A Guidebook in

Teaching of Science
and beyond

Eden Rose B. Olazo

Written by:
 About
this
Guidebook

Teaching of Science
AND BEYOND
This course deals with the goals, materials,
content, assessment, management and methods of
teaching science at the secondary level; provides
opportunities for class observation and
demonstration teaching.

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 Teaching of Science
TABLE OF CONTENTS AND BEYOND

MODULE 7
01-03
MODULE 1
32-34
Problem-Solving
Science: The Basic Teaching Method

MODULE 7
04-07
MODULE 2
Science Curriculum 35-38 Project-Teaching
Method

MODULE 3 MODULE 7
08-11 Aims and Objectives 39-41 Laboratory Teaching
Method

MODULE 4 MODULE 7
09-15 Teaching Aids 42-45 Historical Teaching
Method

MODULE 5 MODULE 8
16-18 Multisensory 46-47 Scientific
Learning Techniques Investigation

MODULE 9
19-23
MODULE 6
Teaching Approaches 48-50 Scientific
Demonstrations and
Experiments

MODULE 7 MODULE 10
24-26 Heuristics Teaching 51-55 Science Laboratory
Method

MODULE 7 MODULE 11
27-31 Discovery Teaching 56-59 Bloom's Taxonomy of
Method Objectives

A GUIDEBOOK IN
Teaching of Science and Beyond
 Teaching of Science
TABLE OF CONTENTS AND BEYOND

MODULE 12 MODULE 16 Theory of

60-63 Science Unit
79-82 Cognitive
Planning Development

MODULE 13 MODULE 16
64-68 Science Lesson 83-87 Ausubel's Learning
Planning Theory

MODULE 14 MODULE 17
69-75 Science 88-90 Science Co-
Assessments Curricular Activities

MODULE 15 MODULE 18
76-78 Science Action 91-92 Science Investigatory
Research Project

A GUIDEBOOK IN
Teaching of Science and Beyond
 THE BASIC
Objective:
Recognize science as an important way to understand
and explain what we experience in the natural world,
and acknowledges the values and beliefs inherent to
the development of scientific knowledge
MODULE
MAJOR
ACTIVITIES OF SCIENCE
The aims of teaching science The following can be 5. Inference
at the school level is to develop considered as the major 6. Generalization
scientific attitude, enhance activities of science: 7. Formulating of Models.
scientific and technological 1. To accumulate information
competence, encourage through observations. REFERENCES:
creativity and solve problems
confronted by the students in
2. To organize this information
to seek regularities in it.
▪ Davar, M. (2012). Teaching of
Science. India: PHI Learning
their day to day life both within 3.To wonder why the Retrieved from:
and outside the school premises. regularities exists. https://www.google.com.ph/books
To discuss the teaching of 4. To communicate the findings /edition/TEACHING_OF_SCIENCE/5
science at the school level, it is 9wny6Z5amgC?hl=en&gbpv=1
imperative to define the term of
to others.
Science is built upon the
▪ Gupta, V., Kalra, R. M. (2012).
Teaching Of Science: A Modern
science, its activities and the results of experiments. The Approach. India: PHI Learning.
nature of learning and teaching discoveries of regularities Retrieved from:
of science. permits the implications of https://www.google.com.ph/books
observations. /edition/TEACHING_OF_SCIENCE/XJ
z5vfSfEQIC?
hl=en&gbpv=1&kptab=overview
NATURE OF TEACHING
AND LEARNING OF
WHAT IS SCIENCE 2. Comprehension
fundamentals of science (as
of

SCIENCE? The nature of teaching and

learning science includes the against memorialization): More
Science can be defined in the following aspects: emphasis should be given to the
following manner: comprehension of the
1. Science is the systematized 1. The concept of open fundamentals of science as
knowledge of our environment. competence: In the against memorialization. This
2. Science is man's systematic development of a school science implies that the basic aim of
investigation of his program, especially for teacher science teaching, especially at
environment. educators, the concept of open the school level, is to supply
3. Albert Einstein's states that competence may include the basic knowledge of science
"The whole of science is nothing process skills or scientific which may be bought into use in
more than a refinement of methods, which has the the daily environment through
everyday thinking'. following components: study and application of science.
4. Science involves describing, 1. Observation This may also provide a
predicting, and explaining 2. Formulation of Hypothesis systematic, practical and
nature and its changes in the 3. Designing of experiments balanced view of discipline of
simplest way possible. 4. Measurements, recording science change student's

1 SCIENCE: THE BASIC

Teaching of Science and Beyond

1
behavior through their knowledge. A
holistic view of science imperative to
present "Balanced Science for All" which
may include the following:
a) Concepts in science, b) Processes of
science, c) Social and cultural aspects of
science and d) Moral and ethical aspects
of Science.
3. Science as a way of thinking:
Teaching of science at the school level
may encourage permeation of the spirit
of science as a way of thinking. To
accomplish this, one may take the help of
the following approaches to scientific
thinking:
a) discovery/inquiry/investigation
b) divergent and convergent
c) analytical and synthetically
d) imaginative and creative
4. Development of scientific attitudes,
temper and habits: The science teachers
all over the world have long recognized
that proper scientific attitudes are among
the important outcomes which are the
result of science teaching. They are everyday life than from the abstract perspectives.
becoming aware that if scientific A vitalized study of science with its emphasis on open-
attitudes are to be developed from the mindedness, tolerance and objectivity will lead to the
study of science, they must be taught development of a more secular outlook in true sense. This can
directly and systematically in the same instill the sense of responsibility among those who profess
manner as we try to develop a mastery of different religions.
the principles of science itself. The above-mentioned discussion suggests the need of
The development of scientific attitudes help to develop attitudes, such as self-confidence, self-
could be demonstrated as the ability to reliance, and to have a holistic view of science, a view of a
do the following. social, cultural, moral and ethical aspects of science.
a) to view facts objectively 5. Science and values: As mentioned earlier, there is a great
b) to be free from dogma and danger in science if it is treated as a singular value system.
superstitions Therefore, we have to recognize science as an important tool
c) to revise one's opinion as evidence of to solve our social problems, and also as an important
warrants component of the cultural, social and spiritual heritage. The
d) to have spirit of inquiry correlation between science and values is immense and needs
e) to become open-minded to be address.
The amount of success in developing The role of science in our life has been immense. Today,
scientific attitudes, depends ultimately specially in the fields of health, education, transportation and
upon the teachers, and it is important to industry, and the quality of our life is changing at a fast pace.
keep in mind that students' form A close partnership exists between science and economic,
attitudes more from the example taken social, educational and political issues.

1 SCIENCE: THE BASIC

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2
 Discuss profoundly the impact of science and
technology on society today. Describe briefly the main
Question No. 1 features of National Curriculum Framework 2005
regarding teaching of science in Secondary level.

Should we continue to teach science as it is being

Question No. 2 taught in schools nowadays? As a future educator, what
changes would you suggest for science classroom
interactions? Justify your opinion.

1 SCIENCE: THE BASIC

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 CURRICULUM
Objective:
Analyze the basic scientific ideas and understanding
about the biological and physical aspects of the world,
and the processes develop that lies beneath science
MODULE curriculum and science education.

THE INCLUSION OF
SCIENCE IS JUSTIFIED
AS FOLLOWS:
1. It provides an A basic knowledge of science
The science curriculum understanding about helps an individual to be
recognizes the place of science human beings and the acquainted with its application
and technology in everyday world around us: Science is in life.
human affairs. It integrates the study of the physical
science and technology in the world and the living REFERENCES:
social, economic, personal and organisms. It helps the in ▪ Davar, M. (2012). Teaching of
ethical aspects of life. The Science. India: PHI Learning
understanding various
science curriculum promotes a Retrieved from:
phenomena of nature as well https://www.google.com.ph/books
strong link between science and as about the mechanisms /edition/TEACHING_OF_SCIENCE/5
technology, including inside a human body. It 9wny6Z5amgC?hl=en&gbpv=1
indigenous technology, thus explains the properties of ▪ Gupta, V., Kalra, R. M. (2012).
preserving our country’s metals, non-metals and the Teaching Of Science: A Modern
cultural heritage. Approach. India: PHI Learning.
states of matter, the Retrieved from:
chemical reactions, mineral https://www.google.com.ph/books
cycles and various other /edition/TEACHING_OF_SCIENCE/XJ
phenomena occurring in and z5vfSfEQIC?
around us. Study of science hl=en&gbpv=1&kptab=overview
at school level provides a
THE K-12 SCIENCE basic understanding of a 3. Science sharpens the mental
abilities: As student study the
human body and the natural
CURRICULUM environment which is concept of science, conduct
Science can be defined in the essential for all learners. inquiry and make
following manner: 2. It has great utility in daily generalizations, their thinking
1. Science is the systematized life: Today life cannot be and reasoning abilities are
knowledge of our environment. imagined without the enhanced. The higher-order
2. Science is man's systematic applications of science. The thinking processes (analysis,
investigation of his various equipment used synthesis, critical evaluation and
environment. regularly, means of drawing inferences) are refined
3. Albert Einstein's states that transportation and so on, as students conduct
"The whole of science is nothing have made life much more investigations in science. The
more than a refinement of comfortable. Advances in numerical problems in physics,
everyday thinking'. medical technology, balancing of chemical equations
4. Science involves describing, biotechnology, computers in chemistry and innumerable
predicting, and explaining and genetic engineering such topics in science pose a
nature and its changes in the have bought about mental challenge for the
simplest way possible. revolutionary changes. students and sharpen their

2 SCIENCE CURRICULUM
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4
their intellect.
4. Science provides training in scientific
method: The scientific method is a
systematic way of solving problems. It
involves an analysis of the problem,
formulating hypotheses, selecting and
testing the hypothesis and drawing
conclusions. While using the scientific
method in conducting investigations,
students learn a number of process skills.
These process skills include observation,
measurement, prediction,
experimentation, etc. Thus, scientific
method leads to the development of
certain abilities and skills, which are also
helpful in solving problems effectively in
daily life.
5. Study of science inculcates scientific
attitude: As students study science, they
develop seasoning power Students think
of alter-natives, consider data from
various sources, conduct investigations
and solve problems As students pursue
science, over a period of time they
develop the following characteristics:
a. an open-mindedness; tissue culture also requires a basic foundation in science.
b. a desire to know more; Thus, study of science has a lot of vocational value. Besides
c. a respect for others point of view; specialization at advanced level, students can also undertake
d. a belief in cause-effect relationship science-based vocational courses immediately after passing
e. an unbiased judgement and; out from the school. These courses are offered by many
f. an intellectual honesty. government and private institutes. Courses in agriculture,
A student of science does not believe healthcare, repair of electrical equipment, motor repair and
in hearsay, believes something only after so on have a wide scope. After doing these courses, students
it has been verified. He is even willing to can take up a career as an electrician, dietician, open a shop
change an existing idea when there is for repair of electrical goods or become an agriculturist.
convincing evidence against it. All these 7. Science and its applications have a cultural relevance:
characteristics of scientific attitude get Culture includes language, customs, religion, festivals,
inculcated in students of science as they clothes, eating habits, values and lifestyle, Science has
pursue scientific inquiry. brought about revolutionary changes in our lifestyle. The
6. Science forms the basis for many modern modes of recreation, the clothes, printed books, and
professions: A basic knowledge of science various electronic equipment used everyday are based on
is essential for students who want to opt principles of science. Science has also influenced the attitude,
for careers in the field of engineering, beliefs and customs of the humans. It has inculcated a
biochemistry, astronomy, pharmacology scientific outlook and logical way of thinking.
and forensic science. Choosing an 8. Science teaches us some moral values: The study of
occupation in the field of medicine, science also teaches some important moral values like truth,
genetics, biotechnology and honesty and cooperation in the following way:

2 SCIENCE CURRICULUM
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5
 a. If an investigator is not honest in
reporting his findings, the results will
be proved wrong by other investigators.
The generalization will stand rejected.
So science teaches us to be honest.
b. Science seeks to knew the truth as it
unravels the mysteries of nature.
c. Scientists sometimes work as a team
on certain problems. Science students
also work in groups on science projects.
As they work together in groups, a
feeling of cooperation is inculcated and
a team spirit develops among the group
members.
9. Science follows psychological
principles: Educational psychology
advocates learning by doing and
satisfaction of instincts. These best
learnt through learning by doing,
activities and investigations. Science
also satisfies the instincts of curiosity,
creativity and self-expression of
students as they formulate hypothesis,
devise experiments and reach their
own conclusions. It also gives freedom
to students to take initiative, to
explore the environment and test their
ideas.
10. Science provides a solution to
global problems: Science has provided
a solution to many critical problems in
the world. Scientists have suggested
alternate renewable resources of
energy to resolve the energy crisis.
They have invented several ways of
family planning to control population
explosion. Genetic engineering,
hybridization and tissue culture have
increased agricultural productivity of
crops to overcome the food problems.
Medicinal cure for many fatal diseases
have been discovered. Researchers are
trying to tackle the problems of global
warming, ecological imbalance and
manage natural disasters.

2 SCIENCE CURRICULUM
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 When should the student be introduced to the
Reflect upon: wonderful world of science? How much can we teach
the youngsters in school in the limited time with the
unlimited scope of the subject matter?

What could be done to prepare the educators to impart

React upon: the right kind of scientific knowledge at the right time
and in the right way? Justify your opinion.

2 SCIENCE CURRICULUM
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7
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Objective:
Specify the aims and objectives of
teaching science that can be utilized in
teaching-learning process.
MODULE

The overall national and They give a direction to the objectives.

educational goals determine the education. It requires a long The factors that govern the
aims and objectives of teaching period of time to reach the behavioral objectives in science
any discipline, and the same targeted aims. education are as follows:
holds true for science
education. WHAT IS AN REFERENCES:
As our society undergoes OBJECTIVE? ▪ Davar, M. (2012). Teaching of
change periodically, so do the Science. India: PHI Learning
An objective is a statement
educational goals. Therefore, Retrieved from:
that indicates the desired https://www.google.com.ph/books
the aims of teaching of science terminal ability or achievement /edition/TEACHING_OF_SCIENCE/5
are also quite dynamic and an of the learner. This achievement 9wny6Z5amgC?hl=en&gbpv=1
ever-changing process. The is both observable and ▪ Gupta, V., Kalra, R. M. (2012).
aims of leaching give direction measurable. It is expected that Teaching Of Science: A Modern
to learning and govern the Approach. India: PHI Learning.
during the instruction process, Retrieved from:
objectives of teaching. the behavior of the learner is https://www.google.com.ph/books
modified and he learns new /edition/TEACHING_OF_SCIENCE/XJ
concepts. Since the terminal z5vfSfEQIC?
ability refers to the modified hl=en&gbpv=1&kptab=overview
behavior, an objective is also
AIMS OF TEACHING termed behavioral objectives. 1. Aims of Teaching Science
2. Content, i.e. the concepts
SCIENCE The behavioral objectives
describe the modifications in the need to be taught
Aim is a long-term goal which the behavior of the learner due 3. Abilities, interest, mental
we wish to achieve through to the instructional process in level and needs of the
teaching of a particular subject. the classroom. They are learners.
The aims of teaching of sometimes referred to as 4. Resources available to the
science should be in accordance instructional objectives. teacher
with the nature of science, needs Before starting the journey, 5. Time available for
of the learner and society, and we know the potential instruction.
the education policy of the destination and route we have
country. to take. Similarly, before starting Table 1 shows the methodology
Aims of teaching may be the instructional process in the that needs to be adopted to
broken down into smaller classroom, the teacher knows achieve the objectives.
achievable objectives. Aims tell the potential destination, i.e. the
us why a subject is to be taught. behavioral objectives and the
It is more comprehensive and route or the methodology that
broader in concept. needs to be adopted to achieve

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 EDUCATIONAL AND Table 1: The behavioral objectives
in science
INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES
Educational Objectives
Educational objectives are broad ideals
related to the education system. These
are general statements related to the
philosophy of education. The whole
education system is directed towards
achieving these objectives. According to
Bloom, "Educational objectives are not
only goals towards which the curriculum is
shaped and towards which the instruction
is guided but they are also the goals which
provide the detailed specification of the
construction and use of evaluation
technique".
Instructional Objectives
Instructional objectives are the
statements, which clearly describe an
anticipated learning outcome. Goal of
education is learning. Instructional
objectives specify exactly what is
learners will be able to exhibit when they have achieved the
supposed to be learnt or what is to be
objective. It specifies the immediate behavioral changes in the
taught. It is a statement of proposed
learner, as a result of classroom instruction. It expresses in
changes in the thoughts, feelings and
specific and measurable terms the skills and attitudes the
actions of the students. They can be
students develop on following a particular method of
written in general terms or they can be
instruction.
very specific depending on where they
are going to be used.
General instructional objectives
Figure 1.1 shows hierarchy of objectives. The objectives are
General instructional objectives are an
further classified into two types-educational objectives and
intended outcome of instruction that has
instructional objectives.
been stated in appropriate general terms
to encompass a domain of students'
performance. These objectives provide
guidance and direction to the act of
teaching. It may cover the whole subject
or may be related to a topic.
Specific instructional objectives
Specific instructional objectives are an
intended outcome of instruction that has
been stated in specific and observable
student performance.

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The science courses should aim at:
1. Developing an understanding of:
a) scientific facts and concepts
b) scientific methods and techniques
c) scientific terminology
d) methods of presenting scientific information
2. Equipping the learners to apply and use:
a) the body of knowledge
b) methods and techniques which characterize science and
technology
3. Developing the ability to analyze, construct and evaluate,
a) hypotheses, research questions and predictions
b) scientific methods and techniques
c) scientific explanation
4. Developing scientific attitude in the learners. Scientific
attitude or scientific temper is a vast term which includes:
a) logical and rational thinking
b) sequentially arranging knowledge in the mind
c) open-mindedness
d) respecting other persons viewpoint
e) expressing and communicating effectively and crisply
f)inquisitiveness and curiosity
g) creativity and innovativeness
h) original thinking
i) empathy
j) honesty and perseverance
k) understanding cause-effect relationship
l) predicting and evaluating
m) hand, mind and eye coordination
5. Developing thinking skills, such as:
a) systematic thinking
b) logical and rational thinking
c) thinking possible solutions for a problem
d) drawing conclusions
e) information processing skills
6.Developing the process skills, such as:
a)experimental skills, viz. calibration of
instruments, setting apparatus, stirring,
boring corks, staining slides, etc.
b) observational skills (precision and
accuracy being important components)
recording skills (recording results with
presentability and honesty) illustration skills
(drawing figures, graphs, tables, etc.)

3
SCIENCE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Teaching of Science and Beyond

10
 What are the aims of science education as per
Find-out "National Curriculum Framework 2005"?

Discuss the general objectives of science teaching

Think about with reference to present science education in
schools.

3
SCIENCE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Teaching of Science and Beyond

11
 TEACHING AIDS
Objective:
Determine the importance of teaching
aids and instructional materials in
science teaching-learning process.
MODULE

as well as electronic devices Audiovisual and tactile: 3D

Psychologists, designers, such as tablets and projectors. models, field visits, toys, lab
educationalists, and many Scientific tools such as apparatus, plant/animal/rock
professors around the world telescopes and microscopes specimens.
work on improving the quality of could also be used as teaching
education because a lot depends aids in a given context. Two REFERENCES:
on the education of a whole overarching common factors ▪ Shukla, Aditya. (2023) Teaching
generation. The resources a aids and Instructional materials:
between most teaching aids are:
teacher uses while teaching tools for teachers and students.
mediums that promote sensory Cognition Today. Retrieved from:
plays a role in how students
engagement and stimulation. https://cognitiontoday.com/teachin
learn. Motivation, stimulation, g-aids-and-instructional-materials-
retention, interest, actionable tools-for-teachers-and-students/
Examples based on classification
learning, etc., can vary per
systems:
resource.
Classification 1
Non-electronic – Chalkboards,
flip boards, slates, print photos
& media, telescopes
Electronic/digital– Computers,
mobiles, clicker devices,
Collaborative/Social: Online
TEACHING AIDS internet-powered
PowerPoint
apps,
slideshows, classrooms, forums, Facebook
Augmented reality/Virtual pages, Quora spaces,
Teaching aids (TAs) are reality goggles, AV-room subreddits, special interest
objects (such as a book, picture, equipment, music/art-based group discussions, virtual
or map) or devices (such as a content delivery meetups, study and support
whiteboard or computer) used Classification 2 groups, websites that allow
by a teacher to enhance or Auditory: Radios, tape collaboration, score/progress
enliven classroom instruction recorders, CD players (now tracking websites, feedback
(Merriam-Webster). They could redundant) websites, artificial intelligence
be audiovisual teaching aids Visual: Slides, projectors, digital as a collaboration tool.
such as videos and guest screens (now mostly digital Internet and Communication
lectures or tactile like 3D screens only) Technology tools: Software
models. Audiovisual: Youtube, Vines infrastructure that provides
Broadly speaking, any device, (yes, they are helpful), Ted Talks, analytics, organization of
method, or system that helps to Live stream apps, documentary material, note-taking apps,
teach can be called a teaching repositories, Instagram productivity apps, repository of
aid. These devices can be guides/stories, reels, and lessons in an app, content
traditional items such as TikTok. management systems, and other
blackboards and flannel boards, artificial intelligence systems

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 INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
Instructional materials (IMs):
Instructional materials are defined as
resources that organize and support
instruction, such as textbooks, tasks, and
supplementary resources (adapted from
Remillard & Heck, 2014). It refers to the
human and non-human materials and
facilities that can be used to ease,
encourage, improve and promote
teaching and learning activities. They are
whatever materials used in the process of
instruction (IGI global). The great Soviet
encyclopedia defines IMs as educational
resources used to improve students’
knowledge, abilities, and skills, to monitor
their assimilation of information, and to
contribute to their overall development
and upbringing. Instructional materials
are those items that assist and describe
the information aspect of teaching. These
could take the form of textbooks,
worksheets, 3D models, charts,
infographics, etc.
Instructional materials also include
assessment and testing methods.
Basically, any material, any information Open resources: Expert blogs, open-source journals, public
containing resources, that the teacher databases, open courseware, forum discussions, memes
uses while instructing. Now testing Testing resources: Standardized tests, classroom
materials don’t necessarily contain assignments, online submissions, quizzes, essays,
information, but they help the retention collaborative projects.
and learning of information; thus, they Artificial intelligence (large language models): Artificial
are instructional materials. Sometimes, intelligence, like chatGPT, a large language model, is trained
they are a means to an end, the end being on vast amounts of collective human knowledge. It has a
the assimilation of information. conversational, troubleshooting, and explanatory approach to
Classification information delivery. Technically, students can use AI systems
Traditional resources: lectures, talks, as a teacher to supplement human teachers.
writings, project rubrics, guidelines,
textbook primers, reference books, extra- Note: When teachers say they will use a “visual aid,” like a video
readings, teacher and student-created describing a concept, the visual aid is instructional material,
summaries, workbooks, supplementary not a teaching aid. At least, based on historical approaches.
material such as flashcards and charts.
Digital media: Explainer videos, photos,
presentations, infographics, talking-head
videos, audio summaries, podcasts.

