Indefinite Integration-BVM

Fundamental integration formulae :

x n +1
(1) (i)  x dx = n + 1 + c, n  −1
n

1 (ax + b)n +1
(ii)  (ax + b) dx = + c , n  −1
n
.
a n +1
1
(2) (i)  x dx = log | x | +c
1 1
(ii)  ax + b dx = a (log | ax + b |) + c
(3)  e dx = e +c
x x

ax
(4)  a dx = log +c
x

e a

(5)  sin x dx = − cos x + c

(6)  cos x dx = sin x + c
(7)  sec x dx = tan x + c
2

(8)  cosec x dx = − cot x + c

2

(9)  sec x tan x dx = sec x + c

(10)  cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c
(11)  tan x dx = − log | cos x | +c = log | sec x | +c
(12)  cot x dx = log | sin x | +c = − log | cosec x | +c
 x
(13)  sec x dx = log | sec x + tan x | +c = log tan  4 + 2  + c
x
(14)  cosec x dx = log | cosec x − cot x | +c = log tan 2 + c
dx
(15)  1−x 2
= sin −1 x + c = − cos −1 x + c

dx x x
(16)  a −x2 2
= sin −1
a
+ c = − cos −1 + c
a
dx
(17) 1+ x 2
= tan −1 x + c = − cot −1 x + c

dx 1 x −1 x
(18) a 2
+x 2
= tan −1 + c =
a a a
cot −1 + c
a
dx
(19) x x −12
= sec −1 x + c = − cosec −1 x + c

dx 1 x −1 x
(20) x x −a2 2
=
a
sec −1 + c =
a a
cosec −1 + c
a
 In any of the fundamental integration formulae, if x is replaced by ax + b , then the
same formulae is applicable but we must divide by coefficient of x or derivative of
 f (x )dx = (x ) + c , then  f (ax + b) dx = a  (ax + b) + c
1
(ax + b) i.e., a. In general, if
−1
 sin(ax + b) dx = a
cos(ax + b ) + c,

1
 sec(ax + b) dx = a log | sec(ax + b) + tan( ax + b)| +c etc.
Some more results :
x −a −1
x
1 1 x
(i) = log +c = coth −1 + c , when x a
2
−a 2
2a x +a a a
a+x
a
1 1 1 x
(ii) dx = log + c = tanh −1 + c , when x a
2
− x2 2a a−x a a

dx x
(iii)  x −a2
= log{| x + x 2 − a2 |} + c = cos h −1   + c
2 a
dx x
(iv)  x +a2
= log{| x + x 2 + a 2 |} + c = sinh −1   + c
2 a
x

1 1
(v) a 2 − x 2 dx = x a 2 − x 2 + a 2 sin −1   + c
2 2 a
1 1
(vi)  x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 log{ x + x 2 − a 2 } + c
2
1 1 x
= x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 cosh −1   + c
2 2 a
1 1
(vii)  x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x x 2 + a 2 + a 2 log{ x + x 2 + a 2 } + c
2
1 1 x
= x x 2 + a 2 + a 2 sinh −1  
2 2 a

Integration by substitution

(1) When integrand is a function i.e.,  f [( x )] '( x ) dx :

Here, we put  ( x ) = t, so that  ' (x )dx = dt and in that case the integrand is reduced to
 f (t)dt .
(2) When integrand is the product of two factors such that one is the derivative of
the others i.e., I =  f ( x ). f ( x ). dx : In this case we put f (x ) = t and convert it into a standard
integral.
(3) Integral of a function of the form f ( ax + b ) : Here we put ax + b = t and convert it
 f (x )dx = (x ),
1
into standard integral. Obviously if then  f (ax + b )dx =  (ax + b) +c.
a
f ( x )
(4) If integral of a function of the form
f(x)
f (x )
 f (x )
dx = log [ f (x )] + c

[ f (x )]n +1
(5) If integral of a function of the form [ f ( x )]n f ( x )  [ f (x )] f (x ) dx = +c, [n  −1]
n
n +1
 f ( x ) f (x )
(6) If the integral of a function of the form
f(x)  f (x )
dx = 2 f (x ) + c

