LAB MANUAL

Program : B.Sc. in EEE

Course Code : EEE 104
Course Title : Electrical Circuits Lab
Course Credit : 1.50
Contact Hours : 3 hrs
 Introduction
In this course, the students verify practically the theories and concepts learned in EEE
101, and EEE 103 and design simple systems using the principles learned in those
courses. It is a prerequisite for many other courses in EEE.
1. Course Objectives

Electrical Circuits Laboratory is one of the fundamental laboratory courses for EEE
students. It aimsto give students a practical idea about the practical applications of the
theory they study in circuit courses.

2. Course Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:

CO1: Use the various procedures and techniques for getting experimental knowledge on
electrical circuits. [PO1]

CO2: Verify different electrical laws and theorems on DC and AC circuits by conducting
experiments and applying mathematical equations, and graphical analysis to the data
obtained from those experiments. [PO1]

CO3: Design and develop a system for real-life use or for analyzing the circuit activities in
depth based on electrical circuits knowledge achieved by the course. [PO3]

CO4: Select modern hardware and software tools and devices for using them to solve
problems related to electrical circuits. [PO5]

CO5: Work on complex engineering problems individually and in a team. [PO9]

CO6: Communicate and share knowledge, data, information, results, etc. with others.
[PO10]]

CO7: Work individually and in a team. [PO9]

CO8: Communicate and share knowledge, data, information, results, etc. with others.
[PO10]

CO9: Apply engineering project management knowledge and skills to implement the mini-
project. [PO11]

CO10: Gather and apply knowledge, data, and information from various multidisciplinary
sources to analyze, design and implement the mini-project. [PO12]
 3. Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain/level Delivery
Corresponding Assessment
CO Statement of learning methods and
PO tools
taxonomy activities
Upon completion this
experiment, students will
be able to: PO1–
Affective
CO1: use the various Engineering
domain/
procedures and techniques knowledge
analyzing
for using ammeter
level
voltmeter for finding the
voltage drops andcurrents;

CO2: apply the PO1– Affective

mathematical equations to Engineering domain/ Simulation
get the data theoretically knowledge analyzing Lab tests
and experimentally; level Experiment
Lab reports
Practice lab
CO3: Design and develop a PO3– Affective Final lab test
system for real life use or domain/ Group
for analyzing the circuit Engineering discussion Open ended
analyzing
activities in depth based on lab
level Tutorial
electrical circuits
knowledge achieved by the
Project
course show& project
presentation
CO4: Select modern PO5– Affective
hardware and software tools domain/
and devices for using them Engineering
analyzing
to solve the problems knowledge
level
related to electrical circuits
CO5: Work on complex
engineering problems PO9– Affective
individually and in a team. domain/
Engineering
analyzing
knowledge
level
CO6: Communicate and PO10– Affective
share knowledge, data, domain/
information, results etc. Engineering
analyzing
with others knowledge
level

CO7: Work individually PO9– Affective

and in a team. domain/
Engineering
analyzing
knowledge
level

CO8: Communicate and PO10– Affective

share knowledge, data, domain/
information, results etc. Engineering
analyzing
with others knowledge
level

CO9: Apply engineering PO11– Affective

project management domain/
Engineering
knowledge and skill to analyzing
knowledge
implement the mini level
project.
CO10: Gather and apply
PO12– Affective
knowledge, data and
domain/
information from various Engineering
analyzing
multidisciplinary sources to knowledge
level
analyze, design and
implement the mini-project.

4. Text Book

1. Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric

Circuits’’ 6th EditionISBN 9780078028229

5. Reference
1.Robert L. Boylestad , “Introductory circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition ,
Newyork, 2010,ISBN 9780137146666
 6. Weekly Schedule

Experiment Name of the Experiments Page No.

Number

1. Introduction to laboratory equipment, measurement of resistance 5-14

using color codes, and verification of Ohm’s law

2. Verification of KVL and KCL in the DC circuit 15-20

3. Verification of Mesh current Analysis in DC circuit 21-25
4. Verification of Node voltage Analysis in DC circuit 26-30
5. 31-36
Verification of Superposition Theorem in DC circuit

6. Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer 37-43

Theorem

Mid-term
7. Familiarization with Oscilloscope, Function Generator, and 44-53
Alternating Current waves.

8. Study of Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance 54-62

9. Verification of KVL and KCL in AC Circuit 63-68
10. Study of Series R, L, C in AC Circuit 69-77
11. Study of Parallel R, L, C in AC Circuit. 78-85

12. Study of Series Resonance and Parallel Resonance 86-100

Final Exam
 Experiment Number: 01
Name of the Experiment: Introduction to Laboratory Equipment, measurement of resistance using
color codes and verification of ohm’s law
Objectives: To get acquainted with different equipment and components used in circuit laboratory.
Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Lab tests
Upon completion of
this experiment, Simulation Lab reports
students will be able to: PO1– Experiment Final lab
Affectiv
CO1: use the various Engineerin test
e Practice lab
01 procedures and g
domain/ Open ended
techniques for using knowledge Group
ammeter voltmeter for analyzin lab
glevel discussion
finding the voltage Project
drops and currents; Tutorial
show& project
presentation

Equipment List:
01. Digital Trainer Board
02. Voltmeter
03. Ammeter
04. AVO meter or Multimeter
05. DC Source
06. Resistors
07. Wattmeter

Theory:
Ohm’s law: Ohm’s law deals with the relationship between voltage and current in a conductor. This law states that
at fixed temperature the current passing through a conductor between two points is proportional to the voltage (or
potential difference) across the two points and inversely proportional to the resistance between them. In
mathematical terms it is written as V  IR , where V is the potential difference in Volts, I is the current in Amperes
and R is a constant. The constant R is called the resistance and is measured in Ohms (Ω). The potential difference
is also known as voltage drop and is denoted by both E and V.
Current: The electric current through a conductor is defined as the amount of electric charge flowing through the
conductor in unit time. This is expressed as I  Q / t , where Q is the charge in Coulombs (C), t is in seconds and
unit of I is Ampere. Actually, the unit 1 (C/S) is known as a 1 A.
Voltage: To move an electron in a conductor in any direction requires some work or energy transfer. This is
performed by an external force created by chemical sources (batteries), generators or power supplies. This external
force is known as electro-motive force (e.m.f.) or voltage or potential difference (p.d.).
“Voltage (or p.d, or e.m.f.) is defined as the energy required moving a unit charge through an element. It is
measured in volts (V).”
 The voltage vab between two points a and b in a circuit is the energy needed to move a unit charge from a
dw dw W
to b. So vab  , and, therefore, V   volts where W is energy in Joules (J), q is charge in Coulombs (C)
dq dq Q
, vab is in Volts (V).
1 volt  1 Joule / Coulomb  1 newton  meter / Coulomb .
“A potential difference of 1 Volt (V) exists between two points if 1 Joule (J) of energy is exchanged in
moving 1 Coulomb (C) of charge between the two points.” Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc
voltage and a sinusoidal time varying voltage is called an ac.”