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 KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
TEACHING AIDS AND
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
It breaks down based on who uses a specific tool and
how it is used. Dictionaries don’t define Instructional
materials clearly. The term “instructional material” is
largely restricted to the literature on specific pedagogies.
In fact, the term ‘Instructional materials’ is used in the
context of reaching course-based learning goals. IMs are
specifically designed to align with learning objectives and
outcomes. Whereas, teaching aids are not always designed
to meet course-based goals. You might have guessed – the
same object can be a TA or an IM.
The main difference between TA and IMs is: A TA is used
as a delivery method that can be applied to any context.
An IM is subject-specific and contains information within
itself.

Example 1: A teacher is using a book in the class; each

student has a copy.
If a book is used as a course-prescribed resource, it is an
instructional material. If the book is a student engagement
activity (reading and discussing a story to build vocabulary)
and isn’t a part of the syllabus, it would function as a
teaching aid.

Example 2: You are studying algae under a microscope.

A microscope would be an instructional material if a
course-based learning goal is ‘using a microscope to study
microscopic entities.’ However, a microscope would be a
teaching aid for a theory class on algae. A teacher could use
one to show students what it looks like in order to engage
the class in learning about algae.
Traditionally speaking, teaching aids have been thought
of as devices that can be used – white and blackboards,
computers, calculators, projectors, slideshows, tape
recordings, television, etc. Teaching aids are tools that help
the delivery of information. A TA isn’t information, or to put
it in a different way, information is not directly embedded
in a TA. But IMs often have information embedded in them.
Resource books, worksheets, graphs, etc., are all IMs
because of this embedding. However, tools such as
microscopes are IMs if students are learning what
microscopes are.

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 BENEFITS OF TEACHING AIDS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Enumerate the benefits of teaching aids and

Learn more instructional materials.

TAs and IMs will work even better if they are aligned
Connect more with brain-based learning concepts. Gather data what
is brain-based learning concepts and its connection to
TAs and IMs.

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 ORY
MULTISENS
LEARNING TECHNIQUES
Objective:
Classify the various types of Multisensory
Teaching Techniques that facilitate in
teaching and learning process according
MODULE to sensory stimulation and kinds of
experience.

Tap into nonverbal MULTISENSORY

Multisensory instruction reasoning skills
techniques are frequently used Understand relationships INSTRUCTION
for children with learning between concepts LEARNING STYLE
differences. Studies from the Store information and store
it for later recall REFERENCES:
National Institute of Child Health
and Human development (United Using a multisensory teaching ▪Praveen A.V. (2019). What are
Multisensory Teaching
States of America) have shown technique means helping a child Techniques? Lexicon Reading
that for children with difficulties to learn through more than one Center: United Arab Emirates,
in learning to read, a sense. Most teaching techniques Dubai. Retrieved from:
multisensory teaching method is are done using either sight or https://www.lexiconreadingcenter.
hearing (visual or auditory). The org/what-is-multisensory-teaching-
the most effective teaching techniques/
method. child’s sight is used in reading
information, looking at text,
▪ Davis, P. and Florian, L. (2004).
Teaching Strategies and
pictures or reading information Approaches for Pupils with Special
based from the board. The Educational Needs: A Scoping
hearing sense is used to listen to Study. Retrieved from:
https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/6059/
what the teacher says. The 1/RR516.pdf
child’s vision may be affected by
MULTISENSORY difficulties with tracking or
visual processing. Sometimes
Some researchers theorize
that many students have an area
INSTRUCTION the child’s auditory processing of sensory learning strength,
TECHNIQUES AND may be weak. The solution for sometimes called a learning
STRATEGIES these difficulties is to involve style. These researchers
Multisensory instruction the use of more of the child’s suggests that when students are
techniques and strategies senses, especially the use of taught using techniques
stimulate learning by engaging touch (tactile) and movement consistent with their learning
students on multiple levels. (kinetic). This will help the styles, they learn more easily,
They encourage students to use child’s brain to develop tactile faster and can retain and apply
some or all their senses to: and kinetic memories to hang concepts more readily to future
Gather information about a on to, as well as the auditory learning. Most students, with a
task and visual ones. difficulty or not, enjoy the
Link information to ideas Students with learning variety that multisensory
they already know and difficulties typically have techniques can offer.
understand difficulties in one or more areas Now we can go through some
Perceive the logic involved of reading, spelling, writing, of the multisensory techniques
in solving problems math, listening comprehension which could be used to assist a
Learn problem solving tasks and expressive language. student in his / her learning.

5 MULTISENSORY LEARNING TECHNIQUES

Teaching of Science and Beyond

16
I. To stimulate visual reasoning and learning
Text and/or pictures on paper, posters, models,
projection screens, computers or flash cards
Use of color for highlighting, organizing information or
imagery
Graphic organizers, outlining passages
Student created art, images, text, pictures and video
The above mentioned techniques often include visual
teaching methods and strategies.

II. Auditory techniques

Books on tape, peer assisted reading, paired reading
and computerized text readers
Video or film with accompanying audio
Music, song, instruments, speaking, rhymes, chants and
language games

III. Tactile teaching methods

Multi sensory techniques that involve using the sense of
touch are called tactile methods. Tactile methods include
strategies such as:
Sand trays, raised line paper, textured objects, finger
paints and puzzles to improve fine motor skills
Modeling materials such as clay and sculpting materials
Using small materials called manipulatives to represent
number values to teach math skills

IV. Kinesthetic methods

Multi sensory methods using body movements are
called kinesthetic methods. These involve fine and
gross motor movements.
Games involving jumping rope, clapping or other
movements paired with activities while counting and
singing songs related to concepts.
Any large movement activity for students involving
dancing, bean bag tossing or other activities involving
concepts, rhythmic recall and academic competition
such as quizzes, flash card races and other learning
games.

5 MULTISENSORY LEARNING TECHNIQUES

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17
 Title: Children with
Title: Children with communication and
Title: Children with
speech, language and interaction difficulties
Autistic Spectrum
communication needs associated with severe
Disorders (ASD)
(SLC) and profound learning
difficulties.

Description

Teaching
Strategies

Based on the articles below, classify how the

Know-it-all different teaching strategies will be implemented
in each learning disabilities.

Tell what you

see

Express what
you hear

Narrate what
you learned

Visit https://youtu.be/-p1P4fdhaF8 and do the

Do-it-all following set of directions.

5 MULTISENSORY LEARNING TECHNIQUES

Teaching of Science and Beyond

18
 TEACHING
APPROACH ES
Objective:
Describe the differences between
teacher-centered and student-centered
MODULE approaches.

In recent years, education of this information and are that students learn more when
expected to remember and lectures are supplemented with
has undergone a significant other activities such as
transformation, with a growing regurgitate it on exams. The discussions, small-group work,
focus on student-centered teacher-centered approach has and hands-on activities.
learning. When it comes to been critiqued for its lack of
teaching, there is no one-size- engagement and failure to REFERENCES:
fits-all approach. Some teachers promote deep understanding. ▪ Llego, M. A. (2022, September
17). How to Make the Teacher-
prefer a more student-centered Students who are passive Centered Approach More Effective.
approach, while others prefer a learners often do not retain the Teacher PH. Retrieved September
more teacher-centered information they are taught and 17, 2022 from:
approach. There is no right or have difficulty applying it to new https://www.teacherph.com/teach
situations. In addition, this er-centered-approach/
wrong way to teach, but there
are ways to make the teacher- approach does not encourage
▪ Villalba, Pamela (2023). 7
Student-centered learning
centered approach more critical thinking or creativity. examples with technology.
effective. Despite its drawbacks, the Nearpod. Retrieved from:
teacher-centered approach is https://nearpod.com/blog/student-
still used in many classrooms. centered-learning/
This is due to its efficiency and
the fact that it is the approach
that most teachers are familiar Using various instructional
TEACHER- with. To improve the methods, teachers can provide
students with different ways of
CENTERED effectiveness of the teacher-
understanding and absorbing
centered approach, teachers
APPROACH can use strategies that promote the material.
active learning and engagement. Using Technology: Technology
The teacher-centered approach can be used to supplement
is also known as the didactic STRATEGIES THAT lectures and other activities. For
approach. This approach to PROMOTE ACTIVE example, PowerPoint
learning has been the dominant
method of instruction for LEARNING AND presentations can be used to
provide visual aids for lectures.
centuries. It is based on the ENGAGEMENT Online resources can also be
belief that the teacher is the Some of these strategies used to provide students with
expert and the source of include: additional information and
knowledge. The teacher imparts practice outside of class. By
Using Various Instructional
this knowledge to the students Methods: Although the lecture using technology, teachers can
through lectures, textbooks, and is the most common method make the material more
other didactic methods. The used in the teacher-centered engaging and accessible for
students are passive recipients approach, research has shown students.

6 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE

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19
Asking Questions: Asking questions is a
great way to engage students and get
them thinking about the material.
Questions can be used to check for
understanding, prompt discussion, and
encourage critical thinking.
Using Small Groups: Small groups allow
students to interact with each other and
share their ideas. This is an excellent way
for students to discuss the material.
Giving Students a Choice: Giving
students a choice in what they learn and
how they learn can increase engagement
and motivation.
STUDENT-CENTERED
APPROACH
Allowing students to take charge of
their own learning increases their
motivation and engagement in everyday
learning. They’re encouraged to reflect
and make decisions, leading to the
development of critical thinking and
problem-solving skills. Student-centered
strategies create opportunities for
students to explore their own interests
and think creatively, inspiring more
original and innovative ideas. A few strategies to consider:
Students who engage in their own After any slide that presents information, add another (or
learning, and have ownership of the
process, are more likely to retain follow-up) slide with an open-ended question. Have
information. They’re empowered to students pause and talk to a partner or in small groups.
develop self-directed learning skills, such
as goal-setting, decision-making, and You could also have two or more discussion questions and
problem-solving. Most importantly, a let students pick which one to discuss—a great way to
student-centered classroom fosters bring their voice and choice into the classroom.
independence and autonomy and
prepares students for future academic Invite a student or group of students to present while you
and professional success. sit and take notes for them. This works well for older
7 STUDENT-CENTERED students who learn and listen best from their peers. Allow
LEARNING EXAMPLES them choice in how they present, whether through a
presentation, music, skit, or a gamified experience.
WITH TECHNOLOGY 2. Assess student understanding in real-time & personalize
1. Make presentations interactive
instruction
All too often, classroom presentations
Assessing student understanding in real-time and
are very teacher-centered. They typically
personalizing instruction can naturally create a more student-
look like a single instructor standing at
centered classroom and provide students with greater agency
the front of the room, talking through a
and ownership over their own learning.
lecture or set of slides as students sit
Real-time insights allow teachers to see how students are
passively. An easy way to shift more of
performing and adjust their instruction on the fly. By tracking
the cognitive load toward students is to
progress and identifying areas where students may be
make your presentations interactive.

6 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE

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20
struggling, teachers can provide targeted 4. Encourage classroom collaboration
support and individualized feedback and tailor Collaborative learning is an important
their instruction to the unique needs of each student-centered learning example because it
student. promotes active engagement, critical thinking,
This type of personalized instruction is a and social-emotional learning. When students
hallmark of student-centered learning activities, work collaboratively, they build on each other’s
which prioritizes the needs and interests of ideas, challenge assumptions, and co-create
individual students over a one-size-fits-all new knowledge. Collaboration encourages
approach to teaching. When students are given students to interact, communicate, and learn
more control over their own learning and are able from their peers.
to work at their own pace, they’re more likely to In a student-centered classroom, the teacher
feel engaged and invested in the learning process. is seen as a facilitator of learning, and the focus
Additionally, real-time insights facilitate is on creating opportunities for students to take
collaborative and interactive learning charge of their learning. Collaboration allows
experiences that further support a student- for peer-to-peer learning; students work
centered classroom. together to understand difficult concepts and
3. Empower students with choice and control solve complex problems. It promotes a sense of
Empowering students with choice and control community, where students learn to respect
over their learning is a key aspect of student- and appreciate each other’s perspectives and
centered classrooms. Educators can create a differences.
more engaging, motivating, and meaningful Collaboration also promotes social-emotional
environment by giving students various options learning by providing opportunities for students
for how they learn. to develop important skills such as
One option is using choice boards, which are communication, teamwork, and conflict
visual organizers that present a variety of resolution. When students work together, they
learning activities for students to choose from. learn to listen actively, share their own ideas,
Choice boards can be structured around a and work through disagreements. They learn to
specific learning objective, theme, or topic and take on different roles and responsibilities,
offer different activities at different difficulty develop leadership skills, and build a sense of
levels. Students then choose which activities to empathy and understanding.
complete based on their personal interests, 5. Use educational games
learning style, and skill level. Educational games are a powerful tool in
Another option is offering assignments with student-centered classrooms; they provide an
multiple formats or deliverables. For example, engaging and interactive learning experience.
instead of assigning a traditional essay, teachers One benefit of using educational games in
could offer students the choice of creating a student-centered learning is how they
video, podcast, infographic, or other formats personalize the learning experience for
that align with their interests and strengths. By individual students. Because many educational
allowing students to choose their preferred games are designed to adapt to the level and
format, you’ll tap into their creativity and help progress of the student, they provide a
them develop important 21st-century skills such customized learning experience that meets the
as communication, collaboration, and problem- needs of each learner. This is particularly
solving. beneficial in a student-centered classroom,
This fosters a sense of ownership and control which focuses on creating personalized learning
over their pace and learning. experiences that meet learners’ unique needs
and interests.

6 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE

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21
6. Student voice activities
Encouraging and highlighting students’ voices makes
them active participants in their own learning and
promotes a sense of ownership and agency over the
learning process. When students are able to share their
thoughts, opinions, and ideas, they are more likely to be
engaged and invested in the learning experience.
There are several ways student voice can drive student-
centered learning activities. One way is through the use of
student-led discussions and group projects. When students
are given the opportunity to lead discussions and
collaborate with their peers, they are able to take
ownership of the learning process and engage in deeper,
more meaningful learning experiences.
Student voices can also be highlighted through feedback
and reflection. Students that are given the opportunity to
provide feedback and reflect on their progress
subsequently take an active role in shaping their own
learning and developing a deeper understanding of the
content.
The use of student surveys and other forms of feedback
is also beneficial. When teachers take the time to listen to
their students and incorporate their feedback into the
learning process, they create a more personalized and
meaningful experience that meets the unique needs and
interests of each student.
7. Teach social-emotional learning skills
Social-emotional learning (SEL) refers to the process of
Foster collaboration and
developing self-awareness, self-management, social communication skills: SEL
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision- helps develop students’
making. Students with strong social and emotional skills social skills and improve
their ability to work
are better equipped to take ownership of their learning and collaboratively with their
engage in deeper, more meaningful learning experiences. peers. This can be
Here are some ways SEL can support student-centered particularly important in a
instruction:
student-centered
classroom, where
Promote a sense of belonging and community: When collaboration and
students feel connected to their peers and their communication are key
teachers, they are more likely to be engaged and components of the learning
process.
invested in the learning process. SEL creates a sense of Encourage responsible
belonging and promotes positive relationships within decision-making: Making
the classroom. responsible decisions allows
students to take ownership
Develop self-awareness and self-management: Students of their learning and engage
can take control of their learning and engage in in productive behaviors that
productive behaviors when they recognize their own support their academic
emotions and manage them effectively.
success.

6 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE

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22
 Select possible trait/s of a 21st century educator by answering these
following questions:
What are the traits that I already have? (I am)
What are the traits that I need to improve? (I'm trying to)
What are the hindrance why it is hard for me to achieve these traits?
Hands Up (But)
What are the implications of these desired traits to the career that
I wanted in the future? (Because)
Why these traits helped my traits that I already will improve me and
my teaching and learning process in the future? (Which makes me
feel)

6 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE

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23
 Heuristics
TEACHING METHOD
Objective:
Organize a podcast about examples of
the types of heuristics.
MODULE

The basic aim of teaching any were limited in their ability to

subject is to bring about desired THE HISTORY AND make rational decisions, but it
was Tversky and Kahneman's
change in behavior. The change ORIGINS OF work that introduced the study
in behavior of child will be of heuristics and the specific
indicated through children’s HEURISTICS
capacity to learn effectively. Nobel-prize winning economist REFERENCES:
This is only possible by adopting and cognitive psychologist ▪ Kendra, Cherry. (2022). What
various methods of teaching. Herbert Simon originally Are Heuristics? Verywell. Dotdash
Media, Inc. Retrieved from:
The teacher cannot utilize any introduced the concept of
https://www.verywellmind.com/wh
method to any type of students i heuristics in psychology in the at-is-a-heuristic-2795235
Thus, method in a way of 1950s. He suggested that while
presentation of the content in people strive to make rational
the classroom. Use various choices, human judgment is
methods depending upon subject to cognitive limitations.
demand of the situation. Purely rational decisions would
involve weighing all the
potential costs and possible
benefits of every alternative. But
people are limited by the
ways of thinking that people rely
HEURISTICS amount of time they have to
make a choice as well as the on to simplify the decision-
Heuristics are mental amount of information they making process.
shortcuts that allow people to
solve problems and make
have at their disposal. Other
factors such as overall
HOW HEURISTICS
judgments quickly and intelligence and accuracy of ARE USED
efficiently. These rule-of-thumb perceptions also influence the Heuristics play important roles
in both problem-solving and
strategies shorten decision- decision-making process. decision-making, as we often
making time and allow people to During the 1970s, psychologists turn to these mental shortcuts
function without constantly Amos Tversky and Daniel when we need a quick solution.
stopping to think about their Kahneman presented their Here are a few different
next course of action. research on cognitive biases. theories from psychologists
about why we rely on heuristics.
However, there are both They proposed that these biases
benefits and drawbacks of influence how people think and Attribute substitution:
heuristics. While heuristics are the judgments people make. People substitute simpler
helpful in many situations, they As a result of these limitations, but related questions in
can also lead to cognitive biases. we are forced to rely on mental place of more complex and
difficult questions.
Becoming aware of this might shortcuts to help us make sense Effort reduction: People use
help you make better and more of the world. Simon's research heuristics as a type of
accurate decisions. demonstrated that humans cognitive laziness to reduce

7 HEURISTICS TEACHING METHOD

Teaching of Science and Beyond

24
the mental effort required to make choices and to think that plane crashes are more common
decisions. than they really are.
Fast and frugal: People use heuristics The Familiarity heuristic refers to how
because they can be fast and correct in people tend to have more favorable opinions of
certain contexts. Some theories argue that things, people, or places they've experienced
heuristics are actually more accurate than before as opposed to new ones. In fact, given
they are biased. two options, people may choose something
You probably make hundreds or even they're more familiar with even if the new
thousands of decisions every day. What should option provides more benefits.
you have for breakfast? What should you wear The Representativeness heuristic involves
today? Should you drive or take the bus? making a decision by comparing the present
Fortunately, heuristics allow you to make such situation to the most representative mental
decisions with relative ease and without a great prototype. When you are trying to decide if
deal of agonizing. someone is trustworthy, you might compare
There are many heuristics examples in aspects of the individual to other mental
everyday life. When trying to decide if you should examples you hold.
drive or ride the bus to work, for instance, you The Affect heuristic involves making choices
might remember that there is road construction that are influenced by the emotions that an
along the bus route. You realize that this might individual is experiencing at that moment. For
slow the bus and cause you to be late for work. So example, research has shown that people are
you leave earlier and drive to work on an more likely to see decisions as having benefits
alternate route. and lower risks when they are in a positive
Heuristics allow you to think through the mood. Negative emotions, on the other hand,
possible outcomes quickly and arrive at a lead people to focus on the potential downsides
solution. of a decision rather than the possible benefits.
The Anchoring bias involves the tendency to
TYPES OF HEURISTICS be overly influenced by the first bit of
information we hear or learn. This can make it
There are many different kinds of heuristics. more difficult to consider other factors and lead
While each type plays a role in decision-making, to poor choices. For example, anchoring bias
they occur during different contexts. can influence how much you are willing to pay
Understanding the types can help you better for something, causing you to jump at the first
understand which one you are using and when. offer without shopping around for a better deal.
The Availability heuristic involves making Scarcity is a principle in heuristics in which
decisions based upon how easy it is to bring we view things that are scarce or less available
something to mind. When you are trying to make to us as inherently more valuable. The scarcity
a decision, you might quickly remember a heuristic is one often used by marketers to
number of relevant examples. Since these are influence people to buy certain products. This is
more readily available in your memory, you will why you'll often see signs that advertise "limited
likely judge these outcomes as being more time only" or that tell you to "get yours while
common or frequently occurring. supplies last."
For example, if you are thinking of flying and
Trial and error is another type of heuristic in
suddenly think of a number of recent airline
which people use a number of different
accidents, you might feel like air travel is too
strategies to solve something until they find
dangerous and decide to travel by car instead.
what works. People use trial and error when
Because those examples of air disasters came to
they're playing video games, finding the fastest
mind so easily, the availability heuristic leads you
driving route to work, and learning to ride a

7
bike (or learning any new skill).

HEURISTICS TEACHING METHOD

Teaching of Science and Beyond

25
 Research and write a short biography about the
Who is He? proponent of Heuristics Method. Follow the template
below for the sequence of information.

