Information management

Information Management (IM) refers to an organizational activity

cycle and the development, simulation or modeling of information
systems, applicable to management areas in organizations for the
acquisition of information from one or more sources, the safekeeping
and distribution of that information to those who need it, and its final
disposition through archiving or deletion.
This cycle of organizational engagement with information involves a
variety of stakeholders, including those responsible for ensuring the
quality, accessibility, and usefulness of acquired information; those
responsible for its
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soporte_de_almacenamiento_de_datosse
cure storagehttps://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminaci%C3%B3n and
disposal; and those who need it to make decisions. Data subjects may
have the right to originate, change, distribute or delete information in
accordance with organizational information management policies.
Information management encompasses all the generic concepts of
management, including planning, organizing, structuring, processing,
controlling, evaluating and reporting information activities, all of
which are necessary to meet the needs of those with organizational
roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts
allow information to be presented to the right audience or group of
people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, then
it gains more value.
Information management is closely related to the management of
data, systems, technology, processes and – where the availability of
information is critical to organizational success – strategy. This broad
view of the scope of information management contrasts with the
earlier, more traditional view that the information management life
cycle is an operational matter requiring specific procedures,
organizational capabilities, and standards that deal with information
as a product or service.

Index

 1 History
o 1.1 Emerging ideas in data management
o 1.2 Positioning information management in the bigger picture
 2Theoretical background
o 2.1 Behavioral and organizational theories
o 2.2 Economic theory
 3Strategic information management
o 3.1 Background
o 3.2 Alignment of technology and business strategy with
information management
o 3.3 A contemporary portfolio model for information
o 3.4Skills for managing information well
 3.4.1The areas of knowledge of information management
 3.4.2 Information management processes
o 3.5Summary
 4Operationalize information management
o 4.1Manage the required change
o 4.2Galbraith's early works
o 4.3The matrix organization
 5See also
 6References

History[edit]
Emerging ideas in data management[edit]
In the 1970s, information management largely concerned what is now
called data management: punched cards, magnetic tapes, and other
record-keeping media, involving a life cycle of such formats requiring
origination, distribution, backup, maintenance, and disposal. At this
time the enormous potential of information technology began to be
recognized: for example, a single chip that stored an entire book, or
email that moved messages instantly around the world, remarkable
ideas at the time.https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-11
With the proliferation of information technologies and the extended
reach of information systems in the 1980s and
1990s, https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:0-2
2 information
management took on a new form. Progressive companies such as
British Petroleum transformed the vocabulary of what was then "IT
management" so that "systems analysts" became "business
analysts", "supply monopoly" became a mix of "insourcing" and
"outsourcing", and the big function morphed into "lean teams" that
began to enable agility in processes that leveraged information for
business benefit. The scope of senior management interest at British
Petroleum extended from creating value through improved business
processes based on effective information management to enabling
the implementation of appropriate information systems
(https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:1-3or "applications")
operating on IT infrastructure that was outsourced. In this way,
information management was no longer a simple job that could be
done by anyone who had nothing else to https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti
%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:1-3
do; it became highly strategic and a
matter of senior management
attention.https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Alta_gerencia&action=edit&redlink=1 An understanding of the
technologies involved, the ability to manage information systems
projects and business change well, and the willingness to align
technology and business strategies all became
necessary. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:3-4
4
Positioning information management in the bigger picture[edit]
In the transitional period leading to the strategic vision of information
management, Venkatraman (a strong advocate of this transition and
transformation process,https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n -
cite_note-:0-2
2 offered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly
brought together data management, information management and
knowledge management (see figure)) argued that:

 Data maintained in the IT infrastructure needs to be interpreted to

render information.
 The information in our information systems must be understood to
emerge as knowledge.
 Knowledge enables managers to make effective decisions.
 Effective decisions must lead to appropriate actions.
 Appropriate actions are expected to deliver significant results.
This is often referred to as the DICAR model: Data, Information,
Knowledge, Action and Result,https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci
%C3%B3n - cite_note-5
5 it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in
aligning technology and organizational strategies, and can be seen as
a turning point in changing attitudes to information management.
Recognizing that information management is an investment that must
deliver significant results is important for all modern organizations
that depend on information and good decision making for their
success.https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:4-66