Voltmeter: A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital
voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter. Voltmeters are made in a
wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed
apparatus. Portable instruments, usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of a
multimeter, are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that can be
converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature,
flow or level in a chemical process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale, and are used with
voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically
better than 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable
of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of
microvolts or less.
Voltmeter is a measuring instrument containing an indicating needle over a dial showing Volts. The voltage
is measured by placing two probes on two points across an element. Digital voltmeters show the numerical values
on a LCD screen.

Ammeter: An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents
are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milli ampere,
microampere or pico ampere range, are designated as milli ammeters, micro ammeters or pico ammeter. Early
ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th
century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate
measurements in electric power systems.
Ammeter is a measuring instrument containing an indicating needle over a dial showing current in Amperes.
The current passing through an element is measured by placing the two probes in series through the element. Digital
ammeters show the numerical values on a LCD screen.

Wattmeter: The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical
energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of utility frequency
and audio frequency power; other types are required for radio frequency measurements.
The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair of fixed
coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.
The current coils connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel. Also,
on analog wattmeter, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the measurement. A
current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this
field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value
resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional to both the
current and the voltage, thus conforming to the equation W = VA or P = VI.
A typical wattmeter in educational labs has two voltage coils (pressure coils) and a current coil. We can
connect the two pressure coils in series or parallel to each other to change the ranges of the wattmeter. Another
feature is that the pressure coil can also be tapped to change the meter's range. If the pressure coil has range of 300
volts, the half of it can be used so that the range becomes 150 Volts.

Multimeter: A multimeter or a multi tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring
that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would include basic features such
as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeter use a micro ammeter whose pointer
moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital multimeter (DMM,
DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity
being measured. Digital multimeter are now far more common than analog ones, but analog multimeter are still
preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly-varying value.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a bench
instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical
problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls,
domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
Multimeters are available in a wide range of features and prices. Cheap multimeter can cost less than
US$10, while the top of the line multimeter can cost more than US$5,000.

Figure-01: Analog and Digital Multimeter

A Multimeter is a measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. Most instruments
include an ammeter, voltmeter and an ohmmeter. Nowadays, both analog and digital meters are available. Modern
multimeters can measure other parameters also.

Resistors: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element.
The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This
relationship is represented by Ohm's law:𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅, where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes,
V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor
in units of ohms.
The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called
its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working
within their ratings.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire
(wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic
design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen
resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern
in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must
exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power
electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a
high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

Figure-02: Different types of resistor

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be
important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor
may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the
technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family
of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized
according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is
relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Breadboard: A breadboard (or proto board) is usually a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term
"breadboard" is commonly used to refer to a solder less breadboard (plug board).
A breadboard originally was a flat wooden cutting board used to support a loaf of bread (or other foods)
while it was being sliced; this original meaning is still in use, but has a new additional meaning as "a base for
prototyping". The concept of "bread boarding" as prototyping is not confined to electronic design; "mechanical
breadboards" have been and continue to be used by mechanical engineers.
Because the solderless breadboard for electronics does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it
easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. Older breadboard types did
not have this property. A strip board (vero-board) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to
build semi-permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may
be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to complete central processing units
(CPUs).

Solderless breadboard An example of a complex A binary counter wired

with 400 connection circuit built on a breadboard. up on a large solder less
points The circuit is an Intel breadboard
8088single board computer

Figure-03: Breadboard and implementation of circuitry

Resistor Color Coding:

Figure-04: Resistor color coding

A 2260 ohm, 1% precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top 2-2-6-1-1; the last two brown
bands indicate the multiplier (x10), and the 1% tolerance. The larger gap before the tolerance band is somewhat
difficult to distinguish. To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
 band A is first significant figure of component value (left side)
 band B is the second significant figure (Some precision resistors have a third significant figure, and thus
five bands.)
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)\

***
 For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow in table below),
second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real
resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.
Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate
(reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details.
Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an additional band
indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.
All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are optional.
The standard color code per EN 60062: 2005 is as follows:
Temp.
Significant
Color Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient
figures
(ppm/K)
Black 0 ×10 0
– 250 U
1
Brown 1 ×10 ±1% F 100 S
2
Red 2 ×10 ±2% G 50 R
Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P
Yellow 4 ×10 4
(±5%) – 25 Q
5
Green 5 ×10 ±0.5% D 20 Z
6
Blue 6 ×10 ±0.25% C 10 Z
7
Violet 7 ×10 ±0.1% B 5 M
±0.05%
Gray 8 ×108 A 1 K
(±10%)
White 9 ×109 – –
Gold – ×10 -1
±5% J –
Silver – ×10 -2
±10% K –
None – – ±20% M –
1. Any temperature co-efficient not assigned its own letter shall be
marked "Z", and the coefficient found in other documentation.
2. For more information, see EN 60062.
3. Yellow and Gray are used in high-voltage resistors to avoid
metal particles in the lacquer

Resistors use preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by their tolerance. These
values repeat for every decade of magnitude: 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. In the E24 series the values are related by
the 24th root of 10, while E12 series are related by the 12th root of 10, and E6 series by the 6th root of 10. The
tolerance of device values is arranged so that every value corresponds to a preferred number, within the required
tolerance.
Zero ohm resistors are made as lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which can be substituted
for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked with a single black band.
The 'body-end-dot' or 'body-tip-spot' system was used for radial-lead (and other cylindrical) composition
resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment; the first band was given by the body color, the second band
by the color of the end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot or band around the middle of the resistor. The
other end of the resistor was colored gold or silver to give the tolerance, otherwise it was 20%.

Power Supplies: A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most
commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may
also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A
regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is
held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy
source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while
performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:
 Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies that convert AC
line voltage to DC voltage.
 Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
 Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
 Solar power.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired
to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part of desktop computers
and consumer electronics devices.

Commonly specified power supply attributes include:

 The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.

 How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.
 How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ
portable energy sources).

A home-made linear power A linear DC power supply Programmable power supplies

supply (used here to power
amateur radio equipment

Use of measuring instrument: Voltage Measurement:

Set the voltage on the breadboard to an arbitrary voltage between 10 to 15 Volts. Measure this voltage with different
types of multimeters and probes. For one measurement use the DVM in the board.
 Table-01
Meter ①(Volts) Meter ② (Volts) Meter ③ (Volts) DVM reading Average (Volts)
(Volts)

Measuring Values of Resistors:

Calculate the values of some resistors using color code. Then measure the values using multimeters and compare
the results.
Table-02

Resistor Color Code Values (ohms) Multimeter Values (ohms)

R1
R2
R3

Calculation in a circuit:
Construct a circuit taking a standard series parallel combination from the text book. Calculate the total resistance𝑅𝑇 ,
total current𝐼, voltages 𝑉𝑎𝑏 and 𝑉𝑐𝑑 . Again measure the same values using multimeter and compare the results.
Table-03
Applied Measured values Multimeter readings
Voltage 𝑅𝑇 𝐼 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑐𝑑 𝑅𝑇 𝐼 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑐𝑑
5V
10 V
15 V

Report Writing:
1. In Table-1, what are the reasons of getting different results using different sets of multimeters for the same
supply voltage?
2. A series circuit consists of 10 V DC source and 1000 Ω resistance. Calculate the current flowing through
the circuit using Ohm’s law. Now an ammeter with an internal resistance of 100 Ω is placed in series with
the circuit. What will be the ammeter reading? Explain the difference of results.
3. What happens when an ammeter is connected in parallel to a load?
4. With an example explain voltmeter loading effect.
5. Using Table-3 calculate the approximate internal resistance of the multimeter.