7 HEURISTICS TEACHING METHOD

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26
 D is c o v e r y
TEACHING METHOD
Objective:
Apply the concept of Bruner’s Theory of
Learning on some real-life scenarios
through the concept of Discovery
MODULE Method.

It was introduced by an features student-centeredness, Students in science may be

American Psychologist, Jerome critical thinking, problem- encouraged to create their own
Brunner, in the 1960s, who experiments and observations
solving, exploration, and about the natural world.
supported the constructivism inquiry-based learning.
paradigm and learning by doing. Discovery learning focuses on
In his theory, Bruner’s Theory of REFERENCES:
each student’s unique needs and
Development clearly explains talents, allowing them to
▪Yousafzai. A. (2023, May 26),
Discovery Method of Teaching: A
how students learn and the explore new ideas and concepts Student-Centered Approach to
impact of the environment on in their distinctive manner. This Learning. Zone of Education.
the students learning. strategy is ideal for naturally Retrieved from:
The discovery learning method interested and self-motivated https://zonofeducation.com/discov
is a student-centered teaching ery-learning-method/
children since it helps them
approach that stresses problem- build critical thinking and
solving, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
inquiry-based learning.
DISCOVERY METHOD
OF TEACHING
The discovery teaching
The discovery teaching style has
DISCOVERY METHOD technique is a teaching and
the potential to boost student
learning strategy that involvement and motivation.
The discovery method of encourages students to learn via
teaching, also known as inquiry and experimentation. It
TYPES OF
discovery learning, is a form of is also known as the DISCOVERY
education that places students
at the center of the learning
“investigative
approach.” By
learning
providing
LEARNING
process. Rather than depending There are two main types of
students with opportunities to discovery learning: unguided and
on the teacher’s direct teaching, take an active role in their guided discovery learning.
this technique enables students learning, this approach strongly Unguided Discovery Learning
to actively participate in their focuses on developing critical Students in an unguided
learning process by discovery learning environment
thinking and problem-solving are free to autonomously
investigating topics via inquiry abilities. explore and experiment without
and exploration. Students are not simply told receiving any direction from the
Students can discover new material; teachers encourage instructor. During guided
ideas and concepts by problem- them to find ideas and discovery learning, the
solving, questioning, and instructor offers students
principles independently approaches and assistance to
exploring their surroundings in through guided inquiry and encourage them to investigate
exploration learning. The investigation. and uncover new ideas
discovery teaching style autonomously.

7 DISCOVERY TEACHING METHOD

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27
Guided Discovery Learning critically and independently, as well as their
Guided discovery learning is a more organized problem-solving skills.
method that gives students help and direction as During the innovation phase, instructors may
they explore and figure things out independently. give students a provocation or challenge
This strategy often entails teaching students in connected to the subject and then ask them to
their inquiry by asking questions, providing think of their ideas and develop their own
prompts, and providing clues to assist them in answers. Students in a social studies class must
making connections between various ideas and devise a strategy for combating poverty in their
concepts. neighborhood as an assigned project.
STEPS IN DISCOVERY Students in a math class could be invited to
create a game that illustrates a mathematical
METHOD OF TEACHING subject via play.
The discovery method of instruction consists of
three phases to assist pupils in autonomously Since it allows students to generate their
discovering and investigating various topics. The concepts and approaches to the problem, the
following items are normally included in these innovation phase is an essential part of the
steps:
1. Exploration process. Students could benefit from this not
2. Invention just in terms of gaining self-assurance and
3. Discovery independence but also in terms of developing a
Exploration more in-depth comprehension of the material.
Exploration is the first stage of the discovery
method of teaching students. Students are Discovery
allowed to investigate a subject or idea at this
stage of the process by engaging in activities such The actual process of discovery learning is
as reading, watching, and participating in the last stage in the discovery method of
experiments, amongst other activities. In addition instruction. At this stage, you will guide
to laying a foundation of knowledge for the
students to build upon in the next parts of the students through putting their thoughts and
discovery process, this stage aims to foster a ideas to the test by having them do experiments
sense of natural curiosity and interest in the
subject matter the class is studying. and conduct analyses.
As students are in the discovery phase of the Students will benefit from this phase by
unit, their instructors may utilize a range of developing a more in-depth grasp of the
materials, such as films, articles, and hands-on
activities, to keep their attention and interest. material and strengthening their ability to solve
For instance, in a science lesson, the teacher problems in various contexts.
would invite the students to watch a chemical During the discovery phase, a teacher may
reaction demonstration and write down their
thoughts in a notebook about what they saw. give students a task or issue relevant to the
Students taking a literature class may be subject and then invite students to use
assigned to read a short tale and then do an materials to solve the problem. To put a theory
analysis of the narrative’s themes and characters.
The exploration phase is essential because it to the test, for instance. The students in a
lets students get acquainted with the subject science class can be asked to design and carry
matter and develop a fundamental out their very own experiments. Throughout
comprehension of the subject’s main ideas. Also,
it helps to build interest and enthusiasm among their history study, students are sometimes
students, which might drive them to participate tasked with evaluating primary materials and
in the succeeding parts of the discovery process.
drawing judgments on a particular historical
Invention occurrence. Since it allows students to test
The invention process is the second phase of their ideas and solutions in the context of the
the discovery method of teaching. At this stage,
you will allow the students to apply their prior real world, the discovery phase is a crucial part
knowledge and imagination to develop original of the process. Both their ability to solve
thoughts and answers to connect the subject. problems and their grasp of the material may
This phase is intended to be completed for
students to improve their ability to think improve due to this activity.

7 DISCOVERY TEACHING METHOD

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28
PRINCIPLES OF DISCOVERY Principle 3: Integration and Connection
Integration and Connection is the third phase in the
LEARNING METHOD Discovery Way of Teaching. Students are encouraged to
The Discovery Method of Instruction is apply what they learn in other aspects of their lives at this
an effective strategy that centers the level. This integration and connectivity may take numerous
educational experience on the student. forms, such as using new information in real-world
Educators may assist students in situations or integrating concepts across disciplines.
developing critical thinking abilities, self- Creating these connections gives students a more
direction, and resilience by combining the comprehensive grasp of the world and how various ideas fit
five processes of Problem Solving, Learner together.
Management, Integration and Connection, Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation
Information Analysis and Interpretation, Information analysis and interpretation are the fourth
and Failure and Feedback. This strategy and final phases. In the classroom, students can explore the
empowers students to take charge of topic further and critically assess information sources.
their own education, resulting in a more Students learn to recognize prejudice, analyze facts, and
engaged and effective learning make sound decisions. This level promotes students
experience. becoming more selective information consumers while
developing strong analytical and research abilities.
Principal 1: Problem-Solving Principle 5: Failure and Feedback
Problem-solving is the first phase of Failure and feedback are the last steps in the discovery
the Discovery method of instruction. method of teaching. This stage highlights the significance of
Students must identify an issue, question, trial and error in learning. Teachers may help students learn
or difficulty and then brainstorm possible from their mistakes and build resilience by allowing them to
solutions or responses in this stage. The fail and offering constructive criticism. This phase also
emphasis is on the mental process and teaches pupils to see learning as a journey rather than a
critical thinking abilities required to goal.
arrive at a solution rather than the
“correct” or “wrong” answer. Students 3 MODES OF REPRESENTATION IN JEROME
grow more skilled at problem-solving and BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF
are better prepared to manage
complicated situations in the future when
LEARNING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The Discovery Learning Method or Bruner’s 3 Steps of
they are encouraged to think creatively
Learning in a Spiral Curriculum are:
and evaluate some possibilities.
1. Enactive Mode
Principal 2: Learner Management
2. Iconic Mode
The second phase in the Discovery Way
3. Symbolic Mode
of Teaching is learner management. The
Enactive Mode In The Discovery Learning (0 To 1 Year)
significance of student autonomy and
The discovery learning technique relies on the active
self-direction is emphasized at this level.
mode, which emphasizes the value of hands-on experience
Learners are empowered to take charge
and active participation in the learning process. It
of their education by defining objectives
encourages students to learn by doing and to relate their
and measuring their progress toward
experiences to the taught principles. This learning method
those goals. This stage also enables
is productive and exciting, enabling students to thoroughly
students to acquire time management
immerse themselves in the subject matter and take
skills and learn how to prioritize things to
ownership of their learning.
meet their objectives.

7 DISCOVERY TEACHING METHOD

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29
Iconic Mode In The Discovery Learning between abstract concepts and the actual world by
Method (1 To 6 Years) representing ideas and theories using symbols and words.
For young learners aged 1 to 6 years, This form of learning is fascinating and powerful
the iconic mode is essential to the since it enables students to express themselves and
exploration learning process. It enables comprehend complicated topics in innovative and
individuals to learn via visual relevant ways.
representation and investigate their Students utilize symbols like letters, numbers, and
surroundings through their senses. This mathematical formulae to express ideas and concepts in
learning method is interesting and the symbolic style of discovery learning. They use
engaging because it allows youngsters to language to explain and analyze these symbols and relate
use their ideas and creativity to find new them to the actual world. Students may better
things and relate their experiences to the comprehend complicated topics and apply this
topics taught. knowledge to real-world issues and circumstances by
Children employ visual aids such as employing symbols and words.
drawings, diagrams, and movies to The symbolic method is especially valuable for older
explore and comprehend the world students because it enables them to practice critical
around them in the iconic mode of thinking and problem-solving abilities. Students may
exploration learning. They may use their improve their analytical and problem-solving skills by
senses to study and learn about many using symbols and words to express abstract ideas.
items and occurrences, including touch, Students may also enhance their communication abilities
smell, taste, sight, and sound. They may by using language to express themselves clearly and
build a personal connection to the subject effectively.
matter by engaging these senses,
resulting in stronger comprehension and
retention of the content.
The iconic mode is especially useful
for young learners still working on their
language abilities. It enables people to
communicate and comprehend topics
using visual signals rather than
exclusively through spoken
communication. This bridges the gap
between their present level of language
development and the subjects being
taught, making it easier for children to
learn and create connections.

Symbolic Mode In The Discovery

Learning Method (For Seven And Above
Years)
For older learners to understand
complex ideas and develop critical
thinking abilities, the symbolic mode of
the discovery learning approach is
important. It teaches students to create
links

7 DISCOVERY TEACHING METHOD

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30
 Give the disadvantages and advantages of Discovery
Let's analyze Method of Learning and summarize what have you
learned about it.

7 DISCOVERY TEACHING METHOD

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31
 v in g
Problem-Sol
TEACHING METHOD
Objective:
Demonstrates an understanding and
awareness of applying the processes of
problem-solving such as brainstorming,
MODULE creative visualization, imagination.

The problem-solving method

is a highly effective teaching MEANING OF Promotes
Problem-solving
collaboration:
requires
strategy that is designed to help PROBLEM- students to work together to
find solutions. This
students develop critical
thinking skills and problem- SOLVING METHOD promotes teamwork,
solving abilities. It involves Woodworth and Marquis(1948): REFERENCES:
providing students with real- Problem-solving behavior ▪ Hoque, E. (2023, February 19).
occurs in novel or difficult Problem-Solving Method in
world problems and challenges
Teaching. Educere Centre.
that require them to apply their situations in which a solution is
Retrieved from:
knowledge, skills, and creativity not obtainable by the habitual https://educerecentre.com/proble
to find solutions. This method methods of applying concepts m-solving-method-in-teaching/
encourages active learning, and principles derived from past
promotes collaboration, and experience in very similar
allows students to take situations.
ownership of their learning. Skinner (1968): Problem-solving
is a process of overcoming
difficulties that appear to
interfere with the attainment of
a goal. It is the procedure of
PROBLEM-SLOVING making adjustments in spite of communication and
METHOD interference. cooperation.
Builds critical thinking skills:
Problem-solving is a process BENEFITS OF The problem-solving
of identifying, analyzing, and
resolving problems. The
PROBLEM- method helps students
develop critical thinking
problem-solving method in SOLVING METHOD skills by providing them with
opportunities to analyze and
teaching involves providing The problem-solving method evaluate problems
students with real-world has several benefits for both Increases motivation: When
problems that they must solve students and teachers. These students are engaged in
through collaboration and solving real-world problems,
benefits include: they are more motivated to
critical thinking. This method Encourages active learning: learn and apply their
encourages students to apply The problem-solving knowledge.
their knowledge and creativity method encourages Enhances creativity: The
to develop solutions that are problem-solving method
students to actively encourages students to be
effective and practical. participate in their own creative in finding solutions
learning by engaging them in to problems.
The meaning and Definition of real-world problems that
problem-solving are given by require critical thinking and
different Scholars. These are- collaboration

7 PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
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32
 STEPS IN PROBLEM-SOLVING
METHOD
The problem-solving method involves several steps
that teachers can use to guide their students. These
steps include:
Identifying the problem: The first step in problem-
solving is identifying the problem that needs to be
solved. Teachers can present students with a real-
world problem or challenge that requires critical
thinking and collaboration.
Analyzing the problem: Once the problem is
identified, students should analyze it to determine
its scope and underlying causes.
Generating solutions: After analyzing the problem,
students should generate possible solutions. This
step requires creativity and critical thinking.
Evaluating solutions: The next step is to evaluate
each solution based on its effectiveness and
practicality
Selecting the best solution: The final step is to
select the best solution and implement it.

VERIFICATION OF THE CONCLUDED

SOLUTION OR HYPOTHESIS
The solution arrived at or the conclusion drawn
must be further verified by utilizing it in solving
various other likewise problems. In case, the
derived solution helps in solving these problems,
then and only then if one is free to agree with
his finding regarding the solution. The verified
solution may then become a useful product of
his problem-solving behavior that can be
utilized in solving further problems. The above
steps can be utilized in solving various problems
thereby fostering creative thinking ability in an
individual.

7 PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
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33
 GUT INSTINCTS MEANS-END ANALYSIS

Gut instincts and means-end analysis are just two of

those 5 strategies in problem-solving. Gather some
It's a Hit! facts to discuss them profoundly, include a concrete
example.

7 PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
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34
 Project
TEACHING METHOD
Objective:
Propose an example of Project-Based
Learning about certain subject area.
MODULE

The project-based learning or own and are responsible for

making them more involved. their learning, making them
Project Based Teaching Method When students have a project to more engaged and motivated.
is a student-focused strategy work on, they are more likely to The project teaching method is
emphasizing practical, task- be interested in what they are a good way to learn that has
based learning. Students define, learning and be motivated to do
plan, and carry out research, REFERENCES:
well.
experiments, or problem- 2. Encourages Teamwork: The
▪ Yousafzai. A. (2023, May 19),
solving projects. The outcome is Project Method of Teaching. Zone
project method of teaching has of Education. Retrieved from:
not just the achieved target but students work on a project in https://zonofeducation.com/projec
also the acquisition of a broad groups or teams. This helps t-method-of-teaching/
set of competencies. The people work together, talk to
founder of this method was
each other, and work as a team,
William Heard Kilpatrick, who
all important skills for success in
was a decadent of John Dewy in
the 21st-century workplace.
the United States.
3. Develops critical thinking
and problem-solving skills:
Projects often involve complex
problems or challenges
requiring students to think
been used by teachers all over
PROJECT METHOD critically and creatively. This
the world. The project method
helps them learn how to solve
Kilpatrick stressed that of teaching helps students learn
problems, an important skill in
students should work together a wide range of skills and
many fields.
and communicate on projects knowledge important for
4. Encourages creativity and
that address real-world issues. success in the 21st century by
new ideas: Projects allow
Since then, educators giving them chances to learn by
students to explore their ideas
worldwide have adopted and doing.
and interests and come up with
altered the project-based
solutions to problems. This STEPSINTHEPROJECT
teaching method. It is an
effective way to involve students
encourages creativity and new METHODOFTEACHING
ideas, which are important skills A student-centered project
in learning and foster the teaching method aims for
in many fields. students to learn through doing
development of various abilities.
5. Offers Chances for Student- a task or project. In this method,
Some of the many benefits of students are actively involved in
Centered Learning: The project
the project-based approach to defining, planning, and
teaching method is student- executing a project, including
education include the following:
centered, meaning that students research, experimentation,
1. Enhances Student design, and problem-solving.
are involved in setting and
Engagement: Projects are The project-based teaching
achieving their learning goals. method is based on the idea that
naturally interesting and
This makes people feel like they students learn best when
engaging for students,

7 PROJECT TEACHING METHOD

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35
actively engaged in the learning process. By
completing a project, students can connect their
TYPES OF PROJECT METHOD
learning to real-world situations and develop a
OF TEACHING
deeper understanding of the subject matter.
The project method of teaching typically There are several types of project teaching
involves the following steps: methods, each with its own unique
1. Creating Situation The first step is creating characteristics and benefits. Here are some of
the Situation of the problem for which the the most common types:
problem-solving method will be used. 1. Constructive Method
2. Topic Selection: Students can choose a topic
that interests them as long as it fits into the 2. Artistic Method
course. This makes learning more student- 3. Single Project Method
centered and allows students to explore their 4. Group Work Method
ideas and interests.
3. Planning: The students plan the project 5. Simple and Complex Method
together once the topic is chosen. This means 6. Drill Project
figuring out the problem or challenge, setting
goals, and determining what resources and Constructive Method
how long it will take to finish the project. The constructive method is a type of project-
Then, the students research their chosen based learning that emphasizes how important
topic using books, articles, and the internet,
among other things. This helps students learn it is for students to be involved in making a final
more about the subject and gives them a product or solution. Students are more invested
starting point for their project. in and motivated to study when given more
4. Execution: The next step is for the students
to implement their plan and finish the project. responsibility for their education.
This could mean making a product, doing an In the Constructive Method, students are
experiment, or finding a solution to a given a problem to solve and are led through
problem. Students show their finished
projects to the rest of the class or a bigger the process step-by-step. The usual procedures
group. This lets students show off their work, for this are as follows:
get feedback from others, and think about
what they have learned. Students are given a real-world topic or
5. Evaluation: It is the final stage, and the situation and are asked to come up with a
teachers and the students evaluate the good answer. They are to articulate the
project; hence if it meets its standard, then it
is accepted, or in case of any discrepancy, it is nature of the issue and single out the most
again reviewed and inculcated. pressing concerns.
The project-based teaching method is versatile Students research to learn more about the
and can be changed to fit different subjects and problem and form an informed opinion about
grade levels. It helps students learn how to think
critically, solve problems, communicate, and possible solutions. As you look into the issue,
work as a team, among other things. you can learn more about it by reading
One important thing about the project-based relevant materials, running tests, or talking
learning method is that it emphasizes the
learning process more than the result. By to students. This will help you form an
focusing on the process, students are encouraged informed opinion about possible solutions.
to look at their work with a critical eye and think
about what they have learned. Professionals are all viable options.
The project-based teaching method also Students apply their critical thinking to the
encourages student-centered learning and makes collected data and develop an approach.
students feel like they are in charge of their
education. This can make them more interested Students can do this independently or in
and motivated and help them learn more about small groups to create different strategies.
the subject. When a strategy has been formulated, the
The project-based teaching method is an
effective and interesting way to learn that next step for students is the design stage.
encourages hands-on, experiential learning and They may need to sketch out their idea in
helps students develop a wide range of skills and
knowledge. writing or build a model to do this.

7 PROJECT TEACHING METHOD

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36
Artistic Method Students in the single-project method work on a
The artistic method is a type of demanding, real, and meaningful project independently or
project-based learning in which students in small groups. Science, history, English, and mathematics
are encouraged to show their creativity are just a few disciplines that might benefit from this
and individuality through different types approach.
of art, such as painting, sculpture, and The students in the single project method are first
sketching. This method can help students introduced to a specific project. The initiative aims to get
in any field by focusing on developing students involved, encourage their imaginations, and allow
higher-order skills like analysis, synthesis, them to solve real-world problems. The best final project
and argumentation. It helps kids feel will push the people working on it to the limits of their
more connected and more respectful of research, analysis, problem-solving, critical thinking, and
one another. The artistic way of teaching communication skills.
is effective and has made students more Group Work Method
interested in and knowledgeable about Group projects are a common project-based learning
the subject matter. technique in which students create, execute, and present a
It focuses on the use of artistic project. Science, math, history, and language arts use group
expression and originality in the projects. Group projects help students develop problem-
classroom. Even though this method is solving, teamwork, and topic knowledge. Group projects
most often used in art class, it can be also teach students how to communicate, negotiate, and
used in any subject to get students to resolve conflicts. Using the group project method, teachers
think of new ideas. With a creative put students into small groups to plan and carry out
approach, making art is the primary projects. Students must collaborate to set project goals,
means of education. Students are timelines, and tasks, even if the teacher provides guidelines.
encouraged to explore their creative To monitor student progress, the teacher may set deadlines
talents through various mediums, or checkpoints.
including but not limited to painting, Teamwork and communication are essential for group
sculpting, drawing, and mixed media. The projects. Teachers can help by assigning roles and
best way for pupils to improve their responsibilities, encouraging active listening, and giving
artistic abilities is to try new things and constructive feedback. Group projects can suffer from free-
learn from their mistakes. riding, where one or more students contribute only
It teaches students art techniques and partially.
how to think critically and creatively. Simple And Complex Method
They are encouraged to take certain The Simple and Complex Method is a form of project-
creative risks to find their unique artistic based learning that emphasizes active student participation
voice. This method encourages students and the development of important abilities, including
to think critically and creatively as they critical thinking, problem-solving, and imaginative capacity.
work to solve problems. It involves following up with projects ranging from easy to
Single Project Method difficult, depending on the student’s skills and lesson goals.
Students in the Single Project, the Drill Project
project-based learning method, spent The Drill Project is project-based learning in which
considerable time and effort on a students practice and get feedback on their performance
comprehensive project. Students are until they have mastered a given skill or body of knowledge.
given a one-of-a-kind learning It is often used in disciplines where students must hone
opportunity by using this method, as they fundamental abilities, such as language, mathematics, and
are given a chance to hone in on a science. To complete The Drill Project, you must break
particular subject matter while expanding down a complex skill or idea into its component elements.
their skill set.

