Gauss’s Law and Electric Field

Gauss’s law can be used to compute the electric field due to a system of point
charges as well as for a continuous charge distribution. To do so, you have to define a
Gaussian surface. Always remember that you don’t need to identify a Gaussian body, we
need a Gaussian surface. Suppose in a cylinder, you don’t need to check whether the angle
between electric field and area vector is same from all the side or not. Gaussian Surface is
known as a closed surface in three-dimensional space such that the flux vector field is
calculated. The following are the common Gaussian Surfaces:

Gaussian Surface of a Sphere

- When a flux or electric field is produced on the surface
of the spherical Gaussian surface due to any of the
following:
• A point charge
• A spherical shell with the uniform charge distribution
• Charge distribution with spherical symmetry
This Photo by Unknown Author is
E = Q/ 4πƐ0r2
licensed under CC BY-SA-NC
https://phys.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/15869/clipboard_e7ba2
d6267b5107105a9caf08d6b6f756.png?revision=1

Gaussian Surface of a Cylinder

- When a flux or electric field is produced on the surface
of a cylindrical Gaussian surface due to any of the
following:
• Uniform distribution of charge in an infinitely long line
• Uniform distribution of charge in an infinite plane
• Uniform distribution of charge on an infinitely long
cylinder
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND E = q/2πƐ0Lr
https://infyinfo.files.wordpress.com/2020/06/gauss-cylinder.png

Gaussian Surface of a Planar Symmetry

• A convenient Gaussian surface is a box penetrating
the plane, with two faces parallel to the plane and
the remainder perpendicular
E = q/2AƐ0

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND

https://infyinfo.files.wordpress.com/2020/06/gaussian-planar-
1.png?w=300&h=468

Figure 1.4 Different Gaussian surface

It is also important to calculate charge (q) inside the surface. Charge distribution must be
uniform and symmetrical. The charge distribution may be expressed in terms of linear
charge density, surface charge density, or volume charge density.

Linear Charge Density Surface Charge Volume Charge

(λ) is charge per unit Density (σ) is charge Density (ρ) is charge
length. In symbols: per surface area. In per unit volume. In
λ = q/L symbols: σ = q/A symbols: ρ = q/V

Note: Formula for Area (A) and Volume (V) varies for every Gaussian surface.

Area (m2) Volume (m3)

Sphere = 4πr 2
Sphere = 4/3 πr3
Cylinder (depends on which surface area to consider) Cylinder = πr2L
Circle (top/bottom) = 2πr2
Rectangle = 2πrL 9
Total Surface Area = 2πr2 + 2πrL
 Let’s Try This Together!

Sample Problems and How to Solve Them

1. If a solid insulating sphere of radius 50.0 cm carries a total charge of 150nC uniformly
distributed throughout its volume, what is it’s (a) volume charge density? What is the
magnitude of the electric field at (b) 10.0 cm and (c) 65.0 cm from the center of the sphere?

Given: R = 50.0cm = 0.50 m;

q=150nC = 150 x10-9 C
Asked: a. ρ = ?
b. E1= (r1=10.0 cm = 0.10m) r1 R
c. E2= (r2=65.0 cm = 0.65m)
Solution: r2
a. ρ = q/V (for V we will use the one for sphere)
ρ = 150 x10-9 C = 150 x10-9 C
4/3π(0.50m)3 0.5236 m3
ρ = 2.87 x 10 C/m
-7 3

