J. Agrofor. Environ.

Vol 2 - Issue 1, 2008

Jhum cultivation in Khagrachari hill district of Bangladesh- a subsistence farming practices in ethnic
minorities

S. S. Chakma1 and K. Ando2

1
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, 2 Centers for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Japan

Abstract: Jhum cultivation (slash-and-burn agriculture) with upland rice as the major crop is the pre-dominant land-use system in the hilly
regions of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. With low population densities and moderate expectations, this system may have
ecologically sound and adapted to the resource available. Jhum cultivation is changing rapidly, partly because of population pressure and partly
because livelihood strategies are diversified to include permanent cultivation of cash crops. Fast population growth have resulted in shorter
fallow cycles and consequently increased soil erosion in hills with loss of soil fertility. Realizing these key roles of skill/experience and fallow
periods in Jhum cultivation, the ongoing research activities explored to know the status of the Jhum farmers in these aspects. The initial findings
of this research effort are summarized and discussed in this paper. It was observed that Jhum farmers had been practicing shifting cultivation
with an average fallow periods of 3.2, 2.6 and 2.5 years, respectively for the landless, small and medium farmers. Almost all of the selected
farmers felt that the fallow period has been consistently shortening and productivity of the fields has been declining. The present average of the
2-3 years fallow period is too short for the vegetation regeneration and to regain soil fertility.
Keywords: Jhum (Slash-and-burn) cultivation, Khagrachari hill district, fallow period and farming experience.

Introduction 1960s, this practice was not considered to be very

detrimental to the hill ecology. Population growth
In Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) slash-and-burn along with rapid deforestation has reduced the fallow
agriculture, a kind of swidden or shifting cultivation in period from 10-20 years to 2-3 years. The present
hills locally known as Jhum chash has been recognized average of 2-3 years fallow period is too short for the
as subsistence food production system for ethnic regeneration phase of the cultivation and to regain soil
minorities, namely Chakma, Marma, Tripura, etc. For fertility. Although there is a substantial volume of
centuries, the ethnic minority communities have been literature on the hill farming systems in abroad
practicing Jhum cultivation and this term has also been (Agalawatte and Abeygunawardena, 1993 for the Sri
adopted in fishing, hunting and harvesting of forest Lankan experience; Araki, 1993 for Zambia; Goswami,
products. Jhum cultivation and forest are still central 1980 for India; and Sunderlin, 1997 for Indonesia),
role player to the traditional societies as their primary research on indigenous farming systems in Bangladesh
sources of food, shelter, medicine and other products has been strikingly limited (Hassan and Muzumder,
and services (Ahmed and Gabby, 1996).The intimate 1995; Hossain et al., 1985; Ishaq, 1971). However,
relationships between the ethnic minority and the hill according to expansion of modernization in
farming system have enriched their ethnobotanical development of CHT, the farmers have recently shifted
knowledge through ages (Khisa, 1997a; 1997b). The the importance from shifting or Jhum cultivation to
CHT shares border with the Arakan and Chin states of permanent cultivation. Accordingly, a study to
Myanmar, and Tripura and Mizoram States of India understand the agro-status of Jhum cultivation in
and consists of three hill districts of Rangamati, farming systems of CHT is much required. The current
Khagrachari and Bandarban and it covers an area of 13, study is, therefore, an attempt to deal with this issue,
295 km2, about 10% of the country. There are twelve highlighting peoples' local farming practices and
ethnic communities living in the region who are experiences on Jhum cultivation especially for
traditionally all swidden cultivators, although some of understanding inter household variation in Jhum
them are also used to and still occasionally do engage cultivation, fallow periods, and farming experience in
in hunting, fishing, gathering and herding activities. particular.
The Chak, Khyang, Khumi and Moru who lives mostly Materials and Methods
on the ridge-tops, are still largely swidden cultivators.
The Chakma, Marma, Tangchangya and Tripura who The research was conducted in Baghaichari muk
live on the gentle slopes and river valleys engage in village, Khagrachari Hill District of Bangladesh. The
swidden cultivation. In 1960 hydroelectric dam was village is situated at a distance of 30 km to the
constructed in the Karnaphuli River at Kaptai village northeast of the district headquarters (Fig. 1) in the
of Rangamati hill district, inundating about 20,000 ha year of 2004 and 2006. Data were collected from 50
or 40% of the prime agricultural land in the CHT. This Jhum farmers using open structured questionnaire. In
has thoroughly changed the ecological as well as addition, semi-structured questionnaires were also used
socio-economic scenario of the region and the ethnic with selected Jhum farmers and field observations
communities. About 100,000 ethnic communities’ were conducted as well. About 75% of their
peoples were displaced by the reservoir who were populations are dependent upon forest resources for
spread in the other parts of CHT and compelled to take their livelihood. Among the population, the Buddhists
to Jhum cultivation on the hill slope. Until the early are in a majority.
 Study area