Discussion:
Write about what you have learned in the class.
--
Experiment Number: 02
Name of the Experiment: Verification of KVL and KCL in DC circuit
Objective: To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) in a
Passive Resistive Network

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Lab tests
Upon completion of
this experiment, Simulation Lab reports
students will be able to: PO1– Experiment Final lab
Affective
CO1: use the various Engineeri test
domain/ Practice lab
02 procedures and ng
analyzing Open ended
techniques for using knowledge Group
level lab
ammeter voltmeter for discussion
finding the voltage Project
drops and currents; Tutorial
show& project
presentation

Theory:

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (or voltage drops) in any closed
path of a network that is transverse in a single direction is zero. In other words, in a closed circuit, the
algebraic sum of all the EMFs and the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops (product of current (I) and
resistance (R)) is zero.

ΣE+ΣV=0 (1)

Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that” the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node point or a
junction of a circuit is zero”.

ΣI=0 (2)
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig.2.1: Verification of KVL

Fig.2.2: Verification of KCL

Required Equipment and Devices:

1. Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. Bread Board
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply

Required Parameters/data:
The list of necessary parameters and their proper values/data should be selected and
organized in a table.

Experimental Procedure:

a) To verify KVL
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure2.1
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply the voltage (say 5V) and note the voltmeter readings.
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage insteps.
5. Note the readings of voltmeters.
6. Sum up the voltmeter readings (voltage drops), that should be equal to applied
voltage.
7. Thus, KVL is verified practically.

b) To verify KCL
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 1.2
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply the voltage (say 5V) and note the Ammeter readings.
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage insteps.
5. Note the readings of Ammeters.
6. Sum up the Ammeter readings (I1 and I2), that should be equal to total current (I).
7. Thus, KCL is verified practically.

Precautions:
1. As we have to take some measurements of currents, everyone should be careful about using the
multimeter as an ammeter .the ammeter should never be connected in parallel.
2. Do not switch on DC source while implementing the circuit in the trainer board.
Data Collection:

a) For KVL

Applied V1 (volts) V2 (volts) V3 (volts) V1+V2+V3 (volts)

Voltage Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
V (volts) (V1=I.R1) (V2=I.R2) (V3=I.R3) V=V1+V2+V3

b) For KCL
Applied I (A) I1 (A) I2 I1+I2 (A)
Voltage (A)
V (volts) Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

I1= V1/R1 I2= V2/R2 Io= I1+I2

Data analysis:
1. Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
2. Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).

Results and Discussion:

1. Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
2. Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
3. State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objectives were fulfilled or not withi n a short
paragraph.
Reference:
1. Robert L. Boylestad , “Introduction circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork, 2010,
ISBN 9780137146666

Pre-Lab Viva Sample Questions:

1 Define current?
2 Define voltage?
3 What is resistance?
4 Define ohm’slaw?
5 State KCL and KVL?

Post Lab Viva Sample Questions:

1. What do you mean by junction?
2. Explain the passive sign conventions.
3. Explain the color coding of resistors.
4. Identification of active and passive elements.
5. Define characteristics of linear or non-linear elements.
6. Define variables.
Experiment Number: 03

Name of the Experiment: Verification of Mesh current Analysis in DC circuit

Objective: The study of mesh analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in multi-
source DC circuits. Its application in finding circuit currents and voltages will be investigated.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain / level
Expt. Correspondi Delivery methods
CO Statement of learning Assessment tools
No. ng PO and activities
taxonomy

Lab tests
Upon completion this Simulation Lab reports
experiment, students will
be able to: Affective Experiment Final lab
PO1–
CO1: use the various Engineering domain/ test
03 Practice lab
procedures and knowledge analyzing Open ended
techniques for using level Group
lab
ammeter for finding the discussion
mesh currents; Project
Tutorial
show& project
presentation

Theory:

Multi-source DC circuits may be analyzed using a mesh current technique. The process involves
identifying a minimum number of small loops such that every component exists in at least one loop.
KVL is then applied to each loop. The loop currents are referred to as mesh currents as each current
interlock or meshes with the surrounding loop currents. As a result, there will be a set of simultaneous
equations created, an unknown mesh current for each loop. Once the mesh currents are determined,
various branch currents and component voltages may be derived.
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 3.1: Mesh analysis

Required Equipment:

1. Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. Bread Board
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 3.1.

2. Switch ON the Power supply
3. Apply the voltage (say 10V).
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage in step by step.
5. Connect ammeters in the loop and find the currents I1, I2 and I3.
6. Verify the practical results obtained with theoretical results.

Precautions:
 1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply

2. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected

Data Table:

Applied Mesh current(I1) Mesh current (I2) Mesh current(I1) Percentage Error =
|𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙−𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙|
Voltage V |𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙|
𝑋 100%

(volts)
Theoretical Practical Theoreti Practical Theoretical Practical
cal
I1= using I1= mesh
I2= mesh
mesh analysis
analysis
analysis technique
techniqu
technique
e

Data analysis:
1. Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
2. Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).

Results and Discussion:

1. Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
2. Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
3. State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objectives were fulfilled or not with in a short
paragraph.
Reference
A. Robert L. Boylestad , “Introductory circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666.
B. Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku , “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits’’ 6th Edition
ISBN 978007802822
Pre-Lab Viva Questions:

1. On which law is the mesh analysis based?

2. What is mesh analysis?
3. When do we go for super mesh analysis?
4. What is the equation for determining the number of independent loop equations in mesh
current method?

Post Lab Viva Questions:

1. How do we calculate branch currents from loop currents?

2. How do we calculate branch voltages from loop currents?

Experiment Number: 04
Name of the Experiment: Verification of Node voltage Analysis in DC circuit
Objective: The study of nodal analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in multi-
source DC circuits. Its application in finding circuit node voltages will be investigated.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain / level
Expt. Correspondi Delivery methods
CO Statement of learning Assessment tools
No. ng PO and activities
taxonomy

Lab tests
Upon completion this PO1–
Affective
experiment, students will domain/ Simulation Lab reports
Engineering
be able to: knowledge analyzing Experiment Final lab
CO1: use the various level test
PO9- Team Practice lab
04 procedures and Work
techniques for using Psychomotor Open ended
Group
voltmeter for finding the PO10– lab
discussion
voltage drops between Communica Affective Project
adjacent nodes; tion Tutorial
domain show& project
presentation

Theory:
In electric circuit’s analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis, or the branch current method is a
method of determining the voltage (potential difference) between "nodes" (points where elements or
branches connect) in an electrical circuit in terms of the branch currents.