b. Note: For q we cannot use the given q since we are only going to compute for E at 0.10m
from the center of the sphere.
θ=0 (since the angle between E and A is always zero in the Gaussian sphere)
For A we will use the one for sphere, thus:
E1= qtotal = ρV = ρ (4/3πr13) = ρr1
Ɛ0A Ɛ04πr1 2
Ɛ04πr12 3Ɛ0
-7 3
E1 = (2.87 x 10 C/m ) (0.10m) = 1080 N/C
3(8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2)
c. Note: In here, we can make use of the given q since the we are to compute for the E at
0.65m from the center of the sphere. It encloses the sphere with R=0.50m. Thus:
E2= qtotal = 150 x 10-9 C . E2= 3191 N/C ≈ 3190 N/C
Ɛ0A (8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2) [4π(0.65 m)2]
NOTE: For this context, we use the symbol R for the radius of the whole sphere and r
for the conditional radius in the given sphere.
2. Suppose the sphere in item number 1 is conducting. Find the (a) charge density of the
sphere and the magnitude of the electric field at the following distances: (b) 10.0 cm and (c)
65.0 cm from the center of the sphere.
a. surface charge density
σ = q = 150 x 10-9 C = 4.77 x 10-8 C/m2
A 4π (0.50m)2
b. For a conductor, the charges reside at its surface area.
So, for r1 = 0.10m, qtotal = 0. Therefore, E = 0.
c. For r2=0.65m, qtotal= 150 x 10-9 C. Then:
E2= qtotal = 150 x 10-9 C . E2= 3191 N/C ≈ 3190 N/C
Ɛ0A (8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2) [4π(0.65 m)2]
3. An infinitely long conducting cylinder of radius R= 0.45 m contains a uniform volume
charge density (ρ) of 3.0 x 10-7 C. Calculate the electric field at radial distance r= 0.60 m.
Given: ρ = 3.0 x 10-7 C; R = 0.45 m R
Asked: E = ?
Solution:
Gauss-Flux Theorem
qtotal = EAcylinder
L r
Ɛ0
First, find Vcylinder = (πR L)
2

Second, find the Acylinder = 2πrL

Then, qtotal = EAcylinder
Ɛ0

10
By substituting, ρ(πR2L) = E(2πrL)
Ɛ0
E = ρπR L (cancel same values)
2

Ɛ02πrL
Thus: E = ρR2 = 3.0 x 10-7 C/m3 (0.45m)2 .
2Ɛ0r 2 (8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2) (0.60m)
E = 6.075 x 10-8 C.m = 5720 N/C
1.062mx 10-11C2/Nm

What’s More

It’s Your Turn!

I. INTERPRETIVE TYPE.
A. On your answer sheet, draw and color the if you agree with the statement. Draw
and color the if you disagree with the statement.

EMOTICON STATEMENT
1. Electric flux (ФE) is a measure of the number of field lines
passing parallel through a surface.
2. Electric flux is a vector quantity, which means it has magnitude
and direction.
3. The flux through a solid surface is positive if the field is directed
out of the region contained by the surface.
4. The charge distribution may be expressed in terms of linear
charge density, surface charge density, or volume charge density.
5. You don’t need to identify a Gaussian body; you need a
Gaussian surface.

B. Draw and color the if the second clause agrees with the first clause. Draw and
color if it does not.
First Clause Conjunction Second Clause Emoticon
1. The electric flux is ФE = 0 because the electric field (E) is
parallel (edge-on) to the
surface.
2. It is a Gaussian surface because the flux or electric field is
of a cylinder produced on a point charge.
3. The magnitude of the because the charges of a conductor
electric field inside a reside at its surface.
conducting sphere is equal
to zero
4. The total flux through the because the negative flux directed
entire closed surface is into the region is canceled
zero out by the positive flux
directed out of the region.
5. If the electric field makes because the magnitude of the flux
an angle with the direction should be proportional to the
normal to the flat surface, it component of the field
will be solved using the perpendicular to the surface.
formula ФE = EA cos θ

11
 Ito Ang GAUSS-to Kong Problemahin
II. Problem-Solving: Solve the following problems and follow the format: Given,
Illustration, Asked, and Solution. Then, enclose in a box the final answer. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. A uniform electric field of magnitude 5.8 x 10 2 N/C passes through a circle of radius 13
cm. What is the electric flux through the circle when its face is (a) perpendicular to the
field lines, (b) at 45° to the field lines, and (c) parallel to the field lines?
2. In the figure below, two objects O1 and O2, have charges +1 µC and -2 µC respectively,
and a third object, O3, is electrically neutral. (a) what is the electric flux through the
surface A1 that encloses all the three objects? (b) what is the electric flux through the
surface A2 that encloses the third object only?

A1 O1
O3
A2
O2

3. A 15-cm-long uniformly charged plastic rod is sealed inside a plastic bag. The total
electric flux leaving the bag is 7.3 x 105 Nm2/C. What is the linear charge density (λ) on
the rod?
4. The following charges are located inside a submarine: 4.50 µC, -9.00 µC, 27.0 µC, and -
88.0 µC. Calculate the net electric flux through the hull of the submarine.
5. Consider an infinitely long, very thin metal tube with radius R=2.90 cm. If the linear
charge density of the cylinder is λ= 1.50 x 10 -8 C/m, what is the approximate magnitude of
the electric field at radial distance r=2R?