7 PROJECT TEACHING METHOD

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 Project-Based Learning Task-Based Learning

Classify the differences and similarities of Project-

Based Learning to Task-based Learning. You are free
Yes or No? to browse the internet and add references as much as
you can.

7 PROJECT TEACHING METHOD

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38
 Laboratory
TEACHING METHOD
Objective:
Discover the importance of laboratory
method and its utilization in teaching
science.
MODULE

The laboratory method does not Type I activities develop such skills
Laboratory experiences, as as measurement and observation.
need to be reserved for the distinguished from
science classroom. Any curricular Type I labs do not require formal
area in which hypotheses can be demonstrations, necessitate a reasoning, they teach important
formulated and tested can utilize high degree of student skills used in subsequent labs.
the laboratory method. After all, it involvement. They are direct,
is an “attitude” of exploration that firsthand experiences which REFERENCES:
any classroom can undertake.
Keep in mind that laboratory
place the student face-to-face
with the problem he/she is
▪ The Laboratory Method.
exercises teach the professional Weber.edu. Retrieved from:
skills of the field of study. exploring or the task he/she is https://faculty.weber.edu/psaunde
Professionals in every field have performing. Laboratory rs/ed3780/3780bookK.08.06.pdf
acquired the tools of their trades. experience if well planned and
Laboratory experiences allow properly motivated will
students to learn and practice minimize the student's role as a
those skills in controlled passive observer. Careful
environments where skills are consideration should be given to
isolated and distractions are
minimized. those aspects of the curriculum
that can best be taught through
a laboratory experience. Making
the content meaningful by
giving students hands-on
experiences will bring the
LABORATORY curriculum alive and solidify the Type
concepts
II activities
or
verify
principles
METHOD concepts in the students’ brains. previously studied in a textbook
At the heart of any science When using the laboratory or presented in a class
experience is the laboratory. method, science processes discussion. Students can
should be utilized. Those replicate an experiment already
What is a laboratory? It has been performed by someone else. The
said that "laboratory is really an processes are: observing, problem is stated, results
attitude; an attitude demanding communicating, comparing, predicted, and the procedures
that you explore the unknown, organizing, relating, inferring, are specified. Students should
pool their data, discuss trends,
invent explanations, and and applying. and draw conclusions. Ask them
discover whether or not your to explain how they verified the
principle or concept. A Type II
inventions are valid. Laboratory
is exploring hypotheses can be
5 TYPES OF lab usually follows the teacher’s
formulated and subjecting those LABORATORY presentation of a concept or
principle.
hypotheses to the most rigorous EXPERIENCES Type III experiences are guided
tests that can be devised. A laboratory activity is a common discovery activities; students
Laboratory is not a place; the concrete experience. There are practice finding relationships in
five different types of labs. Each their data. They get directions
halls, the grounds, home, and offers experiences necessary at from the teacher or the book,
the bus all represent laboratory some point during the learning but they do not know what
opportunities. Laboratory is cycle (moving students from the results or conclusions to expect.
observing, formulating, concrete to representational to The major differences between
Type II and Type III exercises is
interpreting, testing, measuring, the abstract.) These labs allow the timing of the activity in
experimenting, predicting." students to explore and discover relationship to the content of a
many concepts. lesson.

7 LABORATORY TEACHING METHOD

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39
 A Type III lab serves as an introduction to a concept or principle. The discovery process takes more
time, and fewer commercially prepared materials are designed in this fashion, but the benefits are worth
the extra time and efforts. Don't rely however, on Type III too much since it is frustrating for students to
have to "discover" everything.
Type IV labs are problem-solving activities. Students are presented with a problem, and they develop
their own methods for collecting data. This can be an extension of another type of lab. As students gain
from this experience, do not underestimate the contributions of even your lowest achiever. If we are to
stretch our students’ cognitive abilities, then we must allow them to practice. Students can practice such
data collecting skills as measuring, identifying, and controlling variables at the same time they uncover a
scientific concept or principle. Because all students (or teams of students) will come up with their own
solutions to the problem, encourage them to write these up in a report. In a Type IV lab, a student acts
like a scientist scouring out the solution to a problem. If used too often, the Type IV approach may be as
time consuming and frustrating for students as Type III activities. Type IV also demands patience and
flexibility on your part for each student plans a more active role. Poorly motivated students or those who
need more immediate rewards sometimes find Type IV activities boring and very frustrating.
Type V laboratory activities place the entire burden of an investigation on the student, who must
formulate both the problem and the method of data collection. In addition, he or she must interpret the
data and arrive at a conclusion. The problem can be a logical extension of a class discussion or an idea
generated by the student's own experience. This is a true research project. The most difficult task may
well be that of limiting the scope of the problem to fit each student's stage of cognitive development. In
order for Type V investigations to be successful, students must be knowledgeable and skillful, and the
teacher must be comfortable with the role of a resource person, rather than the source of knowledge.
SHOW AND TELL
When there is a shortage of equipment, a shortage of time, or the experiment calls for dangerous
chemicals, the teacher can demonstrate concrete examples of a concept or principle, or demonstrate
laboratory experiments. Under proper conditions, a well organized demonstration can adequately
substitute for a laboratory experience. The obvious disadvantage is that students are not as involved as
they would be if they were doing the experiment themselves. Thus, the teacher must be careful not to let
a handful of students dominate the discussion. A group problem-solving experience, however, can be
very valuable and is much more valuable for student learning than lecturing on the concept or principle.

7 LABORATORY TEACHING METHOD

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7 LABORATORY TEACHING METHOD
Teaching of Science and Beyond

41
 Historical
TEACHING METHOD
Objective:
Identify the concepts and the process of
historical method in teaching science.
MODULE

Historical method comprises reliability of a source, the

collects any remains and historian must keep in mind the
the techniques and guidelines records left behind, rigorously point of view of the witness or
by which historians use primary analyzes and criticizes the the creator of the source.
sources and other evidence to sources, selects and organizes Historians make inferences
research and then to write information, and records his or
histories in the form of accounts REFERENCES:
her interpretation of the event.
of the past. The question of the The stories told about history
▪ Hou, C. (2023). The Historical
nature, and even the possibility, Method. The Begbie Contest
are influenced by the Society. Retrieved from:
of a sound historical method is interaction between the https://www.begbiecontestsociety.
raised in the philosophy of evidence of the past and the org/historicalmethod.htm
history as a question of historian.
epistemology. The study of
historical method and writing is
1. Collects Evidence
known as historiography.
The historian gathers all
possible remains or records
containing information on an
historical event, relying heavily
on primary and secondary
sources. A primary source is the
about how people thought and
HISTORICAL METHOD evidence of an eyewitness – one
felt about the past based on the
who was present at the events
I. The Historian Selects a sources and the context in
described – or other remains
Subject for Investigation which they were created. A
from the past. A secondary
Good history is driven by source cannot be properly
source is the evidence of anyone
thought-provoking questions evaluated until we know the
who was not an eyewitness, and
about the past, on topics or what kind of source it is, when it
is usually written after the fact
events that have made a was produced, where it was
with the benefit of hindsight.
difference in history or are produced, who produced it and
These sources become evidence
relevant to contemporary why it was produced.
once the historian selects them
concerns. The historian wants 3. Selects Evidence
to answer the question under
to know what happened and There is usually much more
investigation.
why it happened. A good information available than one
2. Analyses Evidence
question helps the historian can use. The historian decides
The historian asks questions
focus on a topic and helps to what evidence is significant and
about primary and secondary
make the subject manageable. relevant to the study and rejects
sources in order to turn the
II. The Historian Applies the the rest.
information they contain into
Historical Method 4. Organizes Evidence
valuable evidence. In trying to
Sometimes after an historical The historian arranges evidence
determine the accuracy and
event takes place the historian in a meaningful way, looking for

7 HISTORICAL TEACHING METHOD

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42
facts to help answer the question posed at the 1. Background Knowledge
beginning of the inquiry. Reading, education and historical context
5. Interprets Evidence influence an historian’s judgment about
The historian uses the facts and information in the the past.
available documents to make inferences and to 2. Life experiences (biases)
develop an interpretation which is logical and Life experiences influence the historian’s
consistent with all the available evidence. A good world view or point of view Major factors
thesis should be based on a number of documents include place of birth and upbringing,
containing a variety of perspectives, and should religion, race or ethnic origin, gender,
include references to the sources to provide economic position, marital status,
support for the conclusions drawn. education, family and friends and
vocation. Good historians do not let these
III. The Past – The Evidence biases prevent them from looking at the
The unique events of the past are unrepeatable, facts before making inferences or forming
and accessible to the historian only through an opinion about eve
surviving historical sources (physical remains,
verbal reports, pictorial records or written 3. Personal Values and Beliefs
documents – the raw materials of history). History Personal values (ethics) or beliefs may
comes from the evidence supplied by the critical predispose the historian to interpret
analysis and evaluation of these documents.
history in a certain way. For example,
A scientist views on individuality or conformity;
witnesses the actual event
can repeat an experiment spiritualism or materialism; cooperation
tries to be as objective as possible or competition; liberalism or
conservativism; nature or science;
An historian
sees not the event, but the remains of the event assimilation or diversity; melting pot or
cannot recreate the event mosaic.
draws subjective conclusions 4. Interpretations
1. Physical Remains Historians do their best to make sense of
roads, temples, furniture, pottery, weapons, food, the past. Sometimes they see major
utensils, battle sites, fortifications, churches, patterns in history that repeat over and
roads, bridges, aqueducts, monuments
2. Verbal Reports over again. Those who see the same
legends, ballads, interviews, speeches, recordings patterns form themselves into schools of
3. Visual Documents interpretation (philosophy of history).
paintings, photographs, films, videos, maps,
cartoons, posters, sculptures Some of the major interpretations applied
4. Written Documents to Canadian history are good versus evil,
diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, letters,
diplomatic dispatches, pamphlets, newspapers, progress and decline, the rise and fall of
government reports, census records. civilizations, the struggle for survival, the
empire of the St. Lawrence, the
IV. The Present – The Historian
The historian always views and interprets the past biographical approach and
from the standpoint of the present. Just as the metropolitanism. Some historians focus
point of view of the creator of a primary or on a particular aspect of the past that
secondary source influences that individual’s
record of an event, the historian’s personality interests them (economic, cultural,
shapes his or her selection of topics, analysis and military, political and intellectual
evaluation of evidence, and the selection, historians). An historian’s interpretation
organization and interpretation of the evidence.
Historians should be aware of how the following will have an impact on his or her
factors influence the way they make sense of the explanation of the past.
past.

7 HISTORICAL TEACHING METHOD

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V. The Historian Writes a History
The historian uses the evidence collected
to provide an answer to the question under
consideration. The value of the
interpretation depends on the quality and
quantity of the evidence and the historian’s
analytical skill and writing ability. Multiple
interpretations result from the interplay of
the evidence from the past and the historian.

VI. The Historical Method and the Big Six

1. Historical Significance
The Historian Selects a Subject for
Investigation
2. Evidence
The Historian Collects and Analyses
Evidence
3. Continuity and Change
The Historian Organizes and Selects
Evidence
4. Cause and Consequence
The Historian Organizes and Selects
Evidence
5. Historical Perspectives
The Historian Interprets Evidence
6. The Ethical Dimension
The Historian Interprets Evidence
All of these stages are influenced by the
perspectives of the person who left traces of
the past (evidence) and the historian.

7 HISTORICAL TEACHING METHOD

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44
 EYE- "T
"ONE SS IS
IT N E N HE
W R O P
BETTE EN EV IT T D AS
N T I
T H A
SAYS."
EN S N EA T I
HEAR PA OT D, S
ST
."

Among the two quotes related to history, express your

Talking Heads opinion by stating facts that shows the application in
real life.

7 HISTORICAL TEACHING METHOD

Teaching of Science and Beyond

45
 S c ie n t if ic
INVESTIGATION
Objective:
Describes the steps in scientific
investigation.
MODULE

Well in a nutshell, the STEP 3: FORMULATE A question.

scientific method trains the STEP 6: DRAW A
HYPOTHESIS CONCLUSION
brain to examine and observe A hypothesis is an educated Once the scientist has analyzed
before making a statement of guess about the answer to your the results, he or she can make
fact. question. The hypothesis must
It is the main method be measurable and answer the REFERENCES:
scientists use when asking and original question you asked. ▪ Hudson, Paige. (2012). What is
answering questions. And using (Note: If you have younger the Scientific Method? Elemental
Science Inc. Retrieved from:
the scientific method will teach students you may want to skip
https://elementalblogging.com/scie
your students to look at all the step 2 and 3 as it will be nce-corner-the-scientific-method/
evidence before making a challenging for them to
factual statement. understand and do.)
In today’s science corner, I STEP 4: TEST WITH
wanted to explain each of these EXPERIMENTATION
steps in detail. The experiment tests whether
the hypothesis is true or false. It
is important for the test to be
fair, so this means that the
scientist may need to run
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC multiple tests. He or she will be
sure to only change one factor at a statement about what he or
INVESTIGATION a time in the experiment so that she has found. This statement
The following steps are key to he or she can determine which communicates the results of the
the scientific investigation: factor is causing the difference. experiment to others.
STEP 1: ASK A QUESTION STEP 5: RECORD AND
The scientific method begins ANALYZE OBSERVATIONS OR THE FINAL PRODUCT
with asking a question about RESULTS When you teach your
something that has been During the experiment, the students to use the scientific
observes. Good questions must scientist will record all his or her method, it will train their brain
be about something that can be observations. Once the to answer the questions they
measured. They typically begin experiment is complete, he or have in a logical manor. If this all
with how, what, when, who, she will collect and measure all sounds intimidating, it’s not.
which, why or where. the data to see if the hypothesis Remember, you are simply
STEP 2: DO SOME RESEARCH is true or false. The scientist will
One needs to read about the teaching your students to take
often find that his or her
topic from the question so that the time to discover the answer
hypothesis was false. If this is
he or she will have some to a given problem by using the
the case, he or she will formulate
background knowledge of the a new hypothesis and begin the knowledge they have as well as
topic. This will keep the scientist process again until he or she is the things they observe and
from repeating mistakes that able to answer the measure during an experiment.
have been made in the past.

8 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
Teaching of Science and Beyond

46
 On each line, write the term from the word bank that
Answer this correctly replaces the underlined words.
Note: You might need to change a term to its plural form

8
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
Teaching of Science and Beyond

47
 S c ie n t if ic
DEMONSTRATIONS EXPERIMENTS
Objective:
Demonstrate series of scientific
demonstrations to imply the different
scientific skills.
MODULE

While the student may SHOULD I USE

Scientific demonstrations and participate, the teacher remains SCIENTIFIC
experiments are two different the driving force behind this DEMONSTRATIONS
types of scientific tests used in
the educational setting. Many
type of scientific test. OR EXPERIMENTS?
people use these two terms
WHAT IS AN REFERENCES:
interchangeably, however, there EXPERIMENT? ▪ Hudson, Paige. (2018). Scientific
is a difference between these Demonstrations or Experiments?
An experiment is a test or Elemental Science Inc. Retrieved
types of scientific tests. trial done for the purpose of from:
Scientific demonstrations are discovering something https://elementalscience.com/blog
very teacher-directed, while s/news/89905795-scientific-
unknown or validating a demonstrations-or-
experiments are much more
student-led. theoretical principle. experiments#:~:text=What%20is%
Experiments always follow a 20a%20scientific%20demonstratio
n,the%20principles%20of%20scien
pattern of discovery known as ce%20firsthand.
the scientific method.
In the educational setting, the
student is the driving force
behind the experiment, while
DEMONSTRATIONS the teacher plays a more
Scientific demonstrations are
best employed during the early
A scientific demonstration is supervisory role. elementary years because the
In this type of scientific test, younger student has virtually
an explanation of a process that no scientific knowledge base.
is illustrated through an the student is discovering a So, it is very difficult for them
example, which serves as proof new aspect of science that was to make an educated guess or
or evidence of the scientific previously unknown to him. hypothesis about the outcome
of a scientific test.
principles at work. The student is testing what he Unlike the experiment, the
In other words, a scientific thinks to be true based on his scientific demonstration does
demonstration allows the not require the student to
knowledge of the principles at formulate a hypothesis and the
student to see the principles of
work and learning what the real teacher demonstrates this type
science firsthand. The teacher is
answer is through hands-on of scientific test. She guides the
introducing the student to the student through the process
scientific method through experience. and spoon feeds the necessary
modeling the process for him This time around, the information to him, which
during the demonstration. The student is the driving force means that the student is able
student is observing what is to focus on learning the science
and the teacher is a there as a that is occurring right in front of
happening, absorbing the mentor or guide. him.
information and storing it for
later use.

9 SCIENTIFIC DEMONSTRATIONS & EXPERIMENTS

Teaching of Science and Beyond

48
 question posed in the lab. If the lab is an
HOW TO RECORD AN observation, they can share what they think
EXPERIMENT they will see or skip this section of the lab
report.
1. RECORDING SCIENTIFIC DEMONSTRATIONS 3. Materials — The materials section should
DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS contain a list of what the students used to
During the preschool years, the students are
completing scientific demonstrations. They are complete the lab.
watching and playing with science, so the record 4. Procedure — In the procedure section,
of what they have learned short and sweet. they need to write a step by step account of
Their records of the hands-on aspect of science
should contain two sections: what was done during the experiment. This
1. Picture — This section will contain a picture or should be a summary in their own words so
simple drawing from what they saw in the
demonstration. that someone reading it would understand
2. Narration — This section will contain one what occurred.
sentence about what they student saw and 5. Observations & Results — In this section
learned.
2. RECORDING SCIENTIFIC DEMONSTRATIONS the students should share what they observed
OR EXPERIMENTS DURING THE ELEMENTARY during the experiment. They should also
YEARS include any data they have collected.
During the elementary years, the students are
still completing scientific demonstrations but will 6. Conclusion — In the last section the
be moving into do their own experiments. They students will write whether their hypothesis
will begin as observers in the process, so the was correct. They will also include any
record of what they have learned will be more
simplistic. additional information they learned from the
Even so, this basic lab report will introduce lab. If their hypothesis was not correct, you
elementary students to the scientific method. It will need to discuss why and have them
will serve to prepare them for writing a more
detailed report in future years. include that on their lab report.
Their records of the hands-on aspect of science
should include four sections:
1. Our Tools — This section will list the materials
used during the demonstration.
2. Our Method — This section will contain the
procedure for the demonstration in the
students’ words.
3. Our Outcome — This section will contain what
they saw and record any data they have
collected.
4. Our Insight — The final section will contain a
sentence or more detailing what the students
have learned. Ideally, this will relate to the
science they have studied, but it’s OK at this
level for the sentences to be more superficial.
3. RECORDING EXPERIMENTS DURING MIDDLE
SCHOOL AND BEYOND
Middle school students have moved from
demonstrations to experiments. These students
have shifted from being an observer into
performing their laboratory experiments.
Having the students write a record of their
experiment at this stage helps them to really grasp
the steps of the scientific method.
Their experiment reports should include the
following sections:
1. Title — The title is the question the students
were attempting to answer or it can explain
what they were observing.
2. Hypothesis — In this section, they should
share their prediction of the answer to the

9 SCIENTIFIC DEMONSTRATIONS & EXPERIMENTS

Teaching of Science and Beyond

49
 Being an aspiring educator requires a lot of
Let me handle communication skills and self-confidence just to convey
a good lesson. Share your personal helpful tips and hints
this how to overcome stage-fright and boosting your self-
confidence.

9 SCIENTIFIC DEMONSTRATIONS & EXPERIMENTS

Teaching of Science and Beyond

50
 S c ie n c e
LABORATORY
Objective:
Outline a Laboratory Report by following
the steps in Lab Report Template.
MODULE

A laboratory is a place that

called the atmospheres (atm) or
provides controlled and suitable artificial or natural light for bars.
conditions to perform various observing specimens under a 1 atm = 101,325 Pa (pascal)
experiments and research. microscope. There are generally
Laboratories in schools are two lenses objective and oculus,
designed for students to learn objective lens is the one that is
REFERENCES:
and perform various kept close to the specimen and
experiments for a thorough makes a virtual large image of
▪ List of School Science
Laboratory Equipment and Their
understanding of theoretical the specimen, while the ocular Uses. (2019). StudiousGuy.
concepts of science. It helps lens is the one on which the eye Retrieved from:
them enhance their knowledge is placed and it enlarges the https://studiousguy.com/list-of-
in various science fields. Schools virtual image even further for a school-science-laboratory-
equipment-and-their-uses/
generally have three separate thorough study. School
laboratories for the study of microscopes mainly consist of
different fields of science like three types of magnification
physics, chemistry, and biology. objective lenses, 4X, 10X, and
40X.
Weighing machines
A weighing machine is an
instrument used in chemistry
Speedometer
EQUIPMENT laboratories for weighing the
A speedometer is a device that
precise mass or weight of the
Equipment play a vital role in is used the measure the
sample for achieving optimized
performing experiments, and instantaneous speed of an
results. One must take a piece of
each piece of equipment has its object at a particular time.
butter paper and place it on the
own specific role. Some of the Speed is defined as the distance
weighing balance. After that,
common laboratory equipment travelled by an object per unit of
press the “tare” on the balance
are explicated as follows: time, and the device used to
and add your sample to the
measure this speed is known as
butter paper. Weigh the amount
1. Instruments used in a speedometer.
of sample needed for the
laboratories Stopwatch
experiment. This is the accurate
Microscope A laboratory stopwatch is a
way to operate the weighing
A microscope, usually a handy timepiece that is used to
balance in laboratories.
compound microscope, is the measure the time intervals by its
Barometer
most basic equipment which is activation and deactivation
A barometer is an instrument
widely used in biology labs for points. It is used to measure the
used in labs for measuring the
the optical study of tiny duration of an event in fractions
exerted atmospheric pressure,
specimens. A microscope of a second.
also called barometric pressure,
operates on the principles of
in a certain environment. This
refraction of light and uses
pressure is measured in a unit

10 SCIENCE LABORATORY
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 Magnifying glass The body at a higher temperature releases heat,
Magnifying glasses are the simplest form of while the body at a lower temperature absorbs
basic microscope and are used in most heat. It is widely used in the fields of
laboratories. It is basically a convex lens that thermochemistry in calculating and analyzing
allows object enlargement and is widely used in enthalpy, stability, heat capacity, etc.
laboratories for magnified images or to read small Spring balance
calibrations marked on the equipment. Spring balance, also known as the Newton
Thermometer meter, is a weight-measuring instrument widely
Laboratory thermometers are used for used in physics laboratories. It measures weight
measuring temperatures other than human body by measuring the tension in the string. It
temperature which ranges from -10˚C to 110˚C. It consists of a spring fixed at one end with the
can either be used to measure the boiling point hook from where the body hangs for weight
or freezing point during science experiments. measurement. They are commonly used to
Ammeter determine the force exerted by an object.
An ammeter is an instrument used in physics Spring balance works on the principle of
laboratories for measuring current in a circuit. Hooke’s law, which states that the force needed
The current is measured in Amperes, and it can to extend a spring is proportional to the
measure both AC (alternating current) current as distance that the spring is extended from its
well as DC (direct current) current. Ampere is the rest position.
SI unit of electric current and was named in 2. Glass wares in laboratories
honor of a French mathematician and physicist, Test tubes
“André-Marie Ampère”. 0-1A, 0-5A, and 0-15A Test tubes, also known as culture tubes, are
ammeters are the most common types found in vital equipment and are used in laboratories to a
schools and are used to measure tiny currents large extent. Test tubes are used to hold the
induced through electromagnetic induction. liquid sample straight upright and are kept in
Voltmeter test tube stands, as they have no capability to
Both the devices, the ammeter and the hold themselves straight because of the
voltmeter, are used in electrical devices but the curved/spherical bottoms. They are widely
difference is that the ammeter is used for used for qualitative experiments and assays.
measuring the flow of current, while the Beakers
voltmeter measures the voltage or EMF Beaker is generally a glass-made cylindrical
(electromotive force) across two points in an container with a flat bottom. They are available
electric circuit. A voltmeter is also known as a in a wide range of sizes from one milliliter up to
voltage meter and is used for measuring the several liters. Lab-grade glass beakers can
potential difference or voltage between two withstand high temperatures, therefore they
points in an electrical circuit. It measures are used in laboratories for performing various
voltages of either direct current or alternating experiments. Uses of beakers in the laboratory
electric current on a scale usually graduated in include storing liquid or solid samples,
volts, millivolts (0.001 volts), or kilovolts (1,000 preserving a chemical reaction, and in the
volts). microwave to heat samples.
Calorimeter Volumetric flask
A calorimeter is a device used for measuring A volumetric flask is a graduated/measuring
the change in temperature when a mechanical, flask that is calibrated to hold an accurate
electrical, or chemical reaction is carried out and specific volume at a specific temperature. They
can also be used for determining the heat are used in laboratories for precise dilution and
capacity of materials. Thermal changes in a body for preparing standard solutions. It is a flat-
are measured using a calorimeter. bottomed bulb with an elongated neck.