(7) Standard substitutions

Integrand form Substitution

1 x = a sin ,
(i) a2 − x 2 , , a2 − x 2
a −x
2 2
or x = a cos

x = a tan
(ii) x 2 + a2 , 1
, x 2 + a2
x 2 + a2
or x = a sinh

1 x = a sec 
(iii) x 2 − a2 , , x 2 − a2
x 2 − a2
or x = a cosh 

a+x
(iv)
x
, , x (a + x ) ,
1
x = a tan 2 
a+x x x (a + x )

a−x
(v)
x
, , x (a − x ) , 1
x = a sin 2 
a−x x x (a − x )

x x −a 1
(vi) x −a
,
x
, x (x − a),
x (x − a)
x = a sec 2 

a−x a+x
(vii) a+x
,
a−x
x = a cos 2

x −
(viii) −x
, ( x −  )(  − x ) , (   ) x =  cos2  +  sin 2 

Integration by parts:

(1) When integrand involves more than one type of functions : We may solve
such integrals by a rule which is known as integration by parts. We know that,
d dv du
(uv ) = u +v
dx dx dx

 d(uv) = udv + vdu   d (uv ) =  udv +  vdu

 u v dx = u  v dx −  { dx . vdx }dx i.e., the integral of
du
If u and v are two functions of x, then
I II

the product of two functions = (First function) × (Integral of second function) – Integral
of {(Differentiation of first function) × (Integral of second function)}
Before applying this rule proper choice of first and second function is necessary.
Normally we use the following methods :
(i) In the product of two functions, one of the function is not directly integrable
(i.e., log | x |, sin −1 x , cos −1 x , tan −1 x ......etc), then we take it as the first function and the
remaining function is taken as the second function.
 (ii) If there is no other function, then unity is taken as the second function
e.g. in the integration of  sin  is taken as the second function.
−1
x dx , log x dx , 1

(iii) If both of the function are directly integrable then the first function is chosen
in such a way that the derivative of the function thus obtained under integral sign is
easily integrable. Usually, we use the following preference order for the first function.
(Inverse, Logarithmic, Algebraic, Trigonometric, Exponential). This rule is simply
called as “ILATE”.
(2) Integral is of the form  e x f ( x ) + f '( x )dx : If the integral is of the form

e
x
f (x ) + f ' (x )dx , then by breaking this integral into two integrals integrate one integral
by parts and keeping other integral as it is, by doing so, we get
(i)  e x  f (x ) + f ' (x )dx = e x f (x ) + c
(ii)  e mf (x ) + f ' (x )dx = e f (x ) + c
mx mx

 f ' (x )  e mx f (x )
(iii) e  f (x ) + m  dx = m +c
mx

 

(3) Integral is of the form  [ x f ( x ) + f(x )] dx : If the integral is of the form

 [x f ' (x ) + f (x )] dx then by breaking this integral into two integrals, integrate one integral
by parts and keeping other integral as it is, by doing so, we get,
 [x f ' (x ) + f (x )] dx = x f (x ) + c
(4) Integrals of the form e  :
ax
sin bxdx , e ax cos bx dx

e ax
 e ax sin bx =
a2 + b 2
(a sin bx − b cos bx ) + c

e ax b
= sin(bx − tan −1 ) + c
a +b
2 2 a

e ax
e . cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx ) + c
ax
a + b2
2

e ax  b
= cos  bx − tan −1  + c
a +b2  2 a

e ax
 e ax . sin(bx + c) dx = a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c) + k
a2 + b 2
e ax   b 
= sin (bx + c) − tan −1   + k
a +b2
 2  a 

e ax e ax   b 
 e ax . cos(bx + c) dx = a cos(bx + c) − b sin(bx + c) + k = cos (bx + c) − tan −1   + k
a + b2
2
a +b
2

2  a 

Evaluation of the various forms of integrals by use of standard results


dx
(1) :
ax 2 + b x + c
dx
Working rule : We write  ax 2 + bx + c
 1 dx

1 dx
=
a  b
x + x+
2 c
=
a  b  c b2
2
, which is of the form
a a x +  + −
 2a  a 4c
dx dx dx
 X − A2
2
,  X + A2
2
or  A − X2
2
.
dx dx
  
dx
(2) : This can be reduced to one of the forms of , or
ax + bx + c
2
a −x
2 2
x − a2
2

dx
 x + a2
2
.