Khagrachari district
headquarters

Fig. 1 Location of the study village

The village lengthened 500 m from north to south and

3 km from east to west, and the Mayani River runs Fig. 3 Study village and Jhum conducting area
through its western part. The village of Udal Bagan
The rainy season starts in May and ends in October,
and a paved road is located to the South, and a reserve
and winter starts in November and ends in February
forest is located to the East (Fig. 2).
(SRDI, 2002). Based on long-term records (1961-
1990) obtained from the Rangamati Weather Station,
rain starts in February, gradually increase until July,
and then decrease. About 90% of the total rainfall
occurs during six months from May to October. The
highest (627mm) and lowest (4mm) of rainfall occur in
the months of July and January, respectively.
Maximum 330c and minimum 200c temperatures were
Reserve Forest
Road
recorded in April and January.
River
Stream
House
Results and Discussion
Buddhist temple
Petty shop Jhum cultivation systems in the study village
Foot path
N The CHT is mostly comprised of hills and very limited
flat lands. Jhum farming is a labor intensive
agricultural system. Most of the labor comes from the
1km family members. Side by side, it requires little capital
because very little external inputs are needed. Mostly
Jhum cultivation is conducted in the reserve forest,
usually far from the village. The major steps of Jhum
Fig. 2 Map of Baghaichari muk village cultivation, which include land selection, land
preparation, sowing and planting, weeding, pest
management, harvesting, threshing and storing.
Land selection: Land selection is done during the
The distance between the village and the fields differed month of February. Soil fertility, degree of hill slope,
considerably depending on the fields. Few fields are accessibility and distance from the villages are the
about 30km away, a 3 days journey by boat and foot main consideration for the selection of land for Jhum.
(Fig.3.). One of reasons why farmers sought fields in Cultivator determines soil fertility from the soil color
such remote land is that for which nobody claimed and growth of the bushes. Black colored soil and lands
ownership of land use rights. Three distinct cropping with vigorous growth of vegetation are considered as
seasons existed in this area. The summer season starts fertile land suitable for Jhum cultivation. Accessibility
in March and April and is characterized by high and closeness of the Jhum land from the homestead are
temperatures and humidity with occasional also considered while selecting land. A Jhum cropping
thunderstorms and cyclones. calendar of the study village is given below.