10 SCIENCE LABORATORY
Teaching of Science and Beyond

52
 Measuring cylinder control the amount which is to be dispensed
A measuring cylinder is a graduated cylinder within a chemical.
designed for laboratories and is often used to Conical flask
measure the volume of a liquid. It is not preferred Erlenmeyer flask is another name for conical
for volumetric analysis, as they are not as precise flask, which is used in laboratories for storing,
as volumetric flasks. Measuring cylinders have a mixing, heating, and measuring liquids. A
flat bottom with a narrow cylindrical shape and conical flask is characterized by a flat bottom, a
are available in numerous shapes and sizes. conical body, and a cylindrical neck. It also plays
Pipette a prominent role in titration as the substance
Graduated pipettes are usually used in school which is to be analyzed is taken in a conical
laboratories for transferring an accurate volume flask for its analysis.
of liquid in the sample. This can be achieved by Stirring rod
the mouth pipetting method. In this method, the A stirring rod, also known as a glass rod, is
pipette’s open end is placed inside the mouth and used in laboratories for stirring samples or
the sample is aspirated like a straw up to the chemicals. These rods are made up of solid glass
mark. This method is dangerous as it may lead to with rounded ends. A stirring rod has several
accidental ingestion of hazardous samples and uses in a laboratory, for eg breaking an
must be used carefully. Pipettes are available in emulsion during the extraction process,
various sizes and are used accordingly, inducing crystallization in a recrystallization
depending on the volume of the sample which is process, and controlling the rate of flow when
to be pipetted, for example, a 10ml pipette must chemicals act violently.
be used for pipetting a 10ml sample to get precise Round bottom flask
results. Round-bottom flasks, also known as boiling
Funnel flasks, are chemical vessels with a spherical
A long conical or bulging thistle-shaped glass body and a cylindrical neck. They are specially
tube that is mainly used to channel liquids or designed for uniform heat distribution and are
fine-grained substances into containers with a mainly used in distillation, chemical reactions,
small opening. A funnel can also be used in the heating liquid samples, and meeting storage
process of filtration by holding filter paper demands.
(folded into a cone)inside the conical-shaped area Separating funnels
of the funnel. It is basically a tube with a wide These are special types of funnels specially
opening at the top and a narrow opening at the designed for separating immiscible mixtures.
bottom, mainly used for pouring liquids or The principle of separating a funnel involves the
powders in containers with small openings. separation of two immiscible liquids on the
Burette basis of their densities.
Burette is widely used for quantitative Dropper
chemical analysis to measure the volume of a A dropper is basically a pipette with a nozzle
liquid or a gas. It is a graduated glass tube with a at one end and a rubber bulb at another end. A
stopcock at one end. There are mainly two types dropper is mainly used to transport small
of burettes, the volumetric burette and the piston amounts of a measured volume of liquids to
burette. Volumetric burettes are used in school chemicals.
laboratories for titration. Titration is used to Spatula
determine the unknown concentration of an Spatulas are pieces of equipment that help
identified analyte. Burette plays a vital role in with mixing, scraping, and other tasks related to
titration as it is used to dispense an accurately transferring powder materials and samples
measured amount of liquid within a chemical. from one place to another.
Stopcock present at the end of burette is used to

10 SCIENCE LABORATORY
Teaching of Science and Beyond

53
 3. Stands used in laboratories Wash bottles
Tripod Stand Wash bottles are filled with appropriate
This stand is used for a bunsen burner. A cleaning liquids that are used for rinsing various
Bunsen burner is placed below the tripod stand equipment, like test tubes and round-bottom
and a wire gauze is placed above the stand. Then, flasks, for cleaning purposes. It is a squeeze
the sample is placed on wire gauze for heating. bottle with a nozzle at the top.
This stand has a significant role in this process as Crucible
the direct contact of the sample and the bunsen Crucibles are storage equipment used to store
burner will eventually lead to the burning of the chemical compounds when heated to extremely
sample container. The Tripod stand provides a high temperatures. They are also used to stop
certain gap between the burner and the sample. metals, glass, and pigments from melting in a
Retort stand furnace. High-temperature chemical reactions
Retort stands are most commonly used in and analyses are also done using crucibles as
laboratories for holding test tubes, burettes, they hold a high tendency to withstand higher
round bottom flasks, and separating funnels with temperatures. Other uses of a crucible include
the help of a clamp. They work as the support burning, melting, or mixing of solid chemical
system for burettes, separating funnels, and test compounds over a burner.
tubes by holding them straight up in the air. Wire gauze
Test tube stand Wire gauze or wire mesh holds great
Test tube stands are used to keep test tubes importance in chemistry laboratories. It is a
inside them, as test tubes do not have the sheet of thin metal that has net-like patterns. It
capability to stand on their own because of their is basically placed on a tripod stand between
spherical bottoms. These stands help to keep the the burner and the heating glassware. This is
samples straight in an upright position by proving because glassware cannot be heated directly on
support to the tubes. flames, so wire gauze is used to diffuse the heat
4. Other basic equipment which in turn protects the glassware. There are
Tongs two types of wire gauze, plain and ceramic
Crucible tongs are used in chemistry labs for center wire gauze. Both transfer the heat
holding hot crucibles, flasks, evaporating dishes, efficiently.
or even small beakers. They are scissor-like tools, Mortar pestle
but instead of having two blades, these tools are A mortar pestle is used in laboratories for
replaced with two pincers or pieces of metal that grinding and crushing solid chemicals and
concave together which allows the easy handling samples into fine particles.
of hot crucibles, flasks, etc. Forceps
Brushes for test tubes Tweezers and forceps are small tools that are
Test tube brushes, also known as spout used in labs for gripping, and manipulating
brushes, are mainly used for cleaning test tubes small and delicate objects, or removing tissue or
and many narrow-mouth glassware like teeth from the body. They are basically used in
graduated cylinders, burettes, and Erlenmeyer biology and chemistry labs for holding organic
flasks. tissues or tiny specimens.
Watch glass Bunsen burner
A circular concave piece of glass mainly used A Bunsen burner is a device that was named
for evaporation in chemistry is called watch glass. after Robert Bunsen and is used in chemistry
It acts as a surface to evaporate a liquid. Other laboratories for heating, sterilization, and
uses of watch glass include holding solids while combustion. The Bunsen burner is placed under
being weighed, heating a small amount of a tripod stand for its function. Bunsen burner
substance, and as a cover for a beaker to prevent uses the combustion of methane (also called
contamination. natural gas) and oxygen to produce heat.

10 SCIENCE LABORATORY
Teaching of Science and Beyond

54
 Identify the laboratory equipment and write down
Guess what? the number of your answer on the space provided
before the number.

10
SCIENCE LABORATORY
Teaching of Science and Beyond

55
 B l o o m 's
TAXONOMY OBJECTIVES
Objective:
Formulate instructional objectives using
Bloom’s Taxonomy in teaching Science.
MODULE

When designing a course’s The basis of the pyramid is knowledge, still others want
learning outcomes, it is Knowledge, the first level of their students to grasp the core
important to understand the or essence or comprehend. Do
learning. Above it lies they all mean the same thing?”
complexity of student tasks. For Comprehension, Application, asked the authors.
example, should students be Analysis, Synthesis and
able to compare two works of REFERENCES:
Evaluation. Each level above
literature before they apply builds upon the one below, so
▪Bloom's Revised Taxonomy.
similar concepts to their own (2023). University of Buffalo.
you can only move up the Retrieved from:
writing? Using a framework like pyramid one step at a time. https://www.buffalo.edu/catt/devel
Bloom’s helps determine the op/design/learning-
cognitive complexity of student outcomes/blooms.html
tasks, whether there is variety of ORIGINAL BLOOM’S ▪ Andreev, I. (2023, May 17).
difficulty among learning TAXONOMY Bloom’s Taxonomy. Valamis.
Retrieved from:
outcomes and, if not, how to The original taxonomy was first https://www.valamis.com/hub/blo
alter them to create variety. described in 1956 in the book oms-taxonomy
Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives by American
educational psychologist Benjamin
Bloom and his coauthors Max
Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter The taxonomy of educational
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY Hill, and David Krathwohl. Their objectives was supposed to help
Bloom’s Taxonomy attempts book classifies learning goals into teachers speak the same
to classify learning stages from one of the categories mentioned language and thus “facilitate the
above (from Knowledge to exchange of information about
remembering facts to creating
Evaluation).
new ideas based on the acquired their curricular developments
Their goal was to provide
knowledge. and evaluation devices.”
teachers with a common
The idea of Bloom’s Taxonomy vocabulary to discuss curricular Though it was designed
is that learning is a consecutive and evaluation problems with primarily for college professors,
process. Before applying a greater precision. it finally became popular among
concept in real life, we must The language teachers had been educators, from K-12 teachers
understand it. Before we using to explain what they to corporate trainers.
understand a concept, we must expected of their students was, Since its publication, the book
remember the key facts related according to the authors, no more has been translated into more
to it. than “nebulous terms.” than twenty languages and is
Therefore, although initially “For example, some teachers now used for instructional
described as a framework, it is believe their students should design worldwide. However, it is
now often depicted as a ‘really understand,’ others desire currently more often applied in
pyramid. their students to internalize its revised version.

11 BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES

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56
 BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF It might be transforming numerical information into verbal.
Exemplifying is finding a specific illustration of a
OBJECTIVES concept or principle. It may be giving several examples
To provide learners with clearer of Suprematist paintings.
instructional goals, a group of
researchers led by Bloom’s colleague Classifying is determining a category of something. An
David Krathwohl and one of Bloom’s example is the classification of mental disorders.
students, Lorin Anderson, revised the Summarizing means retrieving a general theme of
taxonomy in 2001. significant points (e.g., writing a short summary of a
In the new variant, nouns were replaced
story).
by action verbs. Also, the two highest
levels of the taxonomy were swapped. Inferring is drawing a logical conclusion from given
The new learning stages are Remember, information. It may be formulating grammatical
Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate and principles of a foreign language from the presented
Create. The authors also defined
cognitive processes associated with these examples.
instructional goals. For example, the Comparing is finding correspondences between two
ability to remember requires recognizing ideas or objects (e.g., comparing historical events to
and recalling. their contemporary analogues).
Bloom’s Taxonomy Levels
Let’s take a closer look at each learning Explaining is constructing a cause-and-effect model of
stage, based on the book describing the a system, for example, explaining the causes of the
revised framework A Taxonomy For French Revolution.
Learning, Teaching and Assessing by 3. Apply
Krahtwohl and Anderson. The authors
Now, it’s time to use learned facts and abstractions in
recommend reading the name of each
learning category as though preceded by new contexts and particular situations.
the phrase “The student is able to…” or For example, students might be asked to discuss
“The student learns to…” phenomena described in one scientific paper using terms
1. Remember
This stage of learning is about and concepts of another paper.
memorizing basic facts, dates, events, The processes of cognition corresponding to this stage are:
persons, places, concepts and patterns. Executing is applying a procedure to a familiar task (e.g.,
At this level, educators might ask learners calculating the root of a number).
simple questions like:
What is the chemical formula of Implementing is about applying a procedure to an
water? unfamiliar task (e.g., using Newton’s Second Law in a
The associated cognitive processes, as new situation).
already noted, are: 4. Analyze
Recognizing means locating
knowledge in long-term memory At this level, students are supposed to break down
related to presented material (e.g., concepts and examine their relationships.
recognizing the dates of important For instance, they might be asked to recognize the genre
historical events).
of a painting or describe the leading causes of the Great
Recalling is retrieving knowledge
from long-term memory (e.g., Depression.
recalling the dates of important The three particular processes associated with this stage
historical events). are:
2. Understand
At this point, learners might be asked Differentiating means distinguishing important from
to explain a concept in their own words, unimportant parts of presented material (e.g.,
describe a mathematical graph or clarify a distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant numbers
metaphor. in a mathematical word problem).
The processes associated with
understanding are: Organizing involves identifying how elements fit or
Interpreting implies changing from function within a structure (e.g., finding the hypothesis,
one form of representation to another. method, data and conclusion in a research report).

11 BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES

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57
 Attributing means determining a
point of view, bias, values, or intent Why Bloom’s Taxonomy is
underlying presented material. An Important?
example would be to identify the Bloom’s Taxonomy can help educators map learning
author’s point of view of an essay.
5. Evaluate within a single lesson or even a whole course.
In this stage, learners are expected to Using the taxonomy as a guide, trainers can identify
use their knowledge and skills to appraise clear instructional goals corresponding to each
a situation, justify their stand or criticize
taxonomy level and create plans to achieve them.
others’ opinions. They should be able to
point out logical fallacies in arguments or By setting achievable objectives for learners, instructors
compare a work to the highest standards make them more active and responsible for their
in its field. education.
They might be asked, for example:
In your opinion, is online piracy The taxonomy can also be useful for evaluating learners
ethical. correctly. An essay, for example, is probably not the best
Evaluating is divided into checking and form of testing when learners only need to remember
critiquing. basic facts and terminology related to the topic. But it
Checking means detecting
inconsistencies or fallacies in a will be appropriate at the evaluation stage when they
process or product. For example, it’s are expected to formulate their opinion on an issue.
determining if a scientist’s Bloom’s taxonomy allows educators to gauge the
conclusions follow from observed learners’ progress. It helps teachers determine which
data.
Critiquing involves finding level every learner is on and assign them an individual
inconsistencies between a product task.
and external criteria. For instance, it’s
judging which of two methods is the BLOOM’S TAXONOMY VERBS
best for solving a problem.
When talking about Bloom’s taxonomy, action verbs
6. Create
This is the most complex stage of the associated with the categories and cognitive processes are
learning process and the top of the often mentioned. Instructors use these verbs to describe
revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. activities required for achieving educational objectives
At this level, learners combine known
patterns, ideas and facts to create original corresponding to each level.
work or formulate their solution to a For instance, at the analyzing level, the Azusa Pacific
problem. University recommends using verbs like “compare”,
They might be asked to compose a “distinguish”, and “simplify” when formulating instructional
song, rewrite a story in another setting or
formulate a hypothesis and propose a tasks.
way of testing it.
The three associated cognitive
processes are:
Generating involves coming up with
alternative hypotheses based on
criteria. An example might be devising
multiple solutions for a social
problem.
Planning is about coming up with a
procedure for completing a task (e.g.,
preparing an outline of an article).
Producing means inventing a product
(e.g., writing a short story that takes
place during the American
Revolution).

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 Write a question based on the type of thinking in
Guess what? Bloom's Taxonomy. Make sure it follows a high-
order thinking type of questions.

11
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES
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59
 Science
UNIT PLANNING
Objective:
Explain the concept of unit planning and
types of unit planning and;
Prepare a sample of teaching learning
unit.
MODULE

4) A good unit is unified and

One of the most accepted PURPOSES OF UNIT with its emphasis on a series of
related and meaningful
ways of planning a course is in PLANNING activities, suggests wholeness in
the form of units. The basis for The purposes of unit planning the organization.
unit planning is the use of are:
objectives. The principle of REFERENCES:
activity, motivation and
1) Unit planning helps in the ▪ Sharma, M.C. Singh, Vandana. (2017).
gradual growth of students, Unit-3 Planning and Designing for
individual differences of the proceedings from simple to Effective Instruction Science. Retrieved
students must be taken into from:
complex which is its greatest https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/1
account in planning. Unit asset. 23456789/32418/1/Practical-2.pdf
concept recognizes the fact 2) It gives directions to ▪ Unit Planning. (2023). University at
that what is to be learned is to Buffalo. Retrieved from:
teaching-learning process https://www.buffalo.edu/catt/develop/buil
be seen as a whole and not as
scattered facts.
CHARACTERISTICS d/unit-planning.html
▪ Bronner. D. (2023) Meat without
OF UNIT PLANNING slaughter: Here’s everything you need to
know about lab-grown meat. CNN.
Whatever the type of units, Retrieved from:
there are certain general https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/23/busin
characteristics which a unit ess/lab-grown-meat-explainer/index.html
should possess. They are:
1) The aims of the unit should
be clear and well defined. Each
UNIT PLAN unit should indicate its general
5) A good unit provides place of
beginning and ending. This
and specific objectives. A good means that it starts with a
Unit planning may be defined unit is organized around the definite problem situation. Once
as comprehensive series of the purposes of learners. the problem has been solved or
related content and meaningful 2) A good unit indicates question answered the pupil
activities of students and the
educational activities, so procedures to be adopted to sees clearly whether his goal is
developed as to achieve pupil's carry out these activities to a reached.
successful completion of a unit. 6) An effective learning-
purposes, provide significant teaching unit is generally
Some of these activities will be
educational experiences which pre-determined by the teaching; comprehensive. It provides
result in appropriate and some of them will emerge learning situations which are
behavioural changes. The main as the work of the unit large and unified and which can
progresses. be completed in a couple of
body of unit includes the 3) A good unit incorporates a class periods.
content in the form of sections good body of instructional
and sub-sections each material and the sources to be TYPES OF UNIT
used. These materials are
emphasizing points to related to the aims, activities PLANNING
remember. Some units are long, and procedures. The materials Many different types of units
which require several hours of should be within the range of have been proposed and used
study and others are short with understanding of all the for organization of teaching
students and allow for individual learning activities as follows:
few hours of teaching. differences.

