engine works on a four-stroke cycle and has 6 cylinders.
Solution
n = N/(60 X 2) = 4200/(120) = 35 rps
540  1000  0.105    0.07 2  35
The indicated power per cylinder (ip) = = 7.637 KW
1000  4
For the six cylinders, the indicated power developed = 6 X 7.637 = 45.82 KW.
3.3.2 Brake Power
The power available at the piston is the indicated power and it is measured by the
indicator diagram. The useful power finally generated by the engine (available to the
crankshaft) is lower than the indicated power because of the power used to overcome friction
at the bearings and sliding parts.
The power output of the engine available to the engine crankshaft is known as the
brake power or shaftpower. It is called brake power because it is measured by a brake at the
crankshaft.
The difference between the indicated power and brake power is known as the friction
power of the engine.
Friction Power fp = ip – bp

3.3.3 Mechanical Efficiency

The mechanical efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the power available
to the crankshaft to the power available at the piston i.e. the ratio of engine brake power to
the indicated power.
bp
Mechanical Efficiency  th 
ip
QUESTION 2
A compression ignition engine has a bore of 0.1m, stroke of 0.12m and an indicated
mean effective pressure of 500KN/m2. Calculate the indicated power at the crank-speed of
3600 rpm. If the mechanical efficiency of this load and speed is 84%, compute the brake
power output and the power lost from friction. The engine operates on a two-stroke cycle

Solution
2
d 2  0.1
Area of piston A =  = 0.00785m2
4 4
500000  0.12  0.00785  3600
The indicated power (ip) = = 28.2 KW
1000  60
The brake power (bp) = ip X  th = 28.2 (0.84) = 23.7 KW

Friction power (fp) = 28.2 – 23.7 = 4.5 KW

3.4 BRAKE POWER MEASUREMENT

Brake power can be defined as the power output available to the crankshaft which
could be measured by a rope brake. Work is done when resisting force F is overcome through
a certain distance S, the amount of work being measured is a product of F and S. Power is
defined as the rate of doing work.
Consider a rotating wheel of radius r in which a brake force F is applied at its rim, the
product F.r is referred to as the resisting torque, T. Assuming the wheel rotates at a speed of
N, rev/s against the braking force, then:
Work done per second = Force of Resistance x Distance overcome by force
=F x 2πr x N
The work done per second = 2π N x Fr
= 2πNT
Thus, brake power Pb = 2πNT = Tω (Watts)
Where;
T = Fr and ω = 2πN
A rope is wound once round the rim of the drum fixed to the engine’s crankshaft. At
one end of the rope a dead load is attached and at the other end a spring balance scale is
attached. The direction of the crankshaft rotation is such that it is set against the dead weight.
The engine is run at off load condition and gradually the load is added and increased until a
steady load is attained when the engine runs at a steady speed.
Figure 3.2: Brake power measurement

Readings are taken at this load.

N = dead load on the rope brake, N
Sb = the reading of the spring balance, N
D = the diameter of the brake wheel, N
The load is considered to act along the centreline of the rope, thus resisting torque due to the
dead load= ND/2.
The torque as a result of the spring balance load Sb, which reduces the resisting torque
because it acts in the same direction of the rotating wheel is expressed as : Sb (D/2) Nm
The effective braking torque, T = (N-Sb)D/2 Nm
= (N-Sb)R Nm
For an engine with a speed of N rev/s, the power absorbed by the brake drum is given as:
T
BP  KW
1000
2NT
BP  KW
1000

QUESTION 3
A four cylinder, single acting internal combustion engine, working on a four stroke
cycle develops an indicated power of 56KW at 4000rev/min. The cylinder diameter is 76 mm
and the stroke 93 mm. Find the mean effective pressure in each cylinder. If the mechanical
efficiency is 80% what effective brake load would be required if the effective brake drum
diameter is 610 mm.
Solution
Indicated power IP =PiLan
Pi = IP/Lan
The indicated power for one cylinder IP = 56/4 = 14KW
14000  60  2
Pi = 2
= 9.9955 bar
  0.038  0.093  4000
Recall,
Brake Power (BP) = 2Πnt and also,
BP   mech IP

 mech = 80%
BP = 0.8 x 56 KW
BP = 44.8KW
BP 44.8  60
The Engine Torque T = 
2N 2  4000
T = 106.952N-m
T = F.r= F.D/2
F = T/r = 106.952/0.305 = 350.66N.
The Effective Brake Load F = 350.6N