Theoretical background[edit]
Behavioral and organizational theories[edit]
It is commonly believed that good information management is crucial
to the smooth functioning of organizations, and although there is no
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADacommonly accepted
theory of information management per se, behavioral and
organizational theories help. Following the behavioral science theory
of management, developed primarily at Carnegie Mellon University
and prominently advocated by March and Simon, https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti
%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:2-7
7 most of what happens in modern
organizations is actually information management and decision
making. A crucial factor in information management and decision
making is an individual’s ability to process information and make
decisions under constraints that may arise from context: a person’s
age, situational complexity, or the lack of required quality in the
information at hand – all of which are exacerbated by the rapid
advance of technology and the new types of systems it enables,
especially as the social web emerges as a phenomenon that
businesses cannot ignore. And yet, long before there was general
recognition of the importance of information management in
organizations, March and Simon7https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci
%C3%B3n - cite_note-:2-7
argued that organizations have to be considered as
cooperative systems, with a high level of information processing and
a vast need for decision-making at various levels. Instead of using the
model of "economic man" as advocated in classical
theory,8 https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-8
they
proposed "administrative man" as an alternative, based on their
argument about the cognitive limits of rationality. They further
proposed the notion of satisficing, which involves searching through
available alternatives until a threshold of acceptability is met—
another idea that still has currency. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti
%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-9
9
Economic theory[edit]
In addition to the organizational factors mentioned in March and
Simon, there are other issues that arise from economic and
environmental dynamics. There is the cost of collecting and
evaluating the information needed to make a decision, including the
time and effort required.10 The transaction cost associated with
information processes can be high. In particular, established
organizational norms and procedures can prevent the most
appropriate decision from being made, leading to suboptimal
outcomes.https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-111112 This is
an issue that has been raised as a major problem with bureaucratic
organizations that miss out on economies of strategic change due to
entrenched attitudes.13

Strategic information management[edit]

Background[edit]
According to the Carnegie Mellon School, the organization's ability to
process information is the core of organizational
https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Competencia_(recursos_humanos)&action=edit&redlink=1and
managerial competence, and an organization's strategies should be
designed to enhance information processing capability.
14https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-14 And as the
information systems that provide that capability became formalized
and automated, competencies were rigorously tested at many levels.
15
It was recognized that organizations needed to be able to learn and
adapt in ways that were never more apparent before,
16https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-16 and scholars
began to organize and publish definitive works on strategic
information management and information systems.
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:3-44 17
Concurrently,
the ideas of business process management 18https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti
%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-18
and knowledge management
19 https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-

19
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_del_conocimiento
although much of the optimistic early thinking about business process
redesign has since been discredited in the information management
literature. 20 In the field of strategic studies, understanding the
information environment, conceived as the aggregate of individuals,
organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, and
process information, is considered of the highest priority. or act on
the information. This environment consists of three interrelated
dimensions that continually interact with individuals, organizations
and systems. These dimensions are physical, informational and
cognitive.21
Aligning technology and business strategy with information
management[edit]
Venkatraman has provided a simple view of the capabilities needed
by an organization that wants to manage information well – the DICAR
model (see above). He also worked with others to understand how
technology and business strategies could be appropriately aligned to
identify the specific capabilities needed. 22 This work was paralleled by
other writers in the world of consulting, 23
practice24 https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-24
and
academia.25
A contemporary portfolio model for information[edit]
Bytheway has collected and organized basic tools and techniques for
information management in a single volume. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti
%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:4-6
6 At the heart of his view of
information management is a portfolio model that takes into account
the growing interest in external sources of information and the need
to organize external unstructured information to make it useful (see
figure).

This portfolio model organizes internal and external sourcing and

information management issues, which may be structured or
unstructured.
An information portfolio like this shows how information can be
usefully collected and organized, in four stages:
Stage 1: Leveraging public information: Recognize and adopt well-
structured external schemas of reference data, such as postal codes,
weather data, GPS positioning data, and travel schedules, exemplified
in the personal computing press.26
Step 2: Labeling noise on the World Wide Web: Use existing schemas
such as postal codes and GPShttps://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS data or
more typically add "tags" or build a formal ontology that provides
structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches. 27
Stage 3: Sifting and Analysis: In the broader world, the generalized
ontologies being developed extend to hundreds of entities and
hundreds of relationships between them and provide the means to
derive meaning from large volumes of data. Structured databases
work best when that structure reflects a higher-level information
model: an ontology or entity-relationship model.28
Stage 4: Structuring and Archiving: With the vast volume of data
available from sources such as the social web and from miniature
telemetry systems used in personal health management, new ways of
archiving and then trawling through data for meaningful insights are
emerging. Map-reduce methods, originating from functional
programming, are a newer way of gaining insights from large archival
data sets that is becoming interesting for mainstream enterprises that
have very large information resources to work with, but requires
advanced multi-processor resources.29
Skills for managing information well[edit]
The Information Management Body of Knowledge (IMBOK) was made
available on the World Wide Web in 200430 https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti
%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-30
and sets out to demonstrate that the
management competencies needed to realise real benefits from an
investment in information are complex and multi-layered. The
framework model that is the basis for understanding competencies
comprises six areas of "knowledge" and four areas of "process":
The areas of knowledge of information management[edit]
The IMBOK is based on the argument that there are six required
management competency areas, two of which ("business process
management" and "enterprise information management") are closely
related.31