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 Subject Matter Units Establishing Objectives
This again can be classified as: Unit objectives: Unit objectives align with course
i) topical units, learning outcomes and are smaller in scope. Think about
ii) generalization units, and what you want students to be able to do at the end of
iii) units based on significant aspects of each unit (not the end of the course) and which
environment and culture. outcomes they contribute to.
Subject matter units are used more Essential questions: The defining questions that a unit
widely by teachers because of its easy
will help answer. Essential questions help guide
organization. The primary emphasis of
the subject matter unit is on materials to students to thoughtfully inquire and think deeply about
be learned. The arrangement of the the subject. The essential questions can either be course
subject matter and the learning activities specific or unit specific.
will' be shaped in accordance with the Unit introduction: How you want to introduce a unit to
objective. Unless what is learned is your students. This is an opportunity to spark student
understood by the learner, learning the interest and share the authentic application of the unit.
subject matter will be of no use to the This may include posting the unit’s overview, objects,
learner. and essential questions followed by an instructor led
Experience Units/Teaching-Learning introduction video.
This is again classified as units based Gathering Evidence
on center of interest, student purpose Assessments: Assessments measure student progress
and student needs. Experience units on towards achieving learning outcomes. It is important to
the other hand is planned by organizing have a continuum of assessments that inform you and
the learning around or bound together by your students about their understandings and
a central theme of interest. It is usually
misunderstandings throughout the learning process.
the basis for the activity program
emphasized in the elementary grades. Consider diagnostic, formative and summative
It can be used in clinical nursing assessments.
studies of nursing students as taking a Teaching and Learning
case study of a patient otherwise the Activities: Activities contribute to learning concepts
formal or theoretical part of nursing and skills and should clearly be connected to unit
curriculum will benefit very little from objectives. This includes choosing effective teaching
this type of organization. methods, active learning strategies and how you will
Teaching Learning Unit scaffold content to best support student learning.
Besides the above two types of units in When unit planning consider the following:
nursing we use another type viz. the Expectations: Clear explanations for what students will
teaching-learning unit. The term do, why, and criteria for achievement. Make sure to
"teaching-learning unit" is used by describe your vision, focus, and objectives of the unit to
Heidgerken to describe unit planning for your students. Take the time to answer questions and to
nursing courses. The term embodies the address and support students’ needs. Students should
concept of useful learning experiences clearly understand the purpose and relevancy of the
which involve comprehensive problems unit, as well as what is expected of them.
or projects focused on stated objectives. Continuity and consistency: For students to be
It permits the inclusion of knowledge successful it is very important that there is continuity
components and a series of selected and
and consistency across units. This information should
organized teaching-learning activities to
provide learning outcomes specified by be clearly stated and documented in the syllabus, and if
the objectives. We shall now proceed to applicable, in UB Learns.
discuss about the essential components Share unit components: Share with your students what
involved in unit planning in the next each unit will include. Provide your students with a brief
section. overview of the unit objectives, teaching methods,
materials, assessments, activities, evaluation tools, and
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS reflection process.
Adjust as needed: Although changes to unit plans can
INVOLVED UNIT PLANNING cause confusion, in some instances, changes should be
1) Establishing Objectives made. During lessons you may observe that students are
2) Gathering Evidence struggling, or after a lesson you conclude that students
3) Teaching and Learning performed poorly on a task. These are times when

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61
 adjustments to instruction can be 1. Topic: The topics, themes or big ideas you will cover.
beneficial. If no changes can be made in These groupings will serve as beginning sketches of
the moment, consider how a lesson or units that will be developed during unit planning.
unit could be revised in the future. Take Decide if your units will be thematic, goals-based or
time to jot down your observations and project-based.
encourage students to give feedback. 2. Learning outcomes: Using the learning outcomes you
Scaffolding: Additionally, consider the designed from your course design template, determine
diverse learning needs of your
which units will help students reach which learning
students and how scaffolding the
content will benefit learners. outcomes of your course.
Providing students with multiple 3. Unit objectives: Unit objectives align with course
exposures to concepts helps them learning outcomes and are smaller in scope. Think about
deepen their understanding. Revisit or what you want students to be able to do at the end of
review content by creating engaging each unit (not the end of the course) and which
activities or formative assessments outcomes they contribute to.
into your unit plan. For example, if 4. Assessments: Using the assessments from your course
students are expected to be able to design template, begin mapping out where larger
synthesize and summarize a case summative assessments may occur to ensure that all
study, provide them with guided learning outcomes are accounted for and that your
instruction, as well as opportunities scope accounts for the time needed for assessments
for individual and small group 5. Sequence of activities: Using the activities from your
practice. This will help students be course design template, map out re-occurring and
able to practice the skills needed to unique activities, where they take place and how long. If
independently summarize a case
aligned, these may overlap heavily with unit objectives.
study in the future.
6. Key resources: Select a diverse array of authentic texts
and content. Ensure that these materials are presented
BUILDING A PLAN in a variety of formats. (e.g., visual, auditory).
Learning requires building new skills and
understanding on prior knowledge and When mapping components make sure to consider the
abilities. The order and way students following:
experience new information will have a Purpose: Think about the value of what you are
large impact on how successful they are teaching instead of trusting the content or sequence of
at learning. A clear and succinct plan will other resources, such as a textbook.
play a large role in this success. There are Instructional sequence: Organize your topics, themes
two levels of plans that guide course or big ideas in a manner that is optimal for student
building: learning, and ensure that topics are interconnected and
Scope and Sequence: The big-picture build on each other. Scaffold instruction to best support
organization that covers the entire learning processes. Decide how much time you will
semester. The scope consists of the need to spend on each topic.
topics, concepts and skills that will be
taught throughout the course. The Overall, you should consider including the following details
sequence is the order in which these in each unit:
will be taught. Unit name: Topic and week. (Note: if you include
Unit Plans: The groupings of specific dates, these will need to be updated each
sequential lessons (by theme, topic, semester.)
step in a process, skill, essential Unit objectives: Share with students the purpose and
question, etc.) that are components of application of the unit.
the course. Content overview: Provide descriptions, activities,
Scope and Sequence assessments, assignments, discussions, etc.
Your scope and sequence plan will Directions and expectations: Explain clear and concise
organize and order your design plan. At directions and expectations, including assignment
this point you will begin grouping or objectives and due dates.
outlining units centered around topics,
skills, themes, objectives, or essential
questions. First, identify the following
components:

12 SCIENCE UNIT PLANNING

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 In a nutshell, lab-grown meat — or cultivated or cell-based meat — is
Argue with meat that is developed from animal cells and grown, with the help of
nutrients like amino acids, in massive bioreactors.
me? Based on the problem presented, explain your perspectives if you
are in favor or not about it. (Claims). Cite your facts/resources that
supported the perspectives that you are agree upon. (Evidences)

12
SCIENCE UNIT PLANNING
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63
 Science
LESSON PLANNING
Objective:
Analyze the meaning and significance of
lesson planning in teaching-learning
instruction and;
MODULE Construct a Lesson plan exemplars in
selected science topic.

A lesson plan is essential as a richer learning environment.

Resources: Any equipment Allow the teacher to map
cornerstone of successful you will need to use during goals and assess the
teaching practice. Walking into class to support student achievement of outcomes.
a room full of young people learning. Also, think about
expecting them to engage and how you will set up space.
respond to you with nothing REFERENCES:
Assessment: How will you
prepared is a recipe for disaster. measure student
▪ Kotecha, Arti. (2021) Lesson
Planning. Chicago: ClickView.
You will reach that level through achievement of learning Retrieved from:
trial and error, where a couple outcomes? How do you https://www.clickvieweducation.co
of quick notes in your day- facilitate student feedback m/blog/lesson-
planner will be all the planning/importance
preparation you need. However,
and reflection?
▪ The 7E's of Lesson Planning.
(2017, March 8). DepEd Tambayan
when you begin teaching, lesson
planning is an essential skill for WHY DO WE PLAN PH. Retrieved from:
https://deped31.rssing.com/chan-
you to develop. LESSONS? 63327918/article530-live.html
As professionals, teachers are
responsible for educating
students to achieve the highest
WHAT IS A LESSON possible learning outcomes.
Strategic lesson planning plays a
Enable teachers to critically
PLAN? significant role in reaching
reflect on and improve their
A lesson plan is an outline for teaching practice.
those outcomes.
each daily lesson over a unit of An effective lesson plan should: THE IMPORTANCE OF
work detailing:
Learning outcomes: These
Engage students, challenge LESSON PLANNING
them to think about and 1. Different strategies for
are the objectives of the question ideas, and promote effective planning include:
lesson. Map out what the independence while taking Developing an introduction:
students will learn in the This can involve asking
ownership over standard questions to gauge
lesson. mastery.
Teaching practice: The
background knowledge,
Provide the appropriate addressing commonly held
classroom instruction and amount of rigor to produce ideas and misconceptions,
activities that will guide academic growth while and starting with an activity
student learning. Think that will spark interest.
limiting frustration. Planning learning activities:
about how to introduce the Meet the diverse learning Think about presenting
lesson, the sequence of needs of students through information in various ways
activities to scaffold differentiation and increased to appeal to your students.
learning, and how the choice. Also, consider the timing of
conclusion will tie the class activities, transitions, and
Integrate technology for how you can check for
together. more interaction and a understanding.

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 Assessment of learning: Preparing If you aren’t confident in your teaching skills, your students
questions that will guide students will recognize that, lose motivation, and be more likely to
towards achieving the lesson act out.
objectives is essential. You may also For better classroom management, take these proactive
pre-empt questions they might have steps when lesson planning:
and have responses ready. Finally, Provide clear structure and direction in a lesson
how does your activity allow the Make expectations explicit
students to demonstrate what they
Outline achievable learning goals
have learned?
Concluding the lesson: Bring the Set time frames for activities and transitions
focus back to the main objectives of Keep students engaged and on-task
the lesson. Summarize key points and Allow flexibility during class
then provide a brief overview of Finally, be there to offer assistance and positive
future learning to increase relevance reinforcement to your students to foster a productive
and create context. learning environment throughout the lesson.
Teaching timeline: When you have 4. Understand content
decided upon the length of a unit, Have a solid understanding of the content you’re planning
consider how much time each section to teach. The more knowledge you have concerning the
will require. You may need to re- content, the more successful you’ll be in planning the best
evaluate how many objectives you can way to deliver that content. Your student’s ability to grasp
meet based on your students’ needs. and respond to content will reflect your knowledge.
Prioritizing lesson objectives allow Thinking about the content of your lessons will allow you
you to be more flexible in the to:
classroom.
Address any gaps in your own knowledge before class
Following this strategy can simplify the
planning process and give your students Highlight difficult areas of the topic and present it in a
the security of a dependable structure manner that improves comprehension
which can help to reduce student anxiety. Develop activities that better match your students’
2. Understand your learners abilities
Here’s how to prioritize the needs of your Provide better examples to illustrate underlying
students as you plan: principles linked to background knowledge
Identify areas of challenging content Create stronger connections by linking past content to
you can break into smaller bite-size future learning
chunks. Provide practical contexts and real-world examples to
Use scaffolding to offer support while increase the relevance to students’ everyday lives.
slowly leading them to independence. It’s easier for students to internalize learning when it goes
Facilitate independent learning beyond test-taking and applies to their everyday life. When
through group work and student- you provide an environment that encourages and fosters
driven class discussions. your students’ insight, you not only help them grow
Inspire students to take ownership
academically but also support their emotional well-being.
over their learning to increase
responsibility and accountability. 5. Understand pedagogy
Employ a variety of assessment items Knowing what to teach is only half the challenge.
throughout the learning process to Understanding the pedagogy behind other teaching
adjust instruction where necessary to methods helps you to deliver better lessons. You are
meet the individual needs of students actively improving your teaching ability as you try out
and assess overall growth. different ideas in the classroom and judge what is working
Be open to student feedback on the for you and what needs tweaking.
learning process. Five critical elements of effective pedagogy as follows:
Providing students with the tools they 1. Joint Productive Activity: teachers work alongside
need to succeed and facilitating their students to solve problems.
learning drives an engaging, action- 2. Developing Language and Literacy Skills Across the
driven learning environment. Curriculum: facilitating students’ understanding and
3. Better classroom management use of language and literacy skills concerning content
When your lessons are well thought out vocabulary.
and strategically planned, you’ll have
3. Contextualization/Making Meaning: relating new
more confidence in your teaching, and
your students will have more confidence information to familiar concepts they have constructed
in you! during their lives and bringing the “real world” into

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 classroom experiences.
Cognitive Challenge: Building on
TYPES OF LESSON PLAN
students’ background knowledge and There are 3 types of lesson plan you can use, and the
one you choose depends on how prepared you like to be
having high expectations of what they and what specific criteria you are looking for your lesson to
can achieve. follow.
Instructional Conversation: Paying Detailed Lesson Plan
A detailed plan covers everything and gets teachers fully
attention to classroom dialogue to prepared for the lesson ahead. It covers what to teach and
support better responses to all the activities students will complete that lesson.
questions, student communication Semi-Detailed Lesson Plan
abilities, and inclusion. Semi-detailed plans are less intricate than detailed, but
they still focus on what you want to cover for that subject
Copying notes from the whiteboard on that day. They act as a general game plan for what will go
period after period will not garner the on in the lesson.
best responses from students who have Understanding by Design (UbD)
grown up in a digital age with an Understanding by design is more of a framework. This
"backward design" looks at outcomes first to design
incredible array of communication curriculum units and is focused on improving student
technologies. You have to think about achievement using it.
how you can challenge students to use What are the parts of Understanding by Design?
what they already know with what they Stage 1: Desired Results
1. Establish goals
are learning to deepen their knowledge 2. Understandings
and develop critical thinking skills. 3. Essential questions
6. Reflect on and improve 4. "Students will know"
5. "Students will be able to"
We know that teaching is a challenging Stage 2: Assessment Evidence
career choice. It can also be a rewarding 1. Performance tasks
career, and when you pull off a successful 2. Other evidence
lesson, it’s a great feeling. Stage 3: Learning Plan
The learning plan composes both the learning activities
The key things to remember are: and WHERETO elements which include:
When a lesson elicits a great response Where are we going? What's expected of this lesson?
from students, analyze what How will we hook students in?
strategies you used so you can Equip students for expected performances
Rethink/revise - what are likely or predictable
replicate that success in future misunderstandings going to be in this unit?
lessons. Evaluation - how will children self-evaluate and reflect
Understand that things will not on their learning?
always go according to plan—don’t Tailor learning to varied needs, interests and learning
styles
beat yourself up too much. Organize sequence learning
Try out one-or-two ideas at a time, so
you’re not overwhelming yourself or 7E'S LESSON PLAN IN SCIENCE
your students. 7E stands for Elicit, Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate,
Talk things through with your mentor Extend and Evaluate.
and colleagues to gain perspective. Elicit
Be responsive to feedback because In most cases you will start with the “Elicit”. Here you
there’s often room for growth. can find out what the students know by eliciting responses
Take breaks and mental health days from them. This can be done in a variety of ways, such as
when you need to recharge. “Quick Quizes, MCQs, Post-it notes, mini whiteboards, KWL,
traffic lights etc. This is also a good opportunity to deal with
students misunderstandings.

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 Engage They are able to apply ideas/generalize and transfer
The next stage is the “Engage” stage. principles.
Evaluate
This can come before or after the elicit While it is expected that evaluation will continue
stage. In this stage you want to engage throughout the process, the evaluate section is the section
interest and curiosity, raise “The BIG where you the teacher evaluate the learning that has
questions” and provide the “HOOK” for occurred. This should also include self-reflection and
evaluation from the student. I personally link back to the
why the students want to learn. learning outcomes to assess the progress that has been
Explore made.
During the “Explore” stage, pupils
should be given opportunities to work
together, independent of you, their
teacher to explore. As the teacher, you
should set up the task, but then become
the facilitator, helping students by asking
questions and observing. (In Scientific
enquiry using Piaget's theory, this is a
time for disequilibrium. This is an
opportunity for students to test their
predictions, problem solve, research,
ultimately find out themselves.)
Explain
Following the explore stage I would
next go onto the “Explain” stage of the
lesson. During this stage I would use what
students had discovered in the explore
stage to help them build a concept. I
would try to encourage the students to
explain concepts and definitions in their
own words, ask for justification and
clarification before providing them with
new labels, definitions and theory.
Elaborate
The next stage is the stage that will be
KEY in assessing their progress,
knowledge and understanding. Students
may work independently during this
stage to demonstrate learning. This is
where students formalize and apply their
learning.
Extend
In some cases you may require an
additional “Extend” stage. In this stage
you are encouraging the students to
apply or extend the concepts and skills in
new situations. Students make
connection not just in the subject/ideas
studied but also beyond it.

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 Make three lesson plan using the template presented. You may used
Practice makes the MELC's in Science for your desired lesson.
perfect! Note: This output will be your initial layout to create your desired 7E's
Lesson Plan in Science.

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68
 Science
ASSESSMENTS
Objectives:
Plan and execute the assessment in science
as an integrated part of student teaching-
learning process;
MODULE Understand the need of different types of
assessment strategies in sciences and;
Develop a rubric from the list of variables.

When we talk about be part of learning activities and not thinking critically, you
assessment, we talk about it with will find that students are only
such as group projects or memorizing material instead of
a purpose. As a science teacher,
presentations. spending time contemplating
you should be agreeing that
While assessments may take the meaning of the subject
purpose of assessment in
many forms, they also are used
science is to facilitate the REFERENCES:
for a variety of purposes. They
learners in developing scientific
may
▪Sharma, M.C. Singh, Vandana. (2017).
attitude and acquiring process Assessment in Science. Retrieved from:
skills. A science teacher has to Guide instruction https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/
Determine if reteaching, 123456789/46674/1/Unit-9.pdf
plan and execute the assessment
as an integrated part of his/her remediating or enriching is
▪ Designing Assessments. (2023).
University at Buffalo. Retrieved from:
teaching-learning process. The needed https://www.buffalo.edu/catt/develop/de
unit will discuss various tools Identify strengths and sign/designing-assessments.html
and techniques, which are being weaknesses ▪ Building Assessments (2023).
University at Buffalo. Retrieved from:
used for assessment in science Determine gaps in content https://www.buffalo.edu/catt/develop/b
at secondary level. knowledge or understanding uild/building-assessments.html
Confirm students’ ▪ Rubrics. (2023). University at Buffalo.
Retrieved from:
understanding of content https://www.buffalo.edu/catt/develop/de
Promote self-regulating sign/designing-assessments/rubrics.html
strategies
ASSESSMENT Determine if learning
matter, regardless of whether
INDICATORS IN outcomes have been
you attempt to motivate them to
SCIENCE achieved
think about the subject.
Overall, your choice of
While teaching science, our Collect data to record and
assessment will tell students
focus remains on the analyze
what you value in your
development of science process Evaluate course and
course. Assessment focuses
skills. When we plan assessment, teaching effectiveness
students on what they need
we have to identify criteria on While all aspects of course
to achieve to succeed in the
which any skill is to be assessed. design are important, your
class, and if you want
The criterion, on which choice of assessment Influences
students to achieve the
development of any skill is being what your students will
learning outcomes you have
assessed, is known as primarily focus on.
created, then your
For example, if you assign
assessment indicators. assessments need to align
students to watch videos but do
The Importance of Assessment with them.
not assess understanding or
Assessments in education The Assessment Cycle
knowledge of the videos, Assessment does not occur
measure student achievement.
students may be more likely to only at the end of units or
These may take the form
skip the task. If your exams only courses. To adjust teaching and
traditional assessments such as learning, assessment should
focus on memorizing content
exams, or quizzes, but may also occur regularly throughout the
course.

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69
 The following diagram is an example of Additionally, activities like research papers or
how assessment might occur at several presentations graded on a rubric contain both the learning
levels. activity as well as the assessment. If students complete
This cycle might occur: sections or drafts of the paper and receive grades or
During a single lesson when students feedback along the way, this activity also serves as a
tell an instructor that they are having formative assessment for learning while serving as a
difficulty with a topic. summative assessment upon completion.
At the unit level where a quiz or exam
might inform whether additional
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
material needs to be included in the Diagnostic Assessments
next unit. Assessments used before instruction are called
At the course level where a final exam diagnostic assessments. Students begin your course with
might indicate which units will need prior knowledge, using past experiences to actively make
more instructional time the next time meaning of new experiences in your course (see
the course is taught. Constructivism). Assumptions about what students already
In many of the above instances learning know, or “should” know are built into course design and
outcomes may not change, but may be incorrect. Therefore, determining what students
assessment results will instead directly know, before teaching a topic, can help improve teaching in
influence further instruction. For two ways:
example, during a lecture a quick Effectiveness: Understanding students' prior knowledge
formative assessment such as a poll may allows you to begin teaching students at an appropriate
make it clear that instruction was starting point as well as providing instruction and
unclear, and further examples are scaffolding within students’ Zone of Proximal
needed. Development.
Misconceptions: If students have misconceptions about
ASSESSMENT a topic, these will prevent students from building
CONSIDERATIONS correct understandings of new content. Therefore, it is
There are several types of assessment best to determine common misconceptions and their
to consider in your course which fit prevalence before teaching a topic, ensuring that
within the assessment cycle. The two incorrect prior knowledge is addressed.
main assessments used during a course Formative Assessment
are formative and summative assessment.
It is easier to understand each by Assessment is formative when:
comparing them. Evidence is gathered about student achievement or
An often-used quote that helps understanding.
illustrate the difference between these The information allows the instructor or learner to alter
purposes is: future instructional steps.
“When the cook tastes the soup, that’s It is done to improve learning outcomes (Black &
formative. When the guests taste the soup, Wiliam, 2009).
that’s summative.” Robert E. Stake It is the use of the assessment that makes it formative. If
It is important to note, however, that evidence of student achievement is not used to adapt
assessments may often serve both instruction or to give feedback to students to improve their
purposes. For example, a low-stakes quiz learning, it is summative. Formative assessments are a
may be used to inform students of their natural part of the scaffolding process, and provide the
current progress, and an instructor may following benefits:
alter instruction to spend more time on a
topic if student scores warrant it.

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 Instructor Benefits Summative Assessment
Helps recognize student strengths Summative assessments gauge student achievement
and knowledge or skill gaps to after the completion of learning activities. While many of
determine level of scaffolding needed. these are common such as exams, projects and essays,
Used to adapt instruction and reflect there are a larger variety of ways to measure student
on instructional practices. learning. For example, activities like research presentations
Allows for opportunities to give contain both the learning activity as well as the assessment.
feedback and guide learning. Regardless, summative assessments occur after the
Student Benefits completion of learning activities, they assess student
Determines level of understanding or achievement, and they ultimately reflect the impact of
skill development. course activities.
Identifies areas to review and study. Direct and Indirect Methods
Promotes self-regulating strategies. Direct methods allow students to demonstrate what
Allows for opportunities to receive they know and can do; indirect methods help us to infer
feedback and guidance. what students know and can do. Try to use direct methods
Therefore, use formative assessments to: over indirect methods.
Check for understanding. Direct methods
Gauge progress toward learning Objective tests
outcomes. Written assignments
Provide students with support and Performance of authentic tasks
guidance. Portfolios
Pace instruction and adjust as needed. Indirect methods
Examples of Formative Assessment Student surveys
The following examples of assessment Course evaluations
can be used formatively to assess student Grades
achievement and alter teaching and
learning throughout your course. Types of Summative Assessment
Homework There are many types of summative assessment. The
Graphic organizers following are some ideas for ways to assess learning
Exit slips outcomes.
Journal entries Teacher-designed Quizzes and Tests
Summaries Multiple Choice
Observations True/False
Reflections Short Answer
Performance tasks Matching
Minute papers Fill-in-the-blank
Worksheets Short essay/response
Peer assessments Journals
Group assignments Quote of the day response
Diagrams Personal experience reflection
Discussions Literary responses
Rubrics Event descriptions/analysis
Comprehension questions Connection making between subjects or topics
Concept maps Self and Peer Evaluations
Video responses Project evaluation (self and others)
Checklists Unit evaluation
Oral responses Daily reflection

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 Writing Learning logs
Research Paper Lists/notes from outside readings
I-search Paper Reflective lesson logs
Autobiography Homework assignments
Media Review Questions/response from lecture
Movie/PSA script Problem-solving entries
Pamphlet/brochure Science observations
Historical fiction Media Creations for Audiences
Fact sheet PowerPoint/slide show
Current article Music CD compilation
Outline Collage
Flowchart Drawing/painting
eZine YouTube Channel
Children’s story Class blog
Literary analysis Podcast
Biography Tumblr site
Modern day myth Map
Compare/contrast Video/PSA
How-to-book Photo album
Local tour/history Oral history
Poem Website page
Letter to… Sculpture
Narrative Scrapbook
Proposal Class Facebook page
Issue brief Graphic design
Editorial/Op-ed Technical creations for Audiences
Creative story Spreadsheet
Call to action Computer program
Song lyrics Consumer product
Written speech Scientific instrument
Timeline summaries Machine
Graphic novel Blueprint
Comic strip storybook Kinesthetic
Historical analysis Dance routine
Personal essay Exercise/aerobic routine
Case study TV commercial
Survey/inquiry results Community tour
Group essay Presentations for Audiences
Resume Speech/oral report • Exhibition of Products
Journal/logs Play/dramatization • Debate
Letter to future generation Newscast • Information Workshop
ePortfolios Tribunal • Experiment
ePortfolios are purposeful collections of Panel discussion • Museum walk/exhibit
student work that can be used to showcase Data display • Diorama
their efforts and ideas, and act as archives Clay model • Poetry Open Mic
of learning, discovery, progress, Musical piece • Host a Conference
achievement and self-reflection.