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 Fig. 4 Jhum cropping calendar followed by the farmers of the study village
Land preparation: Land preparation usually starts the use of pesticide and chemical fertilizers by some
from March. First, the standing vegetation are slashed farmer to improve production.
and allowed to dry during the dry period. The dried Crop harvesting: Harvesting begins at the ripe. The
vegetation and the fallen logs are burnt in the month of first crop to ripe is maize in mid-July, followed by
April and May. The partially burnt or unburned logs melons and different varieties of vegetables. Rice and
are then dragged out of the Jhum land and piled up. other grains are ready for harvest in September, and
Some of these woods are used to create fences to keep cotton, the final crop, is collected in October. The rice
wild animals away from the Jhum land. The land is panicles are harvested and brought to the temporary
ready for crop establishment at the first shower, which house in the Jhum field. A special kind of knife locally
usually occurs in April or May. called chari is used for harvesting rice panicles. Rice
Sowing and planting: Sowing commences as soon as straws are cut from the base and leave in the Jhum
the monsoons starts and the ground is saturated, field for few days. Yield of Jhum crops are found to
generally in the months of May and June. A narrow vary between years and between Jhums. It was noticed
hole, about three inches deep, is dug with the blunt that distribution of rainfall was the most important
square end of a tagol (knife); a handful of mixed seeds factor on which production largely depends. The next
of rice, vegetables and cotton etc. are then placed in important factor is the weed management.
the hole to complete the process. The quantity of rice Jhum rice threshing and storing: Threshing of Jhum
seed is greater than that of other types sown by this rice is usually done by foot. In some cases sticks are
process, as rice is the staple food and cultivator aim to used. Rice is usually stored as unhusked paddy either
maximize growth of this crop. Creepers, including in the gunny bag or storing container made of bamboo
pumpkin, sweet potato, sweet gourd, and watermelon, (Turong/gola/dol).
are raised in mounds some distance away. Jhum cycle: An average Jhum cycle before creation of
Weeding: Jhum requires minimum weeding. Weeds Kaptai Dam was 10 to 20 years or even more. Such
are controlled manually by using the tagol. Two to longer cycle usually did not cause serious damage to
three times weeding are necessary. Each and every soil and soil fertility. But acute shortages of plain
cultivator in turn helps his or her neighbor in weeding. cultivable land as a consequence of inundation by
Pest managements: Among the insect pests rice bugs Karnafuli Lake and population pressure due to birth
(Leptocorisa acuta) are reported to be major pest. But and immigration from plain area shortened the fallow
vertebrate pests such as rat, wild pig, deer, monkeys period. This has resulted in declining soil fertility,
and jungle fowl also cause considerable damage. Thus, lower yields and quick soil erosion resulting in soil
cultivators built small house locally called Tong ghor degradation. In addition, cultivator took the
in the Jhum field for guarding the crop against these opportunity to cultivate Jhum in one to two seasons
vertebrate pests. The wild pigs and deer may seriously while establishing orchard or planted forest.
damage the young rice plants. On the other hand rats, Jhum crops: Jhum cultivator produce almost
monkeys and jungle fowl cause serious damage to everything whatever they need. Large numbers of
ripening crop. Now a day the most notable change is cereals, vegetable, pulse, oilseed, spices, fruits and

3
fiber crop were found to grow in the Jhum fields and like ginger and turmeric rather than paddy, which was
rice was always the main crop. It was noticed that the common feature throughout the CHT.
about 30 crops, were grown in Jhum chash. Cultivators Jhum rice varieties: During field survey, 2006 about
use many traditional varieties for each of the above 22 types of Jhum rice varieties were found to grow in
mentioned crops. In the past 15 to 20 crops used to be the Jhum fields. Some of the conventional varieties
grown together, which used to supply almost all the were glutinous but most of them were non-glutinous
necessities of food and fiber. At present 5 to 8 crops rice. Generally glutinous rice were used for making
were usually grown in a Jhum field. Besides, few Jhum cakes and sometimes for own consumption.
cultivators were more interested to produce cash crops

Table 1 Different type of crops grown in the Jhum field

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Table 2 Common Jhum rice varieties grown in the field

Cultural and religious norms in Jhum cultivation wild boar, dogs, or fire), the local priest was contacted
The ethnic communities in the CHT select their Jhum to arrange for special prayers or sacrifices of poultry or
lands based on certain religious believes. Usually, a other animals to find suitable land for Jhum cultivation.
farmer bathes, dresses in clean clothes, and offers Relationship between household of farm size
prayers before seeking out a Jhum site. If a suitable site categories and Jhum farm lands use types in the
was found, she/he collected a lump of soil for a dream study village
test. The soil sample was placed in a sacred place Farmers were classified into four farm size categories
beside the pillow or bed within the house. That night, based on their landholdings such as (1) landless
after bathing and changing into clean clothes, the farmers (own no lands) (2) small farmers, (a farm
farmer retired and awaits a dream. If the dream was holding having an operated area of less than 1.01 ha)
favorable (e.g., large fish, water, fruit, women wearing (3) medium farmers, (a farm holding having an
white clothing, flowers, or corn fields), the land was operated area of 1.01-3.03 ha) (4) large farmers, (a
selected for cultivation. If the dream was unfavorable farm holding having an operated area of 3.03 ha and
(e.g., deer, tigers, elephants, goats, snakes, insects, above) (BBS, 2001).