What I Have Learned

Instructions: Supply the missing term/s in each item to complete the thought of the
sentence.
1. _______________ is a measure of the number of field lines passing perpendicularly
through a surface.
2. _______________ states that the total electric flux through a surface is the total electric
charge (qtotal) inside the surface divided by Ɛ0.
3. _______________ is known as a closed surface in three-dimensional space such that
the flux vector field is calculated.
4. When surface is _______________ to the electric fields it means no electric field lines
cross the surface.
5. For a _______________, the charges reside at its surface area.

Good job dear students! You were able to finish lesson 1 of this self-learning module. Before
you proceed to lesson 2, I want you to review a little on your previous lesson about Newton’s
Laws of Mechanics specifically on conservative forces and potential energy. Our previous ideas
about these also apply to our new topic on electric potential.

12
 Lesson 2 Electric Potential

What’s In

A. Double-Matching Type: Make a table following the same format below. Match the
definitions in Column A with the terms in Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer
from Column B on the space after the Roman Numerals used in Column A. Then, match the
terms in Column B with the formulae in Column C. Write the number of the correct answer
from Column C on the space before the letters used in Column B.

Column A Column B Column C.

I. Defined as the product of a. Potential Energy (U) 1. Fd
displacement and a parallel ___ F = force
applied force. ___ d = displacement
II. It is the ability to do work by b. Kinetic Energy (K) ___ 2. mgh
virtue of position or condition. m = mass
___ g = gravitational acceleration
h = height
III. It is the ability to do work c. Work (W) ___ 3. ½ mv2
by virtue of motion. ___ m = mass
v = velocity
B. Fill In the Blank: Study figure 2.1 below. Supply the appropriate term
(positive/negative) in the blank spaces of each statement.

Work (Fd) is positive if an applied Gravitational Work and Energy

force (F) is in the same direction as
the displacement (d)
Consider work against g to move
m from A to B, a vertical height h.
Signs for Work and Energy
B Work = Fh = mgh
1.
The force (F) does _______ work. F
2.
The force (mg) does ______ work. At level B, the potential energy (U)
m d is:
The PE at B relative to A is 3.
_____ g U = mgh (gravitational)
because the field can do positive mg
work if m is released. A 5.
The external force does ________
work; the gravity (g) does 6.
_______
PE at A relative to B is 4.
________; work.
outside force needed to move m.
The external force (F) against the g-
Figure 2.1: Work and field increases the potential energy.
Energy
If released the field gives work back.

Were you able to answer all items correctly? If you do, then you will not have trouble
understanding the concept/s of our next lesson. You will also apply the principle of
conservation of energy.

13
 What’s New

So, we started with a review on the gravitational work and energy. This time, I will let you
see the relatedness between gravitational potential energy and electric potential energy.
Examine closely the figures on the next page.

The work done by the gravitational field The work done by the electric field (E)
(g) on a mass (m) is equal to the on a charge (q) is equal to the
decrease in the gravitational potential decrease in the electric potential
energy. energy.

l l

m +q
mg qE
g E

Figure 2.2 A comparison of gravitational potential energy and electric potential energy

What Is It
Electric Potential Energy
To introduce electric potential energy and the closely related concept of electric potential, it
is best to see the relationship of force and work.
For a conservative force (F) acting along the x-direction,
U
F= or F x=- U
x
And if you could remember, F x is equal to work (W). Thus, when a particle moves from
point A to point B,

W A→ B = - U = - (UB – UA) = UA - UB
Where W A→ B is the work done from A to B, U A is the potential energy at point A, and U B is
the potential energy at B.
+++++++++ A The figure on the left side shows a positive test
charge (q) in a uniform downward electric field
+ + q (E) produced by two parallel plates. The field
E q exerts a downward force giving the equation:
F = qE
------------ B Work is done by the electric force on the charge
Figure 2.3 A positive charge in a uniform
as it moves from point A to B.
-
downward electric field.