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 TYPES OF RUBRICS
RUBRICS The following are different types of rubrics you may
Rubrics can be used to help guide students consider using depending on the type of assignment or
in beginning their assignments, as feedback situation.
during work, and to assess their final product ANALYTIC
more clearly and objectively. Used to quantitatively evaluate knowledge, attributes
The Importance of Rubrics or skills while providing detailed feedback about
A rubric is an assessment tool that includes: strengths and weaknesses. Includes explicit descriptions
Criteria: The categories or characteristics of criteria required to meet the level of quality present for
that you value in the task or assignment. each dimension.
Performance levels: A detailed HOLISTIC
description of the levels of quality for each Used when assessing a performance or attribute as well
criterion. as for grading assignments quickly. Holistic rubrics don’t
When grading an assignment, the rater necessarily provide in depth feedback to students.
goes through each criterion and determines CHECKLIST
which performance level was achieved. These Used to identify whether criteria are present. For
scores are then added together to create an example, a student receives a point value of 1 for each
overall performance evaluation. Written component that is presented and a 0 for each one that is
feedback can also be given to the student to missing. A total score is then calculated. You can also allot
explain why the assignment fell within the more than one point or partial credit for each
indicated performance level. component.
Rubrics have several benefits for RATING SCALE RUBRIC
instructors and students: A rubric similar to a checklist except it identifies the
Benefits for Instructors level of quality to which an activities dimensions are met
Improves fairness and objectivity in or not met. Does not describe the criteria required to
grading. meet each level of quality.
Higher Order Thinking Skills
Adds guidance for grading complex
It is often difficult to create concrete measurable
assignments.
criteria to assess higher order thinking skills.
Offers clearer feedback to students
Intellectual and Practical Skills
Creates consistency across assignments
Inquiry and analysis
and increases interrater reliability. Critical thinking
Can be used repeatedly. Creative thinking
Can easily be adjusted and adapted. Written communication
Benefits for Students Oral communication
Sets clear expectations for assignments. Reading
Guides students to reach learning Quantitative literacy
outcomes. Information literacy
Offers the opportunity for peer and self- Teamwork
evaluation, supporting self-reflection. Problem solving
Provides students with effective feedback. Personal Social Responsibility
While rubrics require an investment to Civic engagement – local and global
create and calibrate, the long-term savings in Intercultural knowledge and competence
time and the improved quality of feedback Ethical reasoning
and objectivity in grading makes them a Foundations and skills for lifelong learning
valuable resource to include in your course. Global learning
Integrative and Applied Learning
Integrative learning

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 APPLYING RUBRICS
Rubrics are useful when determining if a
grade is subjective or assignments are open-
ended. Rubric use is especially beneficial when:
Assignments do not have a single correct
answer, such as essays, projects or videos.
Consistency between raters is required,
such as multiple graders or grading over
time.
Transparency and fairness are paramount,
such as practice interviews with students.
Feedback is provided on a large scale, such
as grading presentations or projects.
Reflectiveness of the assessment is
important, such as when scores impact
student future performances.
One impactful way to apply rubrics is to
guide students. Consider using a rubric as
follows:
1. Share the rubric before the assignment
begins and have a discussion with students
about its categories and criteria. Answer
any additional questions that may arise.
2. Review an assignment example or exemplar
with the class and think aloud while using
the rubric as an evaluation tool. Ask
students to help grade the example in each
category and justify their responses with
evidence. Support students through this
process through modeling, scaffolding and
feedback.
3. After students are comfortable using the
rubric, have them give peer feedback while
also practicing independent critical
thinking skills. Both peer and instructor
feedback can be used formatively to
improve the assignment.
4. Use the rubric as a summative assessment
tool to evaluate student work and provide
transparency in grading and feedback. This
can help students understand the rationale
for their assignment’s assessment and
grade.

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 Differentiate the 4 type of Rubrics according to their Pros and Cons.
Which is which? Include resources to your answer.

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 Science
ACTION RESEARCH
Objectives:
Submit an action-plan containing mitigation measure to
address current environmental concerns and challenges
in science education and;
MODULE Present action research that the community may
implement to solve current environmental concerns and
challenges in science education.

As an educator, you may have cycle is a fundamental aspect of

sake but rather using that data this methodology. The cycle
heard the term “Action to drive meaningful change. By typically includes four main
Research” being thrown around working collaboratively with stages: planning, acting,
in academic circles. But what community members or other observing, and reflecting.
exactly is it? Is it just another stakeholders, researchers can
research method, or is there REFERENCES:
identify areas where change is
something more to it? Action needed and develop strategies
▪ Arteaga, G. (2023, March 18)
Research is much more than just What is Action Research? | A
to address those issues. Comprehensive Guide for
a method – it’s a way of thinking To fully appreciate the power Researchers. Testsiteforme.
and acting that can bring about of action research theory, it’s Retrieved from: Kendra, Cherry.
real change in your community. important to understand the (2022). What Are Heuristics?
We will delve into the world of Verywell. Dotdash Media, Inc.
definition of action research Retrieved from:
Action Research and explore its
itself. Essentially, this approach https://www.verywellmind.com/wh
definition, key concepts, steps
involves an iterative process of at-is-a-heuristic-2795235
involved, and its types.
planning, acting, observing and
reflecting which allows for
ongoing improvement over
time. By engaging in this cycle
repeatedly – each time refining
Stage 1: In the planning
ACTION RESEARCH their approach based on what
stage, researchers identify a
they’ve learned – researchers
Action research is a powerful problem or issue they wish
can achieve remarkable results.
tool for researchers seeking to to address through their
In short: if you’re looking for
make a difference in their study. They then develop a
an approach that enables you to
communities. At its core, action plan for how they will gather
make real-world impact through
research is about using critical data on this issue and what
rigorous inquiry into complex
reflection and collaboration to actions they will take based
problems then look no further
bring about positive change. By on their findings. This might
than Action Research.
engaging with the cycle of involve conducting surveys
action, researchers can gain a STEPS INVOLVED IN or interviews with
deeper understanding of CONDUCTING stakeholders in the
complex issues and work ACTION RESEARCH community or group
towards more effective affected by the problem.
solutions. The process of action Stage 2: After developing
One key aspect of research involves several key their plan, researchers move
understanding action research steps that researchers must into the acting phase where
is its focus on critical action. follow to ensure an effective and they begin implementing
This means that researchers are successful study. While there changes based on their
not just collecting data for its are different aspects of action findings. This could involve
own research, the action research testing out new teaching

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 methods in a classroom setting or
TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH
introducing new policies at a healthcare COMPARISON
facility.
Stage 3: Next comes the observation Type of Action
phase where researchers carefully Characteristics Applications
Research
monitor how these changes are impacting
those involved in the study. They may
collect data through ongoing observations Community-
or surveys to track progress over time. Collaborative based
Stage 4: Finally, in the reflection stage, Participatory and democratic research and
researchers analyze their data and reflect approach social justice
on what worked well during their study initiatives
and what areas need improvement for
future studies. By following this
participatory action research model Partnership- Organizational
throughout each step of the process, focused and or institutional
researchers can gain valuable insights into Collaborative change
interdisciplinary
complex problems facing communities initiatives
approach
today while also fostering collaboration
among stakeholders.
TYPES OF ACTION Addressing
RESEARCH Partnership- power
Each type of action research offers unique focused and imbalances
benefits and challenges, so it’s important to Emancipatory
interdisciplinary and social
understand the differences between them
before selecting a research method. approach inequalities
Participatory action research (PAR), which in research
emphasizes collaboration between researchers
and community members. The Role of the Researcher in Action Research
Classroom-based inquiry (CBI), which Being an action researcher is a unique role that
involves teachers conducting systematic
inquiries into their own teaching practices to requires specific skills and approaches. The idea of
improve student learning outcomes. action research is centered around the belief that
Developmental/action science, which aims researchers can create meaningful change by
to develop new forms of knowledge through engaging in collaborative problem-solving with
the cycle of inquiry. stakeholders. Action researchers are not just passive
It’s essential for researchers to consider observers, but active participants who work alongside
their theoretical perspective when choosing a others to identify problems, generate solutions, and
form of action research. For instance, critical implement changes.
theory can inform PAR by emphasizing social
justice issues in the community being The nature of action research means that it is often
researched. Meanwhile, pragmatic or positivist conducted in real-world settings rather than
theories may lend themselves more easily to laboratory environments. This has several
CBI. implications for the role of the action researcher:
No matter what type you choose or 1. Firstly, they must be flexible and adaptable to
theoretical perspective you take on, all forms changing circumstances as they work within
share some common characteristics: they complex systems where there are multiple
involve cycles of reflection and data collection;
they prioritize collaboration between variables at play.
researcher(s) and stakeholders; they seek 2. Secondly, they need to be skilled in building
practical solutions for real-world problems; relationships and communicating effectively with
and they aim for transformative change within diverse groups of people such as teachers,
the community being studied. healthcare professionals or community members.

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 Action researchers also have some unique
COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE
responsibilities when it comes to data AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
collection and analysis during their projects.
They must ensure that data collected METHODS
throughout their project accurately reflects
both quantitative measurements (such as
survey responses) as well as qualitative Data
observations (such as field notes). Once Research Data Analysis
Collection
collected, this data should then be analyzed Method Techniques
using appropriate statistical methods or other Techniques
analytical tools before being presented back to
stakeholders for review.
Content
Data Collection and Analysis in Action Interviews, analysis,
Research
When conducting an action research project, Focus groups, Thematic
Qualitative
data collection and analysis are crucial steps Surveys, analysis,
that require careful attention. The goal is to Observations Discourse
gather relevant information that can help analysis
inform decisions and improve the situation
under study. There are different methods of
collecting data in action research studies,
including surveys, interviews, observations, and Content Statistical
focus groups. Once data is collected, it must be analysis, analysis,
analyzed to identify patterns or trends. Thematic Regression
One popular model for analyzing data in Quantitative
action research is the Plan-Do-Study-Act analysis, analysis, Factor
(PDSA) cycle. This model involves four stages: Discourse analysis
1. planning what will be done; analysis
2. doing it;
3. studying the results;
4. and acting on what has been learned. The Importance of Collaboration and Community
The PDSA cycle allows researchers to make Engagement in Action Research
adjustments as they go along based on their Collaboration and community engagement are crucial
findings. components of any successful action research project. In
fact, some researchers argue that collaborative action
research is the only true form of action research.
Participatory action, social action, participant
observation, and critical reflection are all methods that
involve working closely with members of the community
to identify problems and develop solutions.
One example is a teacher working collaboratively with
students and parents to improve student learning
outcomes. This may involve gathering data on student
performance through assessments or surveys, analyzing
that data together as a group, identifying areas for
improvement, and then designing interventions or
activities based on those findings.
By engaging with communities directly affected by an
issue under investigation through collaboration efforts
like these two examples above , researchers gain
important insights into not just what needs fixing but
also how best to fix it using social actions like
implementing policies at government level or organizing
grassroots movements among others . Additionally,
community engagement builds trust between
researchers and participants and ensures that the results
produced by the study are relevant both academically as
well as practically.

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 Science
RELEVANT THEORIES
Objective:
Explain how Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development affects the student learning
development;
MODULE

Piaget was born in Switzerland progresses to changes in mental

Piaget believed that children operations. These observations
in the late 1800s and was a take an active role in the reinforced his budding
precocious student, publishing hypothesis that children's minds
learning process, acting much were not merely smaller
his first scientific paper when he
like little scientists as they versions of adult minds.
was just 11 years old. His early
perform experiments, make
exposure to the intellectual REFERENCES:
observations, and learn about
development of children came
the world. As kids interact with
▪Kendra, Cherry. (2022, March
when he worked as an assistant 16). Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive
to Alfred Binet and Theodore the world around them, they Development Explained. Verywell.
Simon as they worked to continually add new knowledge, Dotdash Media, Inc. Retrieved
standardize their famous IQ test. build upon existing knowledge, from:https://www.verywellmind.co
and adapt previously held ideas m/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-
Much of Piaget's interest in the
development-2795457
cognitive development of to accommodate new
children was inspired by his information.
observations of his own nephew
and daughter.
HISTORY OF PIAGET'S
THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Piaget proposed that
intelligence grows and develops
THEORYOFCOGNITIVE through a series of stages. Older
THE SENSORIMOTOR
DEVELOPMENT children do not just think more
Jean Piaget's theory of
quickly than younger children.
Instead, there are both
STAGE
cognitive development suggests qualitative and quantitative The sensorimotor stage is the
that children move through four differences between the earliest in Piaget's theory of
cognitive development. He
different stages of learning. His thinking of young children described this period as a time
theory focuses not only on versus older children. of tremendous growth and
understanding how children Based on his observations, he change.
acquire knowledge, but also on concluded that children were Piaget's theory suggests that
not less intelligent than adults— children progress through a
understanding the nature of they simply think differently. series of four different stages of
intelligence. Albert Einstein called Piaget's cognitive development. These
Piaget's stages are: discovery "so simple only a stages encompass numerous
Sensorimotor stage: Birth to genius could have thought of it." aspects of mental development
2 years Piaget's stage theory describes including that reasoning,
the cognitive development of language, morals, and memory.
Preoperational stage: Ages 2 Piaget believed that kids take an
to 7 children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive active role in this cognitive
Concrete operational stage: development, building
process and abilities.2 In knowledge as they interact with
Ages 7 to 11 Piaget's view, early cognitive
Formal operational stage: the world. This stage occurs in
development involves processes the period of development from
Ages 12 and up based upon actions and later birth through age two.

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 During this initial phase of development, toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
children utilize skills and abilities they were Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)
born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, During this substage, the child starts to show
and listening) to learn more about the clearly intentional actions. The child may also
environment. combine schemas in order to achieve the desired
In other words, infants and young children effect. Children begin exploring the environment
experience the world and gain knowledge around them and will often imitate the observed
through their senses and motor movements. behavior of others. The understanding of objects
Through trial and error, children discover also begins during this time and children begin to
more about the world around them. recognize certain objects as having specific
Piaget chose to call this stage the qualities. For example, a child might realize that a
'sensorimotor' stage because it is through the rattle will make a sound when shaken.
senses and motor abilities that infants gain a Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
basic understanding of the world around Children begin a period of trial-and-error
them. experimentation during the fifth substage. For
The abilities that an infant is born with— example, a child may try out different sounds or
sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch— actions as a way of getting attention from a
combined with physical capabilities that
caregiver.
continue to develop—including touching,
Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)
grasping, and tasting—allow infants to
Children begin to develop symbols to represent
interact and build awareness of themselves
events or objects in the world in the final
and what is around them. As children interact
sensorimotor substage. During this time, children
with their environments, they go through an
begin to move towards understanding the world
astonishing amount of cognitive growth in a
through mental operations rather than purely
relatively short period of time—the
through actions.
sensorimotor stage lasts from birth to
approximately age 2.
Object Permanence in the Sensorimotor Stage
Stages of the Sensorimotor Stage
According to Piaget, developing object
The sensorimotor stage can be divided into
six separate sub-stages that are characterized
permanence is one of the most important
by the development of a new skill. accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of
Reflexes (0-1 month) development.
During this substage, the child understands Object permanence is a child's understanding
the environment purely through inborn that objects continue to exist even though they
reflexes such as sucking and looking. cannot be seen or heard.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A
This substage involves coordinating very young infant will believe that the other
sensation and new schemas. For example, a person or object has actually vanished and will act
child may suck his or her thumb by accident shocked or startled when the object reappears.
and then later intentionally repeat the action. Older infants who understand object permanence
These actions are repeated because the infant will realize that the person or object continues to
finds them pleasurable. exist even when unseen.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) This is a classic example of how, during this
During this substage, the child becomes stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is
more focused on the world and begins to limited to his or her sensory perceptions and
intentionally repeat an action in order to motor activities and how behaviors are limited to
trigger a response in the environment. For simple motor responses caused by sensory
example, a child will purposefully pick up a stimuli.

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THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE Conservation in the Preoperational Stage
Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating
The preoperational stage is the second
stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive a child's understanding of conservation. In one
development. This stage begins around age 2, conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are
as children start to talk, and lasts until poured into two identical containers.
approximately age 7.
During this stage, children begin to engage The liquid in one container is then poured into a
in symbolic play and learn to manipulate differently shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup or a
symbols. However, Piaget noted that they do
not yet understand concrete logic. short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup
Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid
The preoperational stage occurs roughly amounts were equal, children almost always choose the
between the ages 2 and 7. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of this cup that appears fuller.
period. Piaget conducted several similar experiments on the
During the preoperational stage, children conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and
also become increasingly adept at using
symbols, as evidenced by the increase in quantity. He found that few children showed any
playing and pretending.1 For example, a child understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
is able to use an object to represent Criticisms and Modern Views
something else, such as pretending a broom
is a horse. While influential, Piaget's theories are not without
Role-playing also becomes important at this criticisms. Some of these center on:
age. Children often play the roles of The ages at which skills emerge: Other researchers
"mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many other
characters. have also found that kids can overcome egocentrism as
Timeline of the Preoperational Stage early as age four, which is earlier than Piaget believed.2
Two substages occur during the
preoperational period of development. The focus on inability vs. ability: As you might have
Symbolic function (ages 2 to 4): Children noticed, much of Piaget's focus at this stage of
develop mental representations of objects development focused on what children could not yet
in the world around them during this
substage. This includes representations of do.
objects that are not currently present. The concepts of egocentrism and conservation are
Perceptions play an essential part in a centered on abilities that children have not yet developed;
child's ability to solve problems during
this developmental period. they lack the understanding that things look different to
Intuitive thought (ages 4 to 7): Children other people and that objects can change in appearance
begin to rely more on logic than just while maintaining the same properties.
perception alone in this substage. Their
ability to solve problems is more logical, When to Be Concerned
but they may not be capable of explaining Several important cognitive milestones emerge during
how they think or why they think that the preoperational stage of development. Some of these
way.
Egocentrism in the Preoperational Stage include:
Piaget used several creative and clever Age 2 to 3: Kids begin to engage in pretend play, can
techniques to study the mental abilities of
children. One of the famous techniques to follow simple directions, and can sort objects into
demonstrate egocentrism is known as the different categories.
"Three Mountain Task." In this task: Age 3 to 4: Kids develop more refined schemas, or
1. Children are shown a three-dimensional
display of a mountain scene. categories of information, that they use to sort and
2. Kids are asked to choose a picture understand objects. They also understand past vs.
showing the scene they observed. Most present, have a longer attention span, group similar
children are able to do this with little
difficulty. objects, and seek answers to their questions about the
3. Next, children are asked to select a world.
picture showing what someone else Age 4 to 5: Children's cognitive skills become more
would have observed when looking at the
mountain from a different viewpoint. refined and they are better able to imitate the actions
Developmental psychologists refer to the of adults.
ability to understand that other people have Age 6 to 7: Kids develop a better understanding of time
different perspectives, thoughts, feelings, and
mental states as theory of mind. and more advanced language skills.

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 THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL Formal Operational Stage Skills
Important skills that emerge during the formal
STAGE operational stage include the following:
The formal operational stage is the fourth Deductive Logic
and final stage of Jean Piaget's theory of
cognitive development. It begins at Piaget believed that deductive reasoning becomes
approximately age 12 and lasts into necessary during the formal operational stage. Deductive
adulthood. logic requires the ability to use a general principle to
In the formal operational stage, children's
thinking becomes much more sophisticated determine a particular outcome. Science and mathematics
and advanced. Kids can think about abstract often require this type of thinking about hypothetical
and theoretical concepts and use logic to
come up with creative solutions to problems. situations and concepts.
Skills such as logical thought, deductive Abstract Thought
reasoning, and systematic planning also While children tend to think very concretely and
emerge during this stage.
Piaget tested formal operational thought in specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about
a few different ways. Two of the better- abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational
known tests explored physical stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences,
conceptualization and the abstraction of
thought. children begin to consider possible outcomes and
Balance in the Formal Operational Stage consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important
One task involved having children of in long-term planning.
different ages balance a scale by hooking
weights on each end. To balance the scale, Problem-Solving
the children needed to understand that both In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve
the heaviness of the weights and the distance problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability
from the center played a role.
Younger children around the ages of 3 to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
and 5 were unable to complete the task methodical way emerges. Children at the formal
because they did not understand the
concept of balance. operational stage of cognitive development are often able
Seven-year-olds knew that they could to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a
adjust the scale by placing weights on problem.
each end, but failed to understand that
where they put the weights was also Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
important. Piaget believed that what he referred to as "hypothetical-
By age 10, the kids considered location as deductive reasoning" was essential at this stage of
well as weight but had to arrive at the
correct answer using trial and error. intellectual development. At this point, teens become
It wasn't until around age 13 that children capable of thinking about abstract and hypothetical ideas.
could use logic to form a hypothesis about They often ponder "what-if" type situations and questions
where to place the weights to balance the
scale and then complete the task. and can think about multiple solutions or possible
outcomes.
Abstraction in the Formal Operational Stage While kids in the previous stage (concrete operations)
In another experiment on formal operational
thought, Piaget asked children to imagine are very particular in their thoughts, kids in the formal
where they would want to place a third eye if operational stage become increasingly abstract in their
they had one.
Younger children said that they would put thinking.
the imagined third eye in the middle of their Criticisms of the Formal Operational Stage
forehead. Older children, however, were able Some researchers have noted that while Piaget's theory
to come up with a variety of creative ideas
about where to place this hypothetical eye indicates there are four stages of cognitive development,
and various ways the eye could be used. there is also evidence that indicates that not all
For example, an eye in the middle of one's adolescents reach the formal operational stage. The formal
hand would be useful for looking around
corners. An eye at the back of one's head operational stage hinges on the emergence of critical
could be helpful for seeing what is happening thinking skills. Depending on factors such as education,
in the background. parenting, and cultural influences, some children do not
Creative ideas represent the use of abstract
and hypothetical thinking, both important necessarily develop the requisite thinking skills to fully
indicators of formal operational thought. approach this stage.