Fig.4.1: Nodal analysis

Required Equipment:

1. Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. Bread Board
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 4.2.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply the voltage (say 15V) and note the voltmeter readings.
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps.
5. Note the readings of voltmeters.
6. Verify the practical results obtained with theoretical results.

Precautions:

1. Follow the lab manual and circuit diagram for using the equipment. Directions in the user
manual provide recommended operating procedures and safety precautions.
2. Never hurry. Haste causes many accidents.
3. Connect the power source last. Disconnect the power source first.
4. Use safety googles if necessary.
5. Notify lab assistant immediately if any injuries or hazard is happened
6. Before connecting the power, check your wiring carefully for agreement with the wiring
diagram for an accidental short-circuit and for loose connections.

Data Table:

Applied Node voltage(V1) Node voltage(V2) Percentage Error =

|𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙−𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙|
Voltage V 𝑋 100%
|𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙|
(volts)
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

Data analysis:
1. Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
2. Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).
Results and Discussion:
1) Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
2) Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
3) State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not with in a short
paragraph.
Reference
A. Robert L. Boylestad ,“introductory circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666.
B. Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku , “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits’’ 6th Edition
ISBN 9780078028229 .

Pre-Lab Viva Questions:

1. Nodal analysis is based on which law?
2. What is nodal analysis?
3. When do we go for super-node analysis?
Post Lab Viva Questions:

1. How do we calculate branch currents from node voltages?

2. How do we calculate branch voltages from node?
Experiment Number: 05
Name of the Experiment: Verification of Superposition Theorem in DC circuit
Objective: To Verify principle of Superposition theoretically and practically.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain / level
Expt. Correspondi Delivery methods
CO Statement of learning Assessment tools
No. ng PO and activities
taxonomy
PO1– Affective
Upon completion this domain/ Lab tests
Engineering
experiment, students will knowledge analyzing Simulation Lab reports
be able to: level Experiment Final lab test
CO2: apply the PO9- Team
05 Practice lab Open ended lab
mathematical equations Work
Psychomotor Group discussion Project show&
to get the data
theoretically and PO10– Tutorial project
Communica Affective presentation
experimentally; tion domain

Theory:
In a linear, bilateral network, the response in any element is equal to sum of individual responses
while all other sources are non-operative/ turned off.
Steps for solving network by Superposition Theorem
Considering the circuit diagram A, let us see the various steps to solve the superposition theorem:
 1. – Take only one independent source of voltage or current and deactivate the other sources.
2. – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E1 and replace the other source E2 by
its internal resistance. If its internal resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero and the source is
short-circuited.
3. – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a current source then just open circuit
it.
4. – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other source find the current in each branch
of the network. Taking the above example find the current I1’, I2’and I3’.
5. – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1 by its internal resistance r1 as shown
in the circuit diagram C.
6. – Determine the current in various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.
7. – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the superposition theorem, add the currents
obtained from each individual source for each branch.
8. – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction then add them and if it is in the
opposite direction, subtract them to obtain the net current in each branch

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig.5.1: Both Voltage Sources are acting (V1 &V2)

 Fig. 5.2: Voltage Source V1 is acting alone

Fig.5.3: Voltage Source V2 is acting alone

Required Equipment:

1. Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. Bread Board
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4.1) and note down the current flowing through R3 and
let it be I.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4.2) and note down the ammeter Reading, and let it be
I1.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4.3) and note down the ammeter reading, and let it be
I2.
4. Verify for I= I1+I2.

Precautions:

1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply

2. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected
3. Follow the lab manual and circuit diagram for using the equipment. Directions in the user
manual provide recommended operating procedures and safety precautions.
4. Never hurry. Haste causes many accidents.
5. Connect the power source last. Disconnect the power source first.
6. Use safety googles if necessary.
7. Notify lab assistant immediately if any injuries or hazard is happened
8. Before connecting the power, check your wiring carefully for agreement with the wiring
diagram for an accidental short-circuit and for loose connections.

Data Table:

WHEN BOTH WHEN V1≠0 & V2=0 WHEN V1=0& V2≠0 Sum of I1 and I2
V1& V2 ≠ 0
PARAMETERS (I1) (I2)
(I)
Current through R3
(Theoretical Values)
Current through R3
(Practical Values)

Data analysis:
1) Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
2) Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).
Results and Discussion:
1) Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
2) Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
3) State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objectives were fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.
Reference

A. Robert L. Boylestad , “Introductory circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666.
B. Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku , “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits’’ 6th Edition
ISBN 9780078028229 .

Pre-Lab Viva Questions:

1. State Superposition theorem.
2. How to find power using Superposition theorem?
3. Write applications of super position theorem.

Post Lab Viva Questions:

1. Is it possible to apply Superposition theorem to nonlinear circuit?

2. Is it possible to apply Superposition theorem to ac as well as dc circuit?
 Experiment Number: 06
Name of the Experiment: Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Objective: To Verify the Thevenin’s theorem.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program

a m Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:
Domain / level
Expt. Correspondi Delivery method
CO Statement of learning Assessment tools
No. ng PO and activities
taxonomy

Upon completion this Affective Lab tests

experiment, students will PO1– domain/ Simulation Lab reports
be able to: Engineering analyzing
CO1: use the various knowledge Experiment Final lab
level
procedures and test
PO9- Team Practice lab
06 techniques for using Work Psychomotor Open ended
ammeter, voltmeter, and Group
ohmmeter for finding the PO10– lab
Affective discussion
currents, voltage drops Communica
Project
and resistances, tion domain Tutorial
show& project
respectively. presentation

Theory:
Any linear, bilateral network having a number of voltage, current sources an d Resistances can be

Replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a
resistance, where the value of the voltage source is equal to the open circuit voltage and the resistance
Is the equivalent resistance meass ured between the open circuit terminals All energy sources
withreplaced by their ideal internal resistances?
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig.6.1: Measurement of Vth or Voc

Fig. 6.2: Measurement of Rth

Fig .6.3: Measurement of IL [IL = Vth/ (Rth +RL)]

Required Equipment:

1. Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. Bread Board
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig.6.1
2. Measure current in RL.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in fig6.2.
4. Measure open circuit voltage Voc by open circuiting terminals i.e, Vth
5. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in fig6.3
6. Measure current flows through RL

Precautions
1. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions and lab manual for using the equipment. Directions in
the user manual provide recommended operating procedures and safety precautions.
2. Never hurry. Haste causes many accidents.
3. Connect the power source last. Disconnect the power source first.
4. Use safety goggles if necessary.
5. Notify lab assistant immediately if any injuries or hazard is happened
6. Before connecting the power, check your wiring carefully for agreement with the wiring
diagram for an accidental short-circuit and for loose connections.