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 Table3. Relationship between household of farm size categories and Jhum farm land use types in the study village

Table 3 shows that there were 12 landless farmers who medium (0.60 ha) farmers where as large farmers were
had no land of their own (5% of the total households) not practicing. This might be due to possessing of more
and most of them were daily laborers and Jhum paddy land (average 1.88 ha) by large farmers. It has
cultivators. They cultivate about 6.87 ha of Jhum land. also found that landless, small and medium households
On an average each landless farmers have occupied attempted to overcome the land scarcity by adopting
0.57 ha Jhum land area. The average farm size of the Jhum cultivation, though Jhum lands were far away
small farmers (163 HH) has been found to operate 0.72 from their living village (about 10-12 km) and some
ha for the Jhum cultivation. In a same way, medium lands were located more remote areas and it had taken
(61 HH) farmers have been found to operate 0.60 ha time 2 or 3 days to reach there.
under Jhum cultivation and the large farmers (11HH) Difference of farming types between permanent
were not practicing in Jhum cultivation at all. Total farming and shifting cultivation in the study village
land operated by small and medium farmers were 20 The Table 4 indicates that 65% of no Jhum farmers
ha and 6 ha, respectively. are holding the paddy land comparison to Jhum farmer
The results indicates that the Jhum cultivation was having only 14% of paddy land. In addition, the
practiced more (in regards to land area) by landless average total lands owned by Jhum farmers (0.49 ha)
(0.57 ha) farmers than that of small (0.72 ha) and are half of that under permanent farming (1.0ha).

Table 4. Difference of farming types between permanent farming and shifting cultivation in the study village

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Relationship between farm size categories with small and medium farmers. Among the landless
Jhum farming experience and fallow period in the farmers Jhum farming experience of the study village
study found to range minimum 2 years to maximum 32 years.
Table 5 indicates that the landless farmers are more Landless farmers keep the land fallow due to want of
experienced (average 7 years) than small and medium cash money. During the fallow period they work as
farmers whereas large farmers have no experience in daily laborer in the paddy of large farmers. After
the Jhum farming. This might be as landless farmers managing a handsome amount of money within one or
have no paddy land so they were confined to Jhum two years working as daily laborer, they again return to
only. The landless farmers are doing Jhum farming the Jhum land for its cultivation.
with an average 7 year of experiences in comparison to

Table 5. Relationship between farm size categories with Jhum farming experience and fallow period in the study village

This category of farmer also sells out part of their over the last 50 years, average fallow periods have
Jhum product, the paddy to use the money to rent-in been reduced drastically. There is an urgent need to
the paddy land of a year or so. As a result fallow period identify deterioration in soil fertility and productivity
among the landless farmers appears more or longer of crops under the reduced fallow periods.
(3.2 years). Small and medium categories of farmers
have the tendency to grow more ginger or turmeric Jhum cultivation is practiced more (in regards to land
than rice and other vegetables as these two crops are area) by the landless farmers than the small and
more remunerative. These small and medium farmers medium farmers, whereas the large farmers are not
thus have a less tendency to keep fallow land rather practicing it. It can be considered that the landless,
than to grow biennial spices like ginger and turmeric. small and medium households have attempted to
As they grow more remunerative crops they have overcome the land scarcity by adopting Jhum
fewer tendencies to keep the land fallow. As a result cultivation. This may be due to possessing of more
fallow period among the small and medium farmers paddy land by large farmers and paddy cultivation be
appears less. It is only 2.6-2.5 years. more economic-profitable and productive than Jhum.
The landless farmers were more experienced (average
Conclusion 7 years) than small and medium farmers where as large
farmers had no experience as because they were not
The ethnic minorities in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) involved in Jhum. It is remarked that recently
region are centered on the hills and their resources. introduced mono-cropping of aroids, turmeric and
Slash-and-burn agriculture with upland rice as the zinger in hill slopes without proper soil and water
major crop was the predominated land use system in conservation measures might make the hill agriculture
this region. However, the present farming systems in system more unsustainable.
the study village show that dependence on Jhum Land degradation along with the lack of appropriate
cultivation is not so large. One of reasons might be the Jhum cultivation technology may be leading to a sharp
agro-ecological setting of the village and another is the decline in productivity of lands in the CHT region.
farmers’ socio-economic capability on their farming. Ultimately the farming system, especially Jhum
From the viewpoint of agronomy, it is noticed that, cultivation, is becoming fragile. On the basis of the

7
present study, it could be concluded that more than ICIMOD/Special Affairs Division held at
70% of the population or landless and small farmers of Rangamati from January 23-25, 1995.p.9.
this region is losing sustainability of their subsistence Hossain, M.; Jahangir, B.K.; Sarkar, M.A.U.;
farming due to over-depending Jhum cultivation. The Choudhury, E.I. and Rahman, M.S. 1985.
decline of the existing farming practices is of major Country report of slash and burn forestry
concern. communities in Bangladesh. (mimeo.)
Ishaq, M. 1971. Bangladesh district gazetteers:
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