(3)  ax 2 + bx + c dx : This can be reduced to one of the forms of

 a 2 − x 2 dx ,  x 2 − a 2 dx or  a 2 + x 2 dx .
( px + q ) dx ( px + q ) dx
(4)  ax 2 + bx + c
,
 ax + bx + c
2
,  ( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx :

For the evaluation of any of these integrals,

Put px + q = A {differentiation of (ax 2 + bx + c)} + B
Find A and B by comparing the coefficients of like powers of x on the two sides.
In this way the integral breaks up into two parts.
x2 +1 x2 −1
 
dx
(5) Integrals of the form dx, dx , , where k R
x + kx 2 + 1
4
x + kx 2 + 1
4
x 4 + kx 2 + 1
Working Method
(i) To evaluate these types of integrals divide the numerator and denominator by
x2 .
1 1
(ii) Put x+ =t or x− =t as required.
x x
x 2 + a2 x 2 − a2
(6)  x 4 + kx 2 + a 4
dx ,  x 4 + kx 2 + a 4
dx , where k is a constant, negative or zero.
These integrals can be obtained by dividing numerator and denominator by x2 ,
a2 a2
then putting x− =t and x+ =t respectively.
x x
(7) Substitution for some irrational functions
 x − 
 
dx
(i) ,   dx
(x −  )( x −  )  −x

 (x −  )( − x ) dx , Put x =  cos 2  +  sin 2  .

dx
(ii)  ( px + q ) (ax + b )
, Put ax + b = t 2

dx

1
(iii) , Put px + q =
( px + q) ax + bx + c 2 t

dx

1
(iv) , at first x= and then a + ct 2 = z 2 .
( px + r) (ax + c)
2 2 t

dx
(8) Integrals of the form P Q
, (where P and Q are linear or quadratic expressions

in x) : To evaluate such types of integrals, we have following substitutions according

to the nature of expressions of P and Q in x :
 (i) When Q is linear and P is linear or quadratic, we put Q = t2.
1
(ii) When P is linear and Q is quadratic, we put P= .
t
1
(iii) When both P and Q are quadratic, we put x= .
t

Integrals of the form dx and dx

 a + b cos x  a + b sin x

To evaluate such form of integrals, proceed as follows:

x x
1 − tan 2 2 tan
(1) Put cos x = 2 and sin x = 2 .
x x
1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2
2 2
x x
(2) Replace 1 + tan 2 in the numerator by sec 2 .
2 2
x 1 x
(3) Put tan =t so that sec 2 dx = dt .
2 2 2

(4) Now, evaluate the integral obtained which will be of the form  dt
by the
at 2 + bt + c
method discussed earlier.

 a + b cos x
dx
(i)
Case I : When a b, then
 a−b x
 a + b cos x =
dx 2
tan −1  tan  + c
 a+b 2 
a −b
2 2

Case II : When ab, then
x
b − a tan + b+a
dx 1
 a + b cos x
=
b 2 − a2
log 2
x
b − a tan − b + a
+c

2
dx 1 x
Case III : When a =b, then  a + b cos x = a tan 2 + c .
 a + b sin x
dx
(ii)
Case I : When a2  b 2 or a0 and a b, then
 x 
dx 2  a tan 2 + b 

−1
= tan  +c
a + b sin x a2 − b 2  a2 − b 2 
 

Case II : When a2  b 2 , then

x
+ b) − ( b 2 − a 2 )
(a tan
dx 1
 a + b sin x
=
b 2 − a2
log 2
x
(a tan + b ) + b 2 − a 2
+c

2
Case III : When a 2 = b 2
In this case, either b = a or b = −a
(a) When b = a , then
−1  x 
 a + b sin x =
dx 1
cot  +  + c = [tan x − sec x ] + c
a 4 2 a
  x
 a + b sin x = a tan  4 + 2  + c .
dx 1
(b) When b = −a , then

dx dx
Integrals of the form  a + b cos x + c sin x ,  asin x + b cos x
dx
(1) Integral of the form  a + b cos x + c sin x
: To evaluate such integrals, we put

b = r cos  and c = r sin  .

c
So that, r2 = b 2 + c2 and  = tan −1 .
b
dx
 a + r(cos  cos x + sin  sin x ) =  a + r cos( x − )
dx
 I=

dt
Again, put x −  = t  dx = dt , we have I=  a + r cos t
Which can be evaluated by the method discussed earlier.