Data Table:

Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

Voc
Rth

IL
Data analysis:
1) Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
2) Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).

Results and Discussion:

1) Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
2) Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
3) State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objectives were fulfilled or not with in a short
paragraph.
Reference

A. Robert L. Boylestad , “Introductory circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666.
B. Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku , “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits’’ 6th Edition
ISBN 9780078028229 .

Pre-Lab Viva Questions:

1. What is load resistance?
2. How will you calculate Thevenin’s resistance?
3. How will you calculate Thevenin’s voltage?
4. How will you calculate load current IL?

Post Lab Viva Questions:

1. Write the applications of Thevenin’s theorem.
2. Write the limitations of Thevenin’s theorem.
  Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
Objective: To design the load resistor which absorbs maximum power from source.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain / level
Expt. Correspondi Delivery methods
CO Statement of learning Assessment tools
No. ng PO and activities
taxonomy
06
Upon completion this Lab tests
experiment, students will
Simulation Lab reports
be able to:
CO1: use the various Experiment Final lab
PO1– Affective
procedures and test
Engineering domain/ Practice lab
techniques for using knowledge analyzing Open ended
ammeter, voltmeter, and Group
level lab
ohmmeter for finding the discussion
currents, voltage drops Project
and resistances, Tutorial
show& project
respectively. presentation

Theory:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is delivered from a source to an load
resistance when the load resistance is equal to source resistance. (RL = Rs is the condition required for
maximum power transfer).

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 7.1: Maximum Power Transfer Circuit

Required Equipment:

1. Multimeter
2. Resistors
3. Bread Board
4. Connecting Wires
5. Power Supply

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.5.1
2. Vary the load resistance in steps and note down voltage across the load and current flowing
through the circuit.
3. Calculate power delivered to the load by using formula P=V*I.
4. Draw the graph between resistance and power (resistance on X- axis and power on Y-axis).
5. Verify the maximum power is delivered to the load when RL = Rs for DC.

Precautions
1. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions and lab manual for using the equipment. Directions in
the user manual provide recommended operating procedures and safety precautions.
2. Never hurry. Haste causes many accidents.
3. Connect the power source last. Disconnect the power source first.
4. Use safety goggles if necessary.
5. Notify lab assistant immediately if any injuries or hazard is happened
6. Before connecting the power, check your wiring carefully for agreement with the wiring
diagram for an accidental short-circuit and for loose connections.

Data Table:

S. No RL V I P=VI

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Graph:

Data analysis:
1. Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
2. Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and
comment on thedifference (If any).

Results and Discussion:

1. Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment
was successful incomplying with the goal that was initially set.
2. Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the
ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
3. State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and
experiment.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not
within a shortparagraph.

Reference

1) Robert L. Boylestad , “Introductory circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th

Edition , Newyork,2010, ISBN 9780137146666.
2) Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku , “Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits’’ 6th EditionISBN 9780078028229 .

Pre-Lab Viva Questions:

1. State maximum power transfer theorem.
2. Is it possible to apply maximum power transfer theorem to ac as well as dc circuit?
3. How to find power using maximum power transfer theorem?
Post Lab Viva Questions:

1. What are conditions for maximum power transfer theorem?

2. Is it possible to apply maximum power transfer theorem to nonlinear circuit?
 Experiment No. 07
Name of the Experiment : Familiarization with Oscilloscope, Function Generator and
with Alternating Current (AC) waves.
Objective:
This experiment is designed for the under-graduate students to introduce themselves and to be
familiar with the oscilloscope and its operation. This experiment will help the students to have basic
ideas about key functions of different knobs of oscilloscope and also to know how to measure
voltage/current of a circuit-using oscilloscope as a measuring instrument.

Introduction:
Oscilloscope is probably the single most versatile and useful Test and Measurement instrument
invented for Electronic measurement applications. It is a complex instrument capable of measuring
or displaying a variety of signals. This is the basic equipment used in almost all electronic circuit
design and testing applications. The major subsystems in an oscilloscope are Power supplies (high
and low voltage supplies).
Display subsystem, Vertical and Horizontal amplifiers and display systems. There are two major
types of oscilloscopes, viz. Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CRO) also called Analog Oscilloscopes,
and Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO), occasionally called Digital oscilloscopes. There are some
analog oscilloscopes which also have the extra facility to store waveforms in digital form; these are
called mixed-mode (i.e. Analog/Digital) oscilloscopes.
The main use of an oscilloscope is to obtain the visual display of an electrical voltage signal. If the
signal to be displayed is not in the voltage form, it is first converted to this form. The signal voltage
is then transmitted to the oscilloscope along a cable (usually a coaxial cable) and enters the
oscilloscope where the cable is connected to the scope input terminals. Often the signal at this point
is too small in amplitude to activate the scope display system. Therefore, it needs to be amplified.

1. Analog Oscilloscope: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

In a CRO the X and Y signals are applied to the horizontal and vertical plates, respectively of the
cathode ray tube (CRT) after amplification. Within the CRT, an electron beam is created by an
electron gun.
The electron beam is focused and directed to strike the fluorescent screen, creating as pot of light,
where impact is made with the screen. The beam is deflected vertically in proportion to the
amplitude of the voltage applied to the CRT vertical deflection plates. The amplified input signal
is also monitored by the horizontal deflection system. This subsystem has the task of sweeping the
electron beam horizontally across the screen at a uniform rate. A saw-tooth type signal (a
triangular/ramp signal with long time duration for the rising part of the ramp and very small time
duration for the falling part) is internally generated in a CRO as a time-base signal (sweep signal).
This signal is amplified and applied to the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. Again, the beam
is deflected horizontally in proportion to the amplitude of the voltage applied to the CRT horizontal
deflection plates.

The simultaneous deflection of the electron beam in the vertical direction (by the vertical deflection
system and the vertical deflection plates) and in the horizontal direction (by the time-base circuitry
and the horizontal deflection plates) causes the spot of light produced by the electron beam to trace
a path across the CRT screen.
For example, if the input signal to the CRO were a sine wave, the trace produced on the CRT screen
will be a sine wave. It is important to obtain a stable display on the CRT screen. If the input signal
is periodic and the time base circuitry properly synchronizes the horizontal sweep with the vertical
deflection, the spot of light will trace the same path on the screen over and over again.
For a periodic signal the input signal can be synchronized with the time-base signal using the
Trigger controls and the time base controls. If the frequency of the periodic signal is high enough
(say greater than 40 Hz), the repeating trace will appear to be a steady pattern painted by solid lines
of light on the screen.
Front view of the analog oscilloscope:
Introduction to front Panel:
The front panel consists of the following parts:
• CRT
• Vertical axis
• Triggering
• Time
• Others