Combining all the equations will give us this: W = Fd = qEd = UA - UB

14
You just have to take note that if the test charge moves in the direction of the electric field,
its potential energy decreases. On the other hand, if it moves against the direction of the
electric field, the potential energy increases.
If we are to use the work-energy theorem, W = K, Then,
UA – UB = K
UA – UB = KB – KA
Rearranging the terms,
KA + UA = KB + UB
Based on this, we can see that conservation of mechanical energy also applies.

Let’s Try This Together!

A point charge of 3.0 nC with a mass of 4.0 g is moved from x = 1.0 m to x = 1.5 m in an
electric field of 5.0 N/C with the same direction as the motion of the charge. (a) How much
work is done on the charge of the electric force? (b) What is the change in the potential
energy of the charge? (c) Assuming that the charge started from rest, what is its speed at x=
1.5 m?
Given: q = 3.0 nC = 3.0 x 10-9 C Asked:
-3
m = 4.0 g = 4.0 x 10 kg a. W = ?
E = 5.0 N/C b. U = ?
d = 1.5 m – 1.0 m = 0.5 m c. v = ?
Solution:
a. W = Fd and F = qE, then, W = qEd
W = (3.0 x 10-9 C) (5.0 N/C) (0.5 m)
W = 7.5 x 10-9 Nm or 7.5 x 10-9 J

b. U = - W = -7.5 x 10-9 J
(The work done is positive, thus, electric potential energy is negative.)

c. Using the work-energy theorem, W = Kf - Ki

W = ½ mvf2 – ½ mvi2
Assuming the charge started from rest, v i = 0.
W = ½ mvf2
7.5 x 10 Nm = ½ (4.0 x 10-3 kg) vf2
-9

To be able to combine/cancel units, we will be following 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 kg.m2/s2,

So the equation will be, (7.5 x 10-9 kg.m2/s2) (2) = (4.0 x 10-3 kg) vf2
vf = √(7.5 x 10-9 kg.m2/s2) (2)
2

(4.0 x 10-3 kg)

vf = 1.9 x 10-3 m/s

Note: 1 Nm = 1 J
1 N = 1 kg.m/s2

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

Electric potential is also known as electrostatic potential or simply potential is given
the symbol V. The electric potential at any point in an electric field (E) is electric potential
energy (U) per unit charge (q) at that point. Thus, in symbols:
U
V= q
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI units is the volt named after Alessandro Volta
who devised one of the first electric cell.
Using this equation W1 AV→ =B 1= joule/coulomb (J/C)
UA - UB and considering point A at infinity or ground (zero
potential energy), electric potential is also defined as the work done to move a unit charge
from infinity to an arbitrary point B. On the other hand, if point A is neither ground nor infinity,

15
then the work done by the electric force in moving a unit positive test charge from point A to
point B is called the potential difference between points A and B. The potential difference
between A and B, designated as VAB, is determined by subtracting the potential at point A
from the potential at point B.

VAB = WA→ B = U UB UA
q q = q q = (VB – VA) = VA – VB
Where VA and VB are the electric potentials at points A and B, respectively. Note that the
work done is not dependent on the path taken in getting from point A to point B.

Let’s Try This Together!

A charge of 6 x 10-7 C is transferred from infinity to point B. If the work done by the electric
force to do this is 1.2 x 10-5 J, what is the potential at point B?
Given: q = 6 x 10-7 C Asked: VB = ?
W∞→ B = 1.2 x 10-5 J
Solution:
Since the problem states that the charge is from infinity to point B, then:

V∞ – VB = W∞ → B
q
1.2 x 10-5 J
0 - VB = 6 x 10-7 C VB = - 20 V

Calculating Electrical Potential and Potential Difference

The electric potential at a point is a scalar quantity. It could be negative, positive, or
zero, depending on the sign of the charge. At a point near a positive charge, the potential is
positive; near a negative charge, it is negative. The electric potential at a point due to a
charged particle is given by:

V= U = qEd = Ed
q q
Combining formula for electric field for point charge, the potential will be solved by:
kqr kq
V= r2 = r
Where k is the Coulomb’s constant (9 x 109 N.m2/c2), q is the charge of the particle (including
the sign), and r is the distance of the point from the charge. This equation shows that the
electric field can also be expressed in volt/meter.
1 N/C = 1 V/m
If there are several charges, the potential at a point due to these charges is simply the
algebraic sum of the potential due to each charge. This is because V can be written in terms
of E, and E follows the superposition principle. Thus,