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 Science
RELEVANT THEORIES
Objective:
Relate Ausubel's Learning Theory Robert Gagne’s
Theory of Learning Hierarchy to adapt to other
theories relevant in Science Teaching.
MODULE

David Paul Ausubel was an recognition of the links between

but rather that it was not concepts, it has the privilege of
American psychologist whose most efficient. In other words,
significant contribution to the
being transferred to long-term
Ausubel believed that memory.
fields of educational psychology,
cognitive science, and science understanding concepts,
education. Ausubel believed that principles, and ideas are
REFERENCES:
achieved through deductive
understanding concepts,
▪Ausubel's Learning Theory (2020)
Retrieved from: ▪ Kendra, Cherry.
principles, and ideas are achieved reasoning.
through deductive reasoning. Ausubel was influenced by (2022). What Are Heuristics?
Similarly, he believed in the idea of
the teachings of Jean Piaget. Verywell. Dotdash Media, Inc.
meaningful learning as opposed to Retrieved from:
rote memorization. The most Similar to Piaget’s ideas of
conceptual schemes, Ausubel https://www.verywellmind.com/wh
important single factor influencing at-is-a-heuristic-2795235
learning is what the learner already related this to his explanation of
knows. This led Ausubel to develop how people acquire knowledge.
an interesting theory of meaningful Meaningful learning
learning and advance organizers. Ausebel’s theory also focuses
on meaningful learning.
According to his theory, to learn
meaningfully, individuals must
AUSUBEL'S relate new knowledge
relevant concepts they already
to
The most crucial element in
LEARNING THEORY know. New knowledge must
meaningful learning is how the
new information is integrated
Ausubel's believes that
interact with the learner’s into the old knowledge
learning of new knowledge structure. Accordingly, Ausubel
knowledge structure.
relies on what is already known. believes that knowledge is
Meaningful learning can be
That is, construction of hierarchically organized; that
contrasted with rote learning. new information is meaningful
knowledge begins with our
he believed in the idea of to the extent that it can be
observation and recognition of related (attached, anchored) to
meaningful learning as opposed
events and objects through what is already known.
to rote memorization. The latter
concepts we already have. We
can also incorporate new Advance Organizers
learn by constructing a network
information into the pre- Ausubel advocates the use of
of concepts and adding to them.
existing knowledge structure advance organizers as a
Ausubel also stresses the mechanism to help to link new
but without interaction. Rote
importance of reception rather learning material with existing
memory is used to recall
than discovery learning, and related ideas. Advance
sequences of objects, such as organizers are helpful in the
meaningful rather than rote
phone numbers. However, it is way that they help the process
learning. He declares that his
of no use to the learner in of learning when difficult and
theory applies only to reception complex material are
understanding the relationships
learning in school settings. He introduced. This is satisfied
between the objects. Because
didn’t say, however, that through two conditions:
meaningful learning involves a
discovery learning doesn’t work;

16 SCIENCE RELEVANT THEORIES

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83
 1. The student must process and understand the information presented in the organizer-- this increases the
effectiveness of the organizer itself.
2. The organizer must indicate the relations among the basic concepts and terms that will be used Ausubel’s
theory of advance organizers fall into two categories: comparative and expository.
Comparative Organizers
The main goal of comparative organizers is to activate existing schemas and is used as reminders to bring
into the working memory of what you may not realize is relevant. A comparative Organizer is also used both
to integrate as well as discriminate. It “integrates new ideas with basically similar concepts in cognitive
structure, as well as increase discriminability between new and existing ideas which are essentially different
but confusably similar”
Expository Organizers
“In contrast, expository organizers provide new knowledge that students will need to understand the
upcoming information”. Expository organizers are often used when the new learning material is unfamiliar to
the learner. They often relate what the learner already knows with the new and unfamiliar material—this in
turn is aimed to make the unfamiliar material more plausible to the learner. Ausubel Learning Model Ausubel
believed that learning proceeds in a top-down or deductive manner. Ausubel's theory consists of of three
phases. The main elements of ausubel teaching method are shown below in the table:

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 GAGNE LEARNING THEORY His theory defines five major categories of learning that
Robert Gagné is one of the behaviorist each require a different type of instruction in order for
theorists. He is also known as a bridge learning to occur verbal information, intellectual skills,
theorist because he took the best of both
worlds, behaviorism and cognitivism, to cognitive strategies , motor skills and attitudes
create his view of instruction and its design. (Taxonomy of Human learning capabilities )
Gagné believes that learning results in
behavior changes that are observable. He Types of
called these changes in behavior outcomes. Human Conditions Principles for
Capabilities Instructional
Outcomes, according to Gagné, are
descriptions of educational goals in terms of
what is to be accomplished through the
prescribed learning activities.  Provide
Gagné also maintains a cognitive meaningful context
of information for
perspective in which learning was recognized Retrieving stored information: the encoding
as a result of an individual's cognitive efforts Verbal internal conditions to support this  Provide
to construct his or her personal knowledge. learning include elaborations,
Informatio  Preexisting of organized knowledge imagery, or other
In his work, he focuses on memory and how n  Strategies for processing the new encoding cues
to plan curriculum in chunks so as not to information  Organize
overload memory. His instructional design information so that
it can be learned in
models reflect this emphasis on thinking and chunks
remembering. Because of the importance he
assigns to mental processes in his theory
while recognizing the significance of targeted Metal operations that permits
behaviors, he bridges the gap from individuals to respond to
behaviorism to cognitivism. conceptualizations of the
Gagne had clearly established an interest environment:
in a desire to apply theory to practice, use  Discrimination  Provide varied
research and theory to solve practical  Concrete and defined concepts concrete examples
problems. Interested in examining the larger  Rule using and rules
issue of applying theory to training, teaching  Problem solving: combining  Provide
Intellectual subordinate rules in order to solve opportunities for
and learning with the eventual objective of Skills a problem interacting with
enhancing both their effectiveness and The internal conditions to facilitate examples in different
efficiency. Unlike many other s Gagne's this type of learning include: ways
theory approaches learning from the view  Recalling prerequisite skills  Assess learners in
new situations
point of the instruction. The theory differs in  Interacting in a variety of ways
that it covers the entire learning process with the new learning
from design to assessment and application  Applying the new skills to range
and variety of different situations
while other theories tend to be useful for and contexts
certain aspects of learning , for example
behaviorist for class room management and
cognitive for information processing.
The theory divided into three elements: If task-specific,
describe the strategy;
 taxonomy of learning out comes An internal process by which the if task general,
 conditions necessary to achieve the learners plans, controls, and demonstrate the
learning outcomes Cognitive monitors his/her won ways of strategy.
 and nine events of instruction designed thinking and learning, including  Provide
Strategies
to guide the teacher through the process of  Task specific opportunities for
designing for learning.  General strategy specific
 Executive practice with
support and
The conditions of learning reflecting the feedback
behaviorist thought process was created by
Gagne, who identified five categories of
learning. He was a leader in developing
instructional guide lines for directed Provide respected
models who enact
instruction that combine the behavioral and positive behavior
information processing learning theories. His An internal state, i.e. and reinforce the
instructional theory tends to side with Attitude predisposition that affects an model
individual choice of action  When learner
behaviorists principles (teacher centered
enacts the
approach). behavior, provide
He believes that the results of learning are reinforcement
measurable through testing and that drill,
practice, immediate feedback or effective.

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85
 Capability to
Gagne translated the informational processing
perform
sequence of
a model into an instructional model called phases of
Establish
physical
movements. It executive learning that is the nine events are broken down
involves
stages:
three subroutine and into three phases:
provide for
Motor Skills  Learning the
sequence of the mental rehearsal.  the pre-instructional phase,
movement  Arrange several  the instructional phase and;
 Practicing the repetitions of
movement skills with correct  the post instructional phase
 Refining the
movement from feedback
the feedback from
the environment pre-instructional phase
 gain attention
The objectives are then categorized into one of  inform learners of the objectives
the five domains of learning outcomes ( each
learning outcome must have- pre-requisite  stimulate recall prior learning
knowledge or skills must be identified). The instructional phase
instructor then uses the conditions of learning for
the particular learning outcomes to determine the  present the stimulus
conditions necessary for learning . He is best  provide learning guidance
known for his learning out comes , learning  elicit student performance  provide feedback
conditions and nine events of instruction . He
focuses on out comes/behaviors that result from (reinforcement)
instruction .Different internal and external post instructional phase
conditions are necessary for each type of learning.
According to Gagne the teacher must  asses performance
accomplish at least three tasks:  enhance retention
 assure pre requisite skills
supply instructional conditions  transfer (generalization)
 determine the type of learning
According to Gagne the eight different classes of
levels in which human beings learn are as follow:
 Signal Learning, the individual learns to make a
general response to a signal (involuntary).
 Stimulus Response learning, the individual learns
to make a precise response to a stimulus (voluntary).
 Chaining, the individual connects two or more
stimulus.
 Verbal Association, the individual learns the
chains that are verbal.
 Multiple Discrimination, the individual learns to
make different responses to different stimuli.
 Concept Learning, the individual learns to make a
common response to a class of stimuli.
 Rule Learning (Principle Learning), the individual
learns to make a chain of two or more concepts
(rule).
 Problem Solving, the individual learns to think.
Each new stages or level in learning is
dependent upon the possession of prerequisite
knowledge, skills and strategies at lower levels.

GAGNE'S LEARNING MODEL

His model is objective that can be easily
evaluated as the required learning is observable
and can be measured, task -focused models. He
proposed that the information processing model of
learning could be combined with behaviorist
concepts.

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 In the era of globalization, children are susceptible
to a lot of social dilemmas. As synthesis of your
Think Twice! learning on Cognitive Development Theory, cite
specific experiences related to the different stages.

5 Unique Traits
THE MOST IMPORTANT FACT ABOUT THIS
PERSON

NAME :
BIRTHDAY:

Observe the significant persons in your life. What

makes them unique individuals? What do you think
Sense-sei! are the factors which influenced or molded them to be
the kind of person they are?

16
SCIENCE RELEVANT THEORIES
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87
 Science
CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Objective:
Show competency through various co-
curricular activities in science.

MODULE

Co-curricular activities promote

the growth of diverse mental and BENEFITS OF CO- of competitive spirit, leadership,
meticulousness, cooperation
personality dimensions, including
intellectual, emotional, social, moral CURRICULAR and team
institutions
spirit.
recognize
Many
the
and artistic development. These
activities include disciplines that are
ACTIVITIES significance of these activities d
not part of the usual academic Learners gain practical REFERENCES:
curriculum but are beneficial for an
individual's overall development.
experience through such ▪Indeed Editorial Team (2023,
activities. Taking part in an February 23). What Are Co-
Including relevant extra-curricular
extra-curricular activity Curricular Activities? (Examples
activities on a resume can give you an
advantage over other candidates by relevant to the topic presented And Benefits). Indeed. Retrieved
demonstrating that you have certain from:
in the classroom helps clarify https://in.indeed.com/career-
practical experience. In this article,
and reinforce theoretical advice/resumes-cover-
we answer 'What are co-curricular
activities?', discuss their benefits, look understanding at a higher level. letters/what-are-co-curricular-
at their types, provide examples of The classroom is primarily activities
such activities and answer a few responsible for intellect,
frequently asked questions.
whereas extra-curricular
activities assist aesthetic
development, character
building, spiritual growth,
CO-CURRICULAR physical growth, moral values and integrate many of them into
ACTIVITIES and creativity.
Following are some of the key
their curriculum and require
students to choose activities of
Co-curricular activities are their interests from a list of
benefits of co-curricular
activities outside the classroom options. One of the primary
activities:
that enrich or supplement purposes of such activities is to
Enhances personality build self-confidence and trust
classroom learnings. They are
Such activities contribute to in others.
ungraded and usually do not Provides exposure to new
the general development of an
affect the academic score, but activities
individual's personality. They
provide many types of These activities expose
help people take on problems students to a vast array of
supplementary education.
with confidence and even think activities that broaden their
School sports teams, math
critically. The experiences and perspectives and allow them to
clubs, chess clubs, talent shows, choose what they enjoy and
skills gained through these
extempore, writing wish to learn. It helps them
activities make them proactive
competitions, debates, mock broaden their perspectives.
and well-equipped for future Such activities increase the field
trials, drawing competitions and
endeavors'. of learning and exploration
theatre performances are
Boosts confidence among individuals through
examples of a few common co- activities such as playing,
Many extra-curricular
curricular activities. drawing, acting, dancing,
activities help improve physical
singing and public speaking.
health and help develop a sense

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88
 Social development activities
Helps develop a sense of responsibility
When individuals take up tasks early in life, Most individuals spend the majority of their life at
such as administering first aid or managing the academic institutions. They make friends, meet teachers,
class painting board, their ability to work under gain knowledge of the world and plan their life goals.
such responsible situations develops. Many
non-academic activities require collaborating Social skills are important for the personality development
and helping others, which helps build a sense of of an individual. Taking part in various co-curricular helps
responsibility and accountability. A few
common activities which help individuals them to develop their social skills, such as empathy,
become responsible include team sports such communication, accountability and responsibility.
as playing football, etc. Following are some examples of non-academic activities
Helps develop specific skills
These activities develop young minds and focused on social development:
offer them an opportunity to develop specific Organizing cultural events
abilities through extra-curricular activities. Collecting funds for non-profits
Along with fostering a competitive
environment, organized competitions can assist Scouting and guiding
participants in their pursuit of constant skill Celebrating Earth day/Tree Planting
improvement. Certain skills, such as acting,
writing and dancing, which an individual often Taking part in school councils
gets to learn from participation in certain co- Volunteering for social work
curricular activities, can become a full-time Recreational activities
career.
Improves physical and mental health Such activities help cultivate a creative mentality
Such activities help improve physical, mental among young individuals as their minds are most capable
and emotional health while also easing of learning and exploring new ideas at an early age.
academic stress. Many activities, such as
athletics, gymnastics, yoga, indoor games and Recreation and enjoyment are vital components of
meditation, are often part of the school education. Taking part in enjoyable non-academic
curriculum. These activities help an individual activities can assist individuals in discovering their
understand their role in a group and teach
them to be productive, which helps increase creative potential, exploring their talents and cultivating
their self-esteem. their hobbies.
Following are some of the common recreational extra-
TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF CO- curricular activities:
CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES Hiking/Camping
Here are the major types of co-curricular
activities, along with examples of each: Museum visits
Educational activities Seminars
Every individual has a different potential level Industrial visits
and learning capacity. With conventional Workshops
classroom education, which takes place in Group games
groups, it is tough to provide specialized Arts and craft-based activities
attention to all. Educational co-curricular Arts and crafts-based activities also help in improving
activities help ensure that individuals have the
concentration and learning new ideas.
option to take part in such activities to learn
many concepts differently. This help Following are some examples of art and craft-based
establishes equality among the individuals in a activities:
classroom. Prototype Model Making
The following are some examples of Poster drawing
educational non-academic activities: Sketching portrait
Science quizzes Clay modelling
Poetry competitions Photography
Story writing competitions
Scrap Booking
Mathematics Olympiads
Extempore Oil painting
Projects in exhibitions Collage making
Essay competitions Acrylic painting
Debate competitions

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 Create a course brochure about Teaching of science that will
Do-it-yourself! showcase the its syllabus. You are free to choose your own
template as well the design.

17
SCIENCE CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Teaching of Science and Beyond

90
 Science
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
Objective:
Participates in a group performance to
present a completed Science
Investigatory Project.
MODULE

secondary biology. You must

The main aim of a science Projects are even more open- review the available literature to
ended than investigations. find out what type of work has
investigatory project is for it
These are practical been done. This will help you to
to provide school aged reject some of the alternatives,
investigations carried out by an
children with an engaging way individual or a group of
to learn more about science REFERENCES:
and the concept of performing
students. Projects are largely
your own initiative. It also
▪ Hothi, H. (2020, August 27).
What is a Science Investigatory
scientific research. The hope requires evaluation of your Project? Discoverphds. Retrieved
here is that it sparks an findings, redefining ideas and from:
interest in the children about designing further investigations. https://www.discoverphds.com/bl
scientific concepts or STEM og/science-investigatory-project
subjects in general and that
This may lead to evidence that
enables answering the question
▪ Investigatory Project Work.
(2021). National Council of
this interest is carried forward posed at the outset. Some of Educational Research and
to the university level. these projects would take about Training, India. Retrieved from:
few hours to complete. Other https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publicatio
n/sciencelaboratorymanuals/class
may take few weeks. Some are XII/biology/lelm216.pdf
laboratory based, others involve
fieldwork. Many could be
carried out at home.
SCIENCEINVESTIGATORY Investigatory projects are part
and possibly cause you to
modify others. It may also be
PROJECT? of obligatory assignment the source of new ideas. By
doing these investigatory
involving purely experimental
A science investigatory projects you will gain
procedures so that you report
project (SIP) is usually a science experience of research besides
on, duplicate, or adapt providing opportunity for
experiment performed in a
something that someone else learning skills such as
classroom setting with the class photography, electronics, etc.
has already discovered. It may
separated into small groups, but Identifying the Objectives of
involve some other form of
can also form part of a scientific the Project
investigation also.
exhibition or fair project. Having identified a possible
Choosing an Investigatory project, you should be able to
Investigations are more open-
Project identify and list the tentative
ended than practical exercises objectives you hope to attain by
You may be guided by your
involving a search to understand completing that investigation.
teacher for your choice of topic.
the unknown and begins with a Keep the aim of your project
The more original or new the simple. Investigate only one
question or a hypothesis. You
project is, the better it would be. factor at a time and never allow
are not instructed exactly what
But it must be realistic in terms yourself to be side-tracked.
to do, but are given only general Remember that time may be too
of the time available and at a
guidance. These give you more short for follow-up and any
level attained in the higher
opportunity to plan your work. fascinating secondary aspects
that you may come across.

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 Designing Projects Reporting/Writing of Project
Having established the objectives of your A format, such as given below, can be followed:
chosen project, you must have an
experimental design. This will allow you to i) Title of the investigatory project: Write the title of
collect the data you need in a scientific way to the project, for example, ‘Inheritance pattern of eye
test the hypothesis. color’.
Planning Investigations
Having decided your topic for scientific ii) Objectives: Express as clearly as possible the effect
investigation, you should give careful thought of one variable that the experiment is designed to
to the plan of your investigation in some detail. investigate.
These may include:
¨What hypothesis can you make? iii) Materials needed: This might be just a list, or a
¨How can you ensure that the experimental diagram if a particular piece of apparatus was used.
tests and measurement you carry out are
accurate and reliable? iv) Method: Describe the procedure stepwise
¨What controls do you need? including the precautions taken, if any.
• How many variables are you investigating? v) Result: A suitable chart or table for recording and
Correctly identify key variables as independent
and dependent. organizing your readings or measurements should be
¨Are your variables discrete or continuous? made out before you start the experiment.
¨Identify appropriate control variable for fair vi) Analysis and Interpretation: Observation data are
test.
¨How many repeat observations or samples factual, and may not be as expected by you.
will you require? vii) Discussion: Discuss briefly the implication of your
¨What instruments/equipment or techniques results and suggest extensions of any kind that can be
will you use to obtain relevant information?
Identify suitable materials and equipment to undertaken.
be used. viii) Conclusion: In view of the results obtained and
¨If your investigation requires the use of a related work done on the topic of the project, write
questionnaire, design and standardize before
implementation. conclusion briefly.
¨Is your intended procedure safe and ethically ix) References: Any work related to the project which
permitted, i.e., taking care of the distress or
suffering of living organisms and damage to the you have come across through books/articles or any
environment? other source should be written as reference,
¨How will you collect your data? For example: Michael Michalco (2001), Cracking
¨How do you plan to analyze your results?
Would you employ statistical or other methods? Creativity, Berkeley, Ten Speed Press.
Are scale range, interval, number of values This write up is meant to train the students in
chosen are adequate and reasonable? scientific methods. In other words, it accentuates the
Executing the Project
Following planning, a brief description of the spirit of enquiry and investigation in young minds.
expected procedures has to be approved in The operational aspects of doing a project include
advance by the teacher. Having decided what
controls you need to use, list the components choosing a hypothesis or problem to be investigated,
of your experiment and decide what quantities collecting data in a designed manner, analysing the
of substances to use, how to set the data in a scientific way, drawing conclusions which
experiment. You should also decide what type
of readings or measurements you are going to are justified and discussing the results in the light of
make, how often and how many. known knowledge and bringing out its importance.
Note the source of error, if any, that you Finally, it includes the scientific way of
come across.
¨Handle instruments and equipment communicating the findings.
appropriately to give accuracy. While your discovery during the investigatory
¨Repeat measurement. project may not merit a Nobel Prize it may help you
¨Keep proper controls and the variables
constant. discover something, a fact or relationship that was
unknown to you and that was not recorded in any
book available to you. Scientists refer to this as an
independent discovery. Your investigation will
certainly give a sample of the thrill of discovery.

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