Brief description:
1. CRT:
a) Power (6)
The main power switch.
b) Inten (2)
Controls the brightness of the spot.
c) Focus (3)
For focusing the spot for sharp image.
d) Trace rotation (4)
For aligning the horizontal trace in parallel with graticule lines. e) Filter
(33)

2. Vertical axis:
a) CH1 (X) input (8)
Vertical input of CH1. When in X-Y mode this acts as an X-axis input
b) CH2 (Y) input (20)
Vertical input of CH2. When in X-Y mode this acts as a Y-axis input
c) AC-GND-DC (10,18)
Switch for selecting connection mode between input signal and vertical amplifier.
d) Volt/Div (7,22)
Selection of vertical axis sensitivity, from 5mV/Div to 5V/Div in 10 ranges.
e) Variable (9,21)
f) CH1 & CH2 DC BAL (13,17)
g) Position (11,19)
Control the position of the vertical trace or spot.
h) Vert mode (14)
There are four positions to switch the operation of CH1 and CH2.When position in
either CH1 or CH2; then oscilloscope operates as single channel instrument with
CH1 or CH2 respectively. When position in DUAL then the oscilloscope operates
as dual–channel of both CH1 and CH2. When position in ADD, then oscilloscope
 displays the algebraic sum (CH1+CH2) or difference (CH1-CH2). During difference
operation, CH2 INV must be pushed.
i) ALT/CHOP (12)
When this switch is released then CH1 and CH2 are alternately displayed. When this switch
is engaged then CH1 and CH2 are chopped and displayed simultaneously.
j) CH2 INV (16)
This inverts the CH2 input signal when this knob is pushed in.

3. Triggering:
a) EXT TRIG IN input terminal (24)
b) SOURCE (23)
1) CH1: When Vert mode switch is at DUAL/ADD position select CH1 for
internal triggering.
2) CH2: When Vert mode switch is at DUAL/ADD position select CH2 for
internal triggering.
3) TRIG.ALT: It will alternately select CH1 and CH2 for internal triggering.
4) Line
5) EXT
c) SLOPE (26)
1) ‘+’: Triggering occurs when triggering signal crosses triggering level in +ve
going direction.
2) ‘—': Triggering occurs when triggering signal crosses triggering level in –ve
going direction.
d) LEVEL (28)
To display synchronized stationary waveform and set a start point of it.
e) TRIGGER MODE (25)

4. Time Base:
a) TIME/DIV (29)
Ranges are available from 0.2 μsec/div to 0.5 sec/div in 20 steps. X-Y mode:
This position is used when oscilloscope functions as an X-Y oscilloscope.
b) SWP.VAR (30)
c) Position (32)
Control the position of the horizontal trace or spot.
d) x 10 MAG (31)
When this button is pushed, magnification of 10 occurs.
 5. Others:
a) CAL (1)
This terminal gives the calibration voltage of 2 Vp-p, 1 kHz, and positive square wave.
b) GND (15)
The ground terminal of the oscilloscope mainframe.

Basic operation with oscilloscope:

1. Single channel operation:

a) Set the AC-GND-DC of both channels in the GND position and align the trace with
horizontal central line and then set to AC position.
b) Adjust the FOCUS control so that the trace image appears sharply.
c) Set the VOLTS/DIV switch at 1 V and TIME/DIV switch at 0.5 ms position so that
signal waveform is displayed clearly.
d) Adjust vertical POSITION and horizontal POSITION controls in appropriate
position so that the displayed waveform is aligned with the graticule and voltage
(p-p) and period (T) can be read conveniently.

2. Dual-channel operation:

Set the Vert mode switch to DUAL state so that both channels are displayed
simultaneously.

3. Frequency measurement:

a) The frequency of any waveform can be measured by adjusting the TIME/DIV

control knob of oscilloscope. Adjust the TIME/DIV control knob to position 0.5
ms to observe the waveform.
b) Now measure the frequency of the wave using the following formula:
1 large square or 5 small squares = t sec,
# of small squares required to represent a full cycle of wave =n sec Where, n may
have fraction value.
Time period, T = (n/5) × t s
Frequency, f = 1/T Hz
 t

16 small
squares

Function generator:
Another major equipment commonly in electronic circuit applications, is a Function Generator
(FG).As the name indicates, a Function Generator generates different voltage signals, such as Sine,
Pulse, and Triangle.
The most commonly required signals in electronic circuits are Sine and Pulse. Sine wave signals
find their use mostly in Analog circuits, such as amplifiers, filters, etc. Pulse signals are useful in
testing the time response of circuits and also as Clock signals in Digital circuits. In a general pulse
signal, the high and low level time periods are different. Square wave is a special case when the
periods are equal.
In a FG by the touch of a button one can choose a variety of signals. This is possible because of the
fact that one can obtain different signals from a starting signal using wave shaping circuits.
The synthesized function generators, the waveforms are generated by digitally stored signals
through digital to analog converters.
In the lab you will be using the Model SFG2110 Synthesized Function Generator (by M/s GW
Instek, Taiwan) which is a 10 MHz function generator.

Fig: Function Generator

Basic operation with function generator:
1. Power on the generator and select the desired output signal: square wave, sine wave or
triangle wave.
2. Connect the output leads to an oscilloscope to visualize the output signal and set its
parameters using the amplitude and frequency controls.
3. Attach the output leads of the function generator to the input of the circuit you wish to test.
4. Attach the output of your circuit to a meter or oscilloscope to visualize the resulting change
in signal.

Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO):

 A DSO samples the input waveform and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC) to
convert the voltage being measured into digital information. It then uses this digital
information to reconstruct the waveform on the screen.

 The ADC in the acquisition system samples the signal at discrete points in time and converts
the signal's voltage at these points to digital values called sample points.
 The horizontal system's sample clock determines how often the ADC takes a sample.
 The rate at which the clock "ticks" is called the sample rate and is measured in samples per
second. The sample points from the ADC are stored in memory as waveform points.
 More than one sample point may make up one waveform point.
 Together, the waveform points make up one waveform record.
 The number of waveform points used to make a waveform record is called the record length.
 The trigger system determines the start and stop points of the record.
 The display receives these record points after being stored in memory. Depending on the
capabilities of the oscilloscope, additional processing of the sample points may take place,
enhancing the display. Pre-trigger may be available, allowing you to see events before the
trigger point.
 Fundamentally, with a digital oscilloscope as with an analog oscilloscope, you need to
adjust the vertical, horizontal, and trigger settings to take a measurement.
 Fig: Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Brief description:

A schematic diagram of the DSO front panel is shown above. Other than the LCD display, There
are five major sections on the front panel of the DSO:

Section 1 – The five function keys located on the side of the display.
Section 2 – the section below the display consisting of Power switch, and probe compensation
output (calibrated source).
Section 3 – A variable knob and Ten Menu keys located on the top side to the left of the display.
Section 4 – Knobs and buttons located in three columns at the center part, indicated as: VERTICAL,
HORIZONTAL, and TRIGGER.
Section 5 – Located at the bottom part to the left of the display are input BNC sockets for CH-1,
CH-2 and External Trigger terminals, and an extra socket for GND.
DSO operations require the use of a combination knobs and buttons. You need to familiarize
yourself well with all the basic operations in order to perform experiments and make measurements
using the DSO in the lab.
Basic operations of the DSO:
a) Channels CH-1 and CH-2:
The signal display part of the LCD screen is 10cm (X-axis) long and 8cm (Y-axis) high. For
convenience channels are indicated with different colors. Signal connected to Channel 1 (CH-1)
would appear YELLOW on the LCD screen.
Numera1-1 is also indicated on the extreme left side of the display. CH-1 controls are also given
yellow color. By pressing the yellow button (CH 1), this channel (and display) can be turned on or
off. The Volts/Div. knob indicates the Y-scale in volts/full div or volts/cm. Signal to CH-1 should
be connected to the BNC connector seen just below the Volts/div knob.
Similarly, the signal to CH-2 should be connected to the socket below the CH-2 Volts/div knob.
CH-2 display would appear blue on the LCD screen. Numeral-2 is also indicated. Note that the
DSO can display signals simultaneously on two channels.

b) CH-1 and CH-2 Coupling Modes:

Press the required channel button (CH-1 or CH-2). Now sub-menu for that channel would appear
at the left side of the screen.
Choose the top option, “Coupling” by pressing the first function key. The current coupling mode
would be displayed below the line “Coupling”.
The three possible coupling modes are DC (two lines: solid line and broken line), AC (sine wave),
and GROUND (ground sign).
As you press this function key the coupling modes keep changing. The present mode would be
displayed below the “Coupling” function.
The most common coupling mode is DC, which would enable you to measure both dc and ac levels
of the signal.
In the AC mode, the dc content of the signal would be removed. GROUND mode is used to choose
the reference zero level for the Y-axis. In this mode DSO disconnects the input signal and connects
the channel to ground.

c) Triggering the display:

Proper triggering of the signal is required to get a stable display. When the signal is properly
triggered, a message in green color “Trig’ d” would appear on the top. By pressing the “MENU”
button in the “TRIGGER” column (extreme right column), various options for triggering are
obtained. These are Type: Edge, Pulse, and Video
Source: CH 1, CH 2, External, Line.
Slope/Coupling: Slope (+ve/ –ve), Coupling (DC/AC), Rejection (Off/LF/HF), Noise
Rej(Off/On)
Mode: Auto
For normal use choose Type: Edge, Source: CH1 or CH2, Slope (+ve or –ve),
Coupling: DC

d) Horizontal Functions:
There are three controls under HORIZONTAL (middle column). Top one is the horizontal position
knob used to move the display in the X-direction. Bottom one is the “TIME/DIV” knob used to
select the time base scale (X-scale). This can range from 10sec/div to 1ns/div. The current time
base scale setting will be displayed at the bottom, a little left to the center line. A proper setting of
the channel Volts/div and Time/div are required to get a clear display. The middle button “MENU”
in this column is used to choose the Display mode.
e) Display Modes: Main and XY Modes:
Press the “MENU” button, located just above the TIME/DIV knob located among the Horizontal
controls (middle column). For normal operations, where you want to display the input signal
continuously, the mode should be “Main”. To get the XY mode, press the XY function key in this
menu. XY mode is occasionally used to get the XY plot of the two signals connected to CH-1 and
CH-2. In the XY mode, CH-1 signal is taken as the X-axis input and CH-2 the Y-axis.

f) AUTOSET Function:
This button may be thought of as the ‘panic’ button. This button may be pressed when you think
that you are lost and needs help (with regard to displaying the signals on the DSO properly!). Once
the AUTOSET button is pressed (extreme top right button) the DSO measures the amplitudes and
time periods of the input signals connected to CH-1 and CH-2 and automatically chooses the
correct Volts/Div, Time/Div, and Trigger mode settings.

g) Function key:
These key are used to measure various quantity of an electrical signal which is varied by variable
knob.

Note:
1) Don’t put any sort of electrical equipment’s (such as signal generator, dc supply etc.) on
the top of the oscilloscope.
2) Place the oscilloscope away from any magnetic field (as far as possible)
3) If the GND horizontal line deviates significant amount then adjust it by rotating the
position of oscilloscope.
4) Always check the 10x switch of probe according to your measurement.
5) Always avoid common grounding resulting from improper connection of knobs in the
circuit.

Results and Discussion:

Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.
Viva Sample Questions:
1. Define current?
2. Define voltage?
3. Define Peak Voltage?
4. Define Peak to Peak Voltage?
5. Define Frequency?
6. What do you mean by Oscilloscope Calibration?
7. Explain the way of measuring Peak voltage?
8. Explain the way of measuring frequency?
Experiment No. 08
Experiment Name: Investigation & measurement of phase shift and reactance in RC and RL
circuit.

Introduction:
A resistor-Inductor circuit is defined as an electrical circuit consisting of the passive circuit elements
of a resistor (R) and an inductor (L) connected, in series, driven by a voltage source. A resistor-
Capacitor circuit is defined as an electrical circuit consisting of the passive circuit elements of a
resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) connected, in series, driven by a voltage source.

Objectives:
The experiment aims to study the electrical characteristics of an RL and RC circuit in series. Also, to
study the relation between the input frequency f and the circuit impedance XL, XC
Components:

 Function generator.
 Oscilloscope.
 Digital Multimeter.
 Resistor.
 Connection wires.
 Inductor.
 Capacitor

Theory:
Consider a simple RL circuit in which resistor, R and inductor, L are connected in series with a voltage
supply of Vin. The current flowing in the circuit is I and the current through resistor R and inductor L
is IR and IL respectively. However, the resistor and inductor are connected in series, that’s why the
current passing through both elements is the same. i.e.,

𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼 (1)

The voltages VR and VL are the voltage drop across the resistor and inductor.
By applying the Kirchhoff voltage law (The summation of the drop voltages across R and L equal to
the input voltage Vin) to this circuit, we get:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 (2)

Before drawing the phasor diagram of a series RL circuit, one should know the relationship between
voltage and current in the case of resistor and inductor.
In the case of the resistor R, the voltage and current are in the same phase, or we can say that the
phase angle difference 𝜃 between voltage and current is zero.

Figure 1: illustrate that the voltage and current wave are in phase in purely resistive load

Inductor (also named as a choke) is basically a coil or loops of wire that are either wound around a
hollow tube former (air cored) or wound around some ferromagnetic material like iron core to
increase their inductive value (inductance).
In the case of the inductor L, the voltage and current are not in phase. The voltage leads the current
by 90°. This means the voltage reaches its maximum when the current attains the zero value.