V = V 1 + V2 + V3 . . .
kq1 kq2 kq3
= + r + r3
r1 2

16
 Let’s Try This Together!

Sample Problems and How to Solve Them

A point charge of -6.00 x 10-9 C is 3.00 m from point A and 5.00 m from point B. (a) Find the
electric potential at point A and B. (b) How much work is done by the electric field in moving
a 2.00 nC particle from point A to point B?
Given: q = -6.0 x 10-9 C distance rA of point A from charge = 3.0 m
distance rB of point B from charge = 5.0 m
Asked: a. VA = ? and VB = ?
b. W = ?
Solution:
Since the problem states that the charge is from infinity to point B, then:
kq (9 x109 N.m2/C2) (-6.0 x 10-9 C)
VA = = = -18.0 V
a. rA 3.0 m
kq (9 x109 N.m2/C2) (-6.0 x 10-9 C)
VB = = = -10.8 V
rA 5.0 m
b. W
= (VA - VB)
q
W = q (VA – VB) = (2.0 x 10-9 C) [ (-18.0 V) – (-10.8 V) ] = 1.44 x 10-8 J

Four charges, q1 = 5.00 x 10-7 C, q2 = -3.00 x 10-7 C, q3 = -2.00 x 10-7 C, and q4 = 6.00 x 10-7
C, are situated at the corners of a square of side 4.00 m. Find the electric potential at the
center of the square.
Given: q1 = 5.00 x 10-7 C q1 4.00m q2
q2 = -3.00 x 10-7 C
q3 = -2.00 x 10-7 C
q4 = 6.00 x 10-7 C 4.00m 4.00m
d
q3 q4
4.00m
Solution:
All the four charges are equidistant from the center of the square. Let d be the distance from
the center of the square to a corner. This distance is one half of the diagonal. The diagonal
of the square is computed using the Pythagorean theorem.

d = ½ √(4.0m)2 + (4.0m)2 = 2.83 m

kq1 (9 x109 N.m2/C2) (5.0 x 10-7 C) = 1590 V

V1 = =
d 2.83 m
kq2 (9 x10 N.m2/C2) (-3.0 x 10-7 C)
9
V2 = = = -954 V
d 2.83 m
kq3 (9 x109 N.m2/C2) (-2.0 x 10-7 C)
V3 = = = -636 V
d 2.83 m
kq4 (9 x109 N.m2/C2) (65.0 x 10-7 C) =
V4 = = 1910 V
d 2.83 m
Therefore, the electric potential Vcenter at the center of the square is:
Vcenter = 1590 V – 954 V – 636 V + 1910 V = +1910 V

17
Equipotential Surfaces and Field Lines
An equipotential surface is a three-dimensional surface on which the potential is the
same as every point on that space. Since the potential energy does not change as a charge
is moved over an equipotential surface, the electric field cannot do work on such charge.
Recalling the definition of work as the product of force and displacement, the work is zero if
the force and displacement are perpendicular to each other. Thus, the electric field lines and
equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to each other.

Source: https://sdsuphysics.org/physics180/physics180B/Chapters/electric_potential.htm
Figure 2.4 Equipotential surfaces and field lines.

What’s More

It’s Your Turn!

I. Modified True/False: On a separate sheet of paper, write TRUE if the statement is true.
Write FALSE if the statement is false. Change the underline word/s that make
the statement false to make it correct.
______1. The work done by the electric field (E) on a charge (q) is equal to the decrease in
the electric potential energy.
______2. If a test charge moves against the direction of the electric field, the potential
energy decreases.
______3. Electric potential is a vector quantity with SI unit volt after Alessandro Volta.
______4. Electric potential energy does not depend on the mass, only on the charge and
voltage.
______5. Since the potential energy does not change as a charge is moved over an
equipotential surface, the electric field can do work on such charge.
______6. The electric field lines and equipotential surfaces are always parallel to each other.
______7. Electric field can be expressed in Newton/Coulomb (N/C) and Volt/meter (V/m).
______8. At a point near a positive charge, the potential is positive; near a negative charge,
it is negative.
______9. An equipotential surface is a three-dimensional surface on which the electric
potential is the same as every point on that space.
_____10. The conservation of mechanical potential energy is not applied in electric potential
energy.

18