Module1.

Laser and Optical fiber:

LASER = LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION

The radiation which is highly parallel, monochromatic coherent beam of light of very
high intensity called as LASER. Production of laser light is particular consequence of interaction
of radiation with matter. All lasers require an active medium for amplification in a narrow
frequency region by population inversion achieved between a pair of energy levels.

Consider two energy states 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 of system. If the energy difference between the two
energy levels is ∆𝐸 (𝐸1 is the lower energy state while 𝐸2 is the exicited state). Let a
monochromatic radiation of frequency ‘ 𝜈’ be incident on the medium. The radiation may be
viewed as a stream of photons each photon carrying an energy ‘h𝜈’. The energy of the emitted
photon is given by Δ𝐸 = 𝐸2 - 𝐸1 = h𝜈=hc/𝜆

INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

1. INDUCED ABSORPTION

Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by an atom as a result of which

the atom makes a transition from a ground state to an excited state, where in the difference in
energy of the two states is equal to energy of the photon. If a photon of
energy h𝜈 is incident on an atom in the state of energy 𝐸1 , then it will
make a transition to the higher energy state 𝐸2 by the absorption of the
photon schematically it may be represented as

Atom + photon → Atom*

Rate of Induced absorption  N1

Rate of Induced absorption  U()
Hence Rate of Induced absorption N1 U() (1)

2. SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

Spontaneous emission is the emission of photon, when an atom in an excited state makes a
transition to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency. An excited state with
higher energy is inherently unstable because of a natural tendency of atoms
to seek out lowest energy configuration. Normally the excited atoms exist
in the state 𝐸2 for about 10−8 seconds, tend return to the lower state 𝐸1 by
giving up the excess energy

h𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 in the form of spontaneous emission.

Atom* → Atom + photon

 Rate of Induced absorption  N2
Hence Rate of Induced absorption N2 (2)

3. STIMULATED EMISSION

Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by an atom under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy, due to which the atom makes a transition from a higher
energy state to lower energy state. Consider the system in the excited state 𝐸2 when photons
of energy E = E2 - E1 is incident on the system the system de-
excites by emitting two photons of equal energy. The emitted
photons are having same energy, same phase and direction. The
incident photon is called stimulating photon and emitted photon is
called Stimulated photon.

Atom* + photon → Atom + (Photon + Photon)

Rate of Induced absorption  N2

Rate of Induced absorption  U()
Hence Rate of Induced absorption N2 U() (3)

EINSTEIN CO-EFFICIENTS

Consider an atomic system at an absolute temperature ‘T’ placed in a radiation field of energy
density 𝑈𝛾 . Let 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 be the two energy states of atomic system. Let N1 be the number of
atoms in the energy state E1 and N2 be the number of atoms in the energy state E 2

State per unit volume of the system. Let the radiation with a continuous spectrum of frequency
be incident upon the system. Let the frequency of incident radiation is 𝛾 = (𝐸1 − 𝐸2 )/ℎ

Induced absorption:

Consider an atomic system at an absolute temperature placed in a radiation field of energy

density U𝛾 under equilibrium condition. In case of induced absorption, an atom in the level 𝐸1
can go to level 𝐸2 when it absorbs a radiation.The number of such absorptions per unit time per
unit volume is called rate of absorption.

The rate of absorption depends upon

(a) The number of atoms presents in the ground state (𝑁1 )
(b) The energy of incident radiation (𝑈𝛾 )
There for rate of induced absorption ∝ 𝑁1 𝑈𝛾
Rate of induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝛾 - Where 𝐵12 is the proportionality
constant called Einstein co-efficient for induced absorption.
Spontaneous emission:

In case of spontaneous emission an atom in the higher energy level 𝐸2 under goes transition to
the lower energy level 𝐸1 voluntarily by emitting a photon. The rate of spontaneous emission is
dependent on

(a) The number of atoms present in the excited ie 𝑁2

Therefor rate of spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

Where 𝐴21 = Einstein co-efficient of spontaneous emission

Stimulated Emission:

The process of de-excitation of atom from higher level (𝐸2 ) to lower energy level (𝐸1 ) by the aid
of another photon. The rate of stimulated emission is depends upon

Number of atoms present in the higher energy state (𝑁2 )

The energy of the stimulating photon (𝑈𝛾 )

There for rate of stimulated emission ∝ 𝑁2 𝑈𝛾

Rate of stimulated emission = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝛾

𝐵21 - Proportionality constant called Einstein co-efficient of stimulated emission.

EQUATION FOR ENERGY DENSITY INTERMS OF EINSTEIN CO-EFFICIENTS→

Let the system be in thermal equilibrium which means that the number of photons absorbed by
the system per second must be equal to the number of photons it emits per second by both the
stimulated and the spontaneous emission process.