Figure 2: illustrate the voltage and current phase shift in a purely inductive
load

The actual opposition to the current flowing through a coil in an AC circuit is determined by the AC
Resistance of the coil with this AC resistance being represented by a complex number. But to
distinguish a DC resistance value from an AC resistance value, which is also known as Impedance,
the term Reactance is used.
Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol X to distinguish it from a
purely resistive “R” value and as the component in question is an inductor, the reactance of an
inductor is called Inductive Reactance, XL and is measured in Ohms. Its value can be found from the
formula.

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 (3)

Where XL is inductive reactance in (Ω), π is the numeric constant of 3.142, ƒ is the frequency in Hz,
and L = inductance in H

+ VR - + VL -

Figure 3: Schematic diagram illustrate an RL circuit connected in sereis

This simple circuit above consists of a pure inductance of L Henries (H), connected in series with a
resistor R (Ohm) and a sinusoidal voltage given by the expression:
Vin = Vmax sin ωt (4)

Figure 4: For an RL circuit, 𝜃 depend on the values of the R and XL.

In an RL circuit, a phase shift occurs as well between the voltage across the inductor VL and the
current I. As the circuit is a resistive-inductive load, the voltage V leads the current I, as shown in
Fig. 4. The phase shift can also be calculated using equation 5
 VL VR

Figure 5: illustrate the voltage and current phase shift of a resistive-inductive

load.

Capacitor: A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by virtue of
accumulating electric charges on two close surfaces insulated from each other. It is
a passive electronic component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two
electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance
to a circuit.
The reactance of a capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance, XC and is measured in Ohms. Its value
can be found from the formula.

1
𝑋c = ………………………………. (6)
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Where XC is capacitive reactance in (Ω), π is the numeric constant of 3.142, ƒ is the frequency in Hz,
and C = capacitance in µF
 +

Figure 6: Schematic diagram illustrate an RC circuit connected in series

This simple circuit above consists of a pure capacitance of C Farads (F), connected in series with a
resistor R (Ohm) and a sinusoidal voltage given by the expression:
Vin = Vmax sin ωt

Figure 7: For an RC circuit, 𝜃 depend on the values of the R and Xc.

In an RC circuit, a phase shift occurs as well between the voltage across the inductor Vc and the
current I. As the circuit is a resistive-capacitive load, the voltage V lags the current I, as shown in
Fig. 7. The phase shift can also be calculated using equation 6,

(7)
 VC VR

Figure 8: illustrate the voltage and current phase shift of a resistive-capacitive load.

Table 1, shows important equations required to theoretically calculate VR, VL, Vs, R, XL, Vc and Z.

For voltages For impedance

|𝑉𝑅| = |𝑉𝑆| × cos(𝜃) 𝑅 = |𝑍| × cos(𝜃)

|𝑉𝐿| = |𝑉𝑆| × sin(𝜃) |𝑋𝐿| = |𝑍| × sin(𝜃)

|𝑉𝑠| = √|𝑉𝑅|2 + |𝑉𝐿|2 |𝑍| = √𝑅2 + |𝑋𝐿|2

|𝑉c| = |𝑉𝑆| × sin(𝜃) |𝑋c| = |𝑍| × sin(𝜃)

|𝑉𝑠| = √|𝑉𝑅|2 + |𝑉c|2 |𝑍| = √𝑅2 + |𝑋c|2

Experiment procedure:

1. Build the circuit shown in Fig. 3 using a 100Ω resistor and a 10 mH

inductor.
2. Set the input voltage at 10V (peak-peak) and frequency at 500 Hz.
3. Using the Oscilloscope, find out phase shift.
4. Change the input frequency from 500 to 1 kHz, 1.5 kHz, 2 kHz, 2.5
kHz, 3 kHz, 4 KHz and 5 KHz, find out phase shift.
5. Follow step-2, Again, Using the Oscilloscope, read the voltage across
the 100Ω resistor and the 10 mH inductor.
6. Change the input frequency from 500 to 1 kHz, 1.5 kHz, 2 kHz, 2.5
kHz, 3 kHz, 4 KHz and 5 KHz.
7. Measuring the voltage across the 100Ω resistor and the 10 mH inductor
repeatedly.
8. Based on the experimental measurement, calculate the phase shift (𝜃)
between VR and VL theoretically using equation 5.
𝑉𝐿∠θ 𝑉𝑅
9. To find out XL, use XL= 𝐼
[Note. I= 𝑅 ]
10. Build the circuit shown in Fig. 6 using a 100Ω resistor and a 47 µF
capacitor.
11. Follow step-2 and find out phase shift using oscilloscope.
12. Change the input frequency from 500 to 1 kHz, 1.5 kHz, 2 kHz, 2.5
kHz, 3 kHz, 4 KHz and 5 KHz, find out phase shift.
13. Using the Oscilloscope, read the voltage across the 100Ω resistor and
the 47 µF capacitor.
14. Based on the experimental measurement, calculate the phase shift (𝜃)
between VR and VC theoretically using equation 7.
15. Change the input frequency from 500 to 1 kHz, 1.5 kHz, 2 kHz, 2.5
kHz, 3 kHz, 4 KHz and 5 KHz.
16. Repeat step 14, measuring the voltage across the 1kΩ resistor and the
4.7 µF capacitor.
𝑉𝐶∠θ 𝑉𝑅
17. To find out XC, use XC= [Note. I= 𝑅 ]
𝐼
18. Write down all the measured and calculated values.
 Data Table:

No. of Supply Freque- VR VL V Phase Phase Theoriti Theor Experi Exper Deviation of
observ- Voltage ncy V V C Shift, θ˚ Shift, θ -cally i- -ment- i-me- theoretically
ation V(Peak) Hz V From ˚ XL tically ally ntally and
oscillosco From Ω XC XL XR experimenta
-pe equatio Ω Ω Ω -lly XL and
-n XC (Ω)

Results and Discussion: Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the
experiment was successful in complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective was fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.

Lab Viva Sample Questions:

1. What is the relationship between inductive reactance and frequency?

2. What is the relationship between inductive reactance and inductance?
3. What is the relationship between capacitive reactance and frequency?
4. What is the relationship between capacitive reactance and capacitance?
Experiment No. 09
Name of the Experiment: Verification of KVL and KCL in AC Circuit.

Objective: The objective of this experiment is to study series and series-parallel circuits when
energized by an AC source and to construct their phasor diagram. KVL and KCL in phasor form will
also be verified.

THEORY:
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) states that in any closed loop in a circuit, the algebraic sum of the
voltages across all the elements must be equal to zero. This law is based on the conservation of energy
principle, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed
from one form to another.

KVL is an important tool for analyzing circuits, particularly in the design and troubleshooting of
electrical and electronic systems. It allows engineers and technicians to calculate the voltage drops
across individual components in a circuit, and to identify any errors or problems that may be causing
the system to malfunction.

In summary, KVL is a fundamental principle of circuit analysis that helps to ensure the proper
functioning and reliability of electrical and electronic devices.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law around closed loop of Figure 9.1 and Figure 9.2,
we find,
VS= VR + VL and VS= VR + VC
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving
any