 a sin x + b cos x
dx
(2) Integral of the form : To evaluate this type of integrals we
b
substitute a = r cos  , b = r sin  and so r = a 2 + b 2 ,  = tan −1 .
a
dx 1 dx 1
So,  a sin x + b cos x = r  sin(x + ) = r  cosec (x + )dx
1 x  1 x 1 b
= log tan  +  = log tan  + tan −1  + c
r 2 2 a +b
2 2 2 2 a

1 − tan 2 ( x / 2)
The integral of the above form can be evaluated by using cos x = and
1 + tan 2 ( x / 2)
2 tan( x / 2)
sin x = .
1 + tan 2 (x / 2)

Integrals of the form

dx dx dx
 a + b cos x
2
,
a + b sin x
2
, 
a sin x + b cos 2 x
2
,

dx dx
 (a sin x + b cos x )2 
,
a + b sin x + c cos 2 x
2

To evaluate the above forms of integrals proceed as follows:

(1) Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos 2 x .
(2) Replace sec 2 x in the denominator, if any by (1 + tan 2 x ).
(3) Put tan x = t  sec 2 xdx = dt .
(4) Now, evaluate the integral thus obtained, by the method discussed earlier.

Integrals of the form

a sin x + b cos x a sin x + b cos x + q
 c sin x + d cos x and  c sin x + d cos x + r
 (1) Integrals of the form  a sin x + b cos x
dx : Such rational functions of sinx and cosx
c sin x + d cos x
may be integrated by expressing the numerator of the integrand as follows :
Numerator = M (Diff. of denominator)+ N (Denominator)
i.e., a sin x + b cos x = M
d
(c sin x + d cos x ) + N (c sin x + d cos x )
dx
The arbitary constants M and N are determined by comparing the coefficients of
sin x and cos x from two sides of the above identity. Then, the given integral is
a sin x + b cos x
I=  c sin x + d cos x dx
M (c cos x − d sin x ) + N (c sin x + d cos x )
=  c sin x + d cos x
dx

c cos x − d sin x
=M  c sin x + d cos x dx + N  1dx
= M log | c sin x + d cos x | + Nx + c.
a sin x + b cos x + q
(2) Integrals of the form  c sin x + d cos x + r dx : To evaluate this type of integrals, we
express the numerator as follows: Numerator = M(Denominat or) + N(Different iation of denominato r) + P

i.e., (c sin x + b cos x + q) = M (c sin x + d cos x + r) + N (c cos x − d sin x ) + P.

where M, N, P are constants to be determined by comparing the coefficients of

sin x , cos x and constant term on both sides.

a sin x + b cos x + q Diff.of denominato r

 c sin x + d cos x + r dx   
dx
 = M dx + N dx +
Denominato r c sin x − d cos x + r

 c sin x + d cos x + r .
dx
= Mx + N log | Denominato r | +P

Integration of rational functions by using partial fractions

If the given function is in the form of fractions of two polynomials, then for its
integration, decompose it into partial fractions (if possible). In the beginning chapters,
we already discussed the decomposition of partial fractions.

Integration of trigonometric functions

(1) Integral of the form  sin : (i) To evaluate the integrals of the form
m
x cos n x dx


I = sin m x cos n x dx , where m and n are rational numbers.

(a) Substitute sin x = t, if n is odd;

(b) Substitute cos x = t, if m is odd;

(c) Substitute tan x = t, if m +n is a negative even integer; and

1
(d) Substitute cot x = t, if (n − 1) is an integer.
2
 m +n−2
(e) If m and n are rational numbers and   is a negative integer, then
 2 
substitution cos x = t or tan x = t is found suitable.

(ii) Integrals of the form  R(sin x, cos x ) dx , where R is a rational function of sin x and cos x,
x
are transformed into integrals of a rational function by the substitution tan = t, where
2
−  x   . This is the so called universal substitution. Sometimes it is more convenient to
x
make the substitution cot =t for 0  x  2 .
2

The above substitution enables us to integrate any function of the form R(sin x, cos x).
However, in practice, it sometimes leads to extremely complex rational function. In
some cases, the integral can be simplified by :

(a) Substituting sin x = t, if the integral is of the form  R(sin x )cos x dx .