 Information Technology: The pace of technological change and the

pressure to constantly acquire the latest technological products
can undermine the stability of the infrastructure that supports
systems and, therefore, optimizes business processes and offers
advantages. It is necessary to manage the "supply side" and
recognize that technology is increasingly becoming a commodity. 32
 Information Systems: While historically information systems were
developed internally, over the years it has become possible to
acquire most of the software systems an organization needs from
the software package industry. However, there is still the potential
for competitive advantage from implementing new systems ideas
that deliver on the strategic intentions of
organizations. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:3-4
4
 Business processes and business information: Information
systems are applied to business processes to improve them, and
provide data to the business that becomes useful as business
information. Business process management is still considered a
relatively new idea because it is not universally adopted and has
been difficult in many cases; business information management is
even more challenging.https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n -
cite_note-333334
 Business Benefit: What are the benefits we are looking for? It is
necessary not only to be brutally honest about what can be
achieved, but also to ensure active management and evaluation of
the delivery of benefits. Since the emergence and popularization
of the Balanced Scorecard35https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci
%C3%B3n - cite_note-:6-

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuadro_de_mando_integral
35
there
has been a great deal of interest in business performance
management, but not much effort has been made to relate
business performance management to the benefits of information
technology investments and the introduction of new information
systems until the turn of the millennium.25
 Business strategy: Although far removed from the day-to-day
issues of information management in organizations, strategy in
most organizations simply must be informed by the opportunities
of information technology and information systems, whether to
address poor performance or to enhance differentiation and
competitiveness. Strategic analysis tools, such as value chain and
critical success factor analysis, depend directly on paying due
attention to the information that is (or could be)
managed.https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-:3-44
Information management processes[edit]
Even with full capability and competence within all six areas of
knowledge, it is argued that things can still go wrong. The problem
lies in the migration of ideas and the value of information
management from one area of expertise to another. Summarizing
what Bytheway explains in some detail (and supported by selected
secondary references):36

 Projects: Information technology is worthless until it is designed

into information systems that meet business needs through good
project management.37
 Business change: The best information systems succeed in
delivering benefits by achieving change within business systems,
but people do not appreciate change that makes new demands on
their skills in the ways that new information systems often do.
Contrary to common expectations, there is some evidence that the
public sector has achieved information technology-induced
business change.38
 Business operations: With new systems in place, with business
processes and business information improved, and with staff
finally ready and able to work with new processes, then the
business can get to work, even when the new systems extend far
beyond the boundaries of a single business. 39
 Performance Management: Investments are no longer just about
financial results, financial success must be balanced with internal
efficiency, customer satisfaction, and organizational learning and
development.35
Summary[edit]
There are always many ways to look at a business, and the
information management perspective is just one way. It is important
to remember that other areas of business activity will also contribute
to strategy – it is not just good information management that moves a
business forward. Corporate governance, human resource
management, product development and marketing will all have
important roles to play strategically, and we should not view any
single domain of activity as the sole source of strategic success. On
the other hand, corporate governance, human resource management,
product development and marketing all depend on effective
information management, and so, in the final analysis, our
competence in managing information well, on the broad basis offered
here, can be said to be predominant.

Operationalizing information management[edit]

Managing the required change[edit]
Organizations often face many information management challenges
and issues at the operational level, especially when engendering
organizational change. The novelty of new system architectures and
the lack of experience with new styles of information management
requires a level of organizational change management that is
notoriously difficult to deliver. As a result of a general reluctance of
the organization to change, to allow new forms of information
management, there could be (for example): a shortfall in the
resources required, a failure to comply with new kinds of information
and the new procedures that use them, a lack of support from senior
management leading to a loss of strategic vision, and even political
maneuvering that undermines the functioning of the entire
organization. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_de_la_informaci%C3%B3n - cite_note-

40
However, the implementation of new forms of information
management should normally lead to operational benefits.
Galbraith's early work[edit]
In early work, taking an information processing view of organizational
design, Jay Galbraith has identified five tactical areas for increasing
information processing capacity and reducing the need for
information processing.41

 Develop, implement and monitor all aspects of an organization's

"environment."
 Creation of lazy resources in order to decrease the load on the
overall resource hierarchy and reduce information processing
related to overload.
 Creating autonomous tasks with defined boundaries that can
achieve proper closure, and with all the resources on hand needed
to complete the task.
 Recognition of lateral relationships that cut across functional units,
in order to move decision-making power to the process rather than
fragmenting it within the hierarchy.
 Investment in vertical information systems that route information
flows for a specific task (or set of tasks) according to the applied
business logic.
The matrix organization[edit]
The concept of lateral relationships leads to an organizational form
that is different from the simple hierarchy, the "matrix organization."
This brings together the vertical (hierarchical) vision of an
organization and the horizontal vision (product or project) of the work
that is visible to the outside world. The creation of a matrix
organization is a management response to a persistent fluidity of
external demand, avoiding multiple and false responses to episodic
demands that tend to be treated individually.

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