There for at thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

We have, 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝛾 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝛾

(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )𝑈𝛾 = 𝐴21 𝑁2

𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝛾 =
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2

By rearranging the above equation, we get

 𝐴21⁄
𝐵21
𝑈𝛾 =
𝐵12 𝑁1
𝐵21 𝑁2 − 1

𝐴21 1
𝑈𝛾 = { }
𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑁1 − 1
𝐵21 𝑁2

By Boltzmann’s law, we have

−(𝐸2 −𝐸1) −ℎ𝜈

𝑁2
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
ℎ𝜈
𝑁1
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑁2

𝐴 1
Above equation becomes 𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵21 {𝐵12 ℎ𝜈 }………..(a)
21 𝑒 ⁄𝑘𝑇 −1
𝐵21

According to planks law the equation for 𝑈𝛾 is

8𝜋ℎ𝜈3 1
𝑈𝛾 = { ℎ𝜈 } ……………………..(b)
𝑐3 𝑒 ⁄𝑘𝑇 −1

Now comparing equation (a) and (b)

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
=
𝑩21 𝑐3
𝐵12
=1
𝐵21
𝑩12 = 𝐵21

It implies that probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated

emission. Because of above identity the subscripts could be dropped and 𝐴21 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵21 can be
represented simply A and B. Hence above equation can be rewritten. Therefore at thermal
𝐴
equilibrium the equation for energy density is 𝑈𝛾 = ℎ𝜈
𝐵{𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1}

REQUISITES OF LASER SYSTEM

1. There must be at least a pair of energy level (𝐸2 > 𝐸1 ) separated by the radiation which is to
be stimulated. It requires an energy source.
2. There must be means of inverting the population of the two energy levels so that the
population 𝑁2 at energy level 𝐸2 is always kept greater than the population 𝑁1 at the lower
energy level 𝐸1.

3. All lasers require an active medium.

4. The laser system require an optical resonant cavity.

CONDITION FOR LASER ACTION.

Population inversion and metastable state:

Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population of a particular higher energy
states 𝐸2 is more than that of a specified lower energy state 𝐸1 .

If an atom is given energy it moves to one of its excited states. Normally the atoms exist in the
excited state returns to its lower energy state. In case if the atom in an excited state is metastable
state, then the atom stays in that state for a longer duration of time which is of the order of
10−3 to 10−2 seconds . This property helps in actieving the population inversion.

SEMICONDUCTOR LASER:

A Semiconductor diode laser is specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits
coherent light when it is forward biased. The wavelength of the emitted photon depends
upon the activation energy of crystal.
Principle: When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and
the holes from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other. During the
recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a certain specified
direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as
recombination radiation.
The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to
recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
Construction
Figure shows the basic
construction of semiconductor laser.

 The active medium is a p-n

junction diode made from the
single crystal of gallium arsenide.
 This crystal is cut in the form of a
platter having thickness of
0.5μmm.
 The platelet consists of two parts
having an electron conductivity
(n-type) and hole conductivity (p-
 type).
 The photon emission is
stimulated in a very thin layer of
PN junction (in order of few
microns).
 The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal through the electrode fixed on the
upper surface.
 The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each other.
They act as an optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out
Working:

Figure shows the energy level diagram of semiconductor laser.

 When the PN junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the
electrons and holes are injected into junction region in considerable
concentration.
 The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the
conductionband and a large amount of holes in the valence band.
 If the population density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved.
 The electrons and holes recombine with each other and this
recombination’s produceradiation in the form of light.
 When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons
are emittedand the light production instantly becomes stronger.

 These photons will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the

release ofphotons in phase.
  The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by
reflectionbetween two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and
grow in strength.
 After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength

8400Å .Thewavelength of laser light is given by

Where Eg. is the band gap energy in Joule. The power output from this laser is 1mW.
The natureof output is continuous wave or pulsed output

Advantages:

1. It is very small in dimension and the arrangement is simple and compact.

2. It exhibits high efficiency. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current
4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
Disadvantages:

1. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large divergence.
2. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).
3. It has poor coherence and poor stability.
Applications:

1. It is well suited for interface with fiber optic cables used in communication.
2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS:

1. Bar code scanner:

A bar code consist s of whit e and black bars. Dat a retrieval is achieved when bar
code scanners shine a light at a bar code, capt ure t he reflect ed light and replace
t he black and whit e bars wit h binar y digit al signals. Reflect ions are st rong in
whit e areas and weak in black areas. A sensor receives reflect ions t o obt ain
analog wavefor ms. The analog signal is convert ed int o a digit al signal via a n
A/D convert er.(Binar izat ion) .Dat a ret rieval is achieved when a code syst em is
det ermined fro m t he digit al signal obt ained. (Decoding process)
2. Laser printer:

A laser printer is a common type of computer printer that rapidly produces high quality text and
graphics on plain paper. As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), Laser
printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the
image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.

Overview

A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating
drum coated with selenium. Photoconductivity removes charge from the areas exposed to light.
Dry ink (toner) particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum's charged areas. The
drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the
paper.

Laser printers have many significant advantages over other types of printers. Unlike impact
printers, laser printer speed can vary widely, and depends on many factors, including the graphic
intensity of the job being processed. The fastest models can print over 200 monochrome pages
per minute (12,000 pages per hour). The fastest color laser printers can print over 100 pages per
minute (6000 pages per hour). Very high-speed laser printers are used for mass mailings of
personalized documents, such as credit card or utility bills, and are competing with lithography
in some commercial applications.

3. Laser cooling:

Laser cooling includes a number of techniques in which atoms, molecules, and small mechanical
systems are cooled, often approaching temperatures near absolute zero. Laser cooling techniques
rely on the fact that when an object (usually an atom) absorbs and re-emits a photon (a particle of
light) its momentum changes. For an ensemble of particles, their thermodynamic temperature is
proportional to the variance in their velocity. That is, more homogeneous velocities among
particles correspond to a lower temperature. Laser cooling techniques combine atomic
spectroscopy with the aforementioned mechanical effect of light to compress the velocity
distribution of an ensemble of particles, thereby cooling the particles. The 1997 Nobel Prize in
Physics was awarded to Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Steven Chu, and William Daniel Phillips "for
development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light".