(b) Substituting cos x = t, if the integral is of the form  R(cos x ) sin x dx .
dt
(c) Substituting tan x = t, i.e., dx = , if the integral is dependent only on tan x .
1 + t2

(d) Substituting cos x = t , if R(− sin x, cos x ) = −R(sin x, cos x )

(e) Substituting sin x = t , if R(sin x,− cos x ) = −R(sin x, cos x )
(f) Substituting tan x = t , if R(− sin x,− cos x ) = −R(sin x, cos x )
(2) Reduction formulae for special cases
− cos x . sin n −1 x n − 1
(i)  sin x dx = + sin n − 2 x dx 
n
n n

sin x cos n −1 x n − 1
(ii)  cos n x dx =
n
+
n
cos n − 2 x dx
tan n −1 x
(iii)  tan n x dx =
n −1 
− tan n − 2 x dx

−1
(iv)  cot x dx = 
cot n −1 x − cot n − 2 x dx
n
n −1

(v)  sec
n
x dx =
1
(n − 1)
 
sec n −2 x . tan x + (n − 2) sec n −2 x dx 
(vi)  cosec
n
xdx =
1

[−cosec n−2 x cot x + (n − 2) cosec n−2 xdx ]
(n − 1)

sin q +1 x . cos p −1 x p −1
(vii)  sin  sin
p −2
p
x cos q x dx = − + x . cos q x dx
p+q p+q

sin p +1 x . cos q −1 x p −1
(viii)  sin x cos q x dx = + 
sin p x . cos q − 2 x dx
p
p+q p+q

(2n − 3)
(ix)  (x
dx
=
x
n −1
+
dx

2
+ k)n
k (2n − 2)(x + k )
2
k (2 n − 2) (x + k )n −1
2
Important Points:

 If F1 (x ) and F2 (x ) are two antiderivatives of a function f(x) on an interval [a, b], then
the difference between them is a constant.
 The signum function has an antiderivative on any interval which doesn't contain the
point x = 0, and does not possess an anti-derivative on any interval which contains the
point.
 The antiderivative of every odd function is an even function and vice-versa.
x n e ax n
 If In =  x . e dx , then I = a − a I
n ax
n n −1

 If In =  (log x ) dx , then I = x log x − x

n

1 (log x )2 (log x )3
 If In =  log x
dx , then In = log(log x ) + log x +
2.(2 !)
+
3(3 !)
+ .......... .......... ...

 If 
In = (log x )n dx ; then In = x (log x )n − n. In −1

 Successive integration by parts can be performed when one of the functions is x n (n

is positive integer) which will be successively differentiated and the other is either of
the following sin ax , cos ax , e ax , e −ax , (x + a)m which will be successively integrated.
 Chain rule :  u.vdx = uv − uv 2 + uv3 − uv4 + .......... .. + (−1)n −1 u n −1 v n + (−1)n u
n
1 .v n dx

Where un stands for nth differential coefficient of u and v n stands for nth integral of v.

x e ax e ax
  x e ax sin(bx + c) dx = a sin(bx + c) − b cos( bx + c) − [(a 2 − b 2 ) sin(bx + c) − 2ab cos(bx + c)] + k
a2 + b 2 (a 2 + b 2 )2
ax
x . e ax
  x . e ax cos(bx + c) dx = a cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c) − 2 e 2 2 [(a 2 − b 2 ) cos(bx + c) + 2ab sin(bx + c)] + k
a +b
2 2
(a + b )
ax

a . sin(bx + c) dx = [(log a) sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)] + k
x

(log a)2 + b 2
ax

 a . cos(bx + c)dx = (log a)
x
(log a) cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c) + k
2
+ b2
a cos x + b sin x ac + bd ad − bc
  c cos x + d sin x dx =
c +d
2 2
x+ 2
c + d2
log| c cos x + d sin x | +k .
 To evaluate integrals of the form  sin mx cos nx dx ,  sin mx . sin nx dx ,  cos mx . cos nx dx and
 cos mx . sin nx dx , we use the following trigonometrical identities.
1 1
 sin mx . cos nx = [sin(m − n)x + sin(m + n)x ]  cos mx . sin nx = [sin(m + n)x − sin(m − n)x ]
2 2
1 1
 sin mx . sin nx = [cos(m − n)x − cos(m + n)x ]  cos mx . cos nx = [cos(m − n)x + cos(m + n)x ]
2 2
sin n x sin n −1 x (n − 1)
 cos
1
 Reduction formulae for I(n, m ) = dx is I(n,m ) = . − . I(n − 2, m − 2)
m
x m − 1 cos m −1 x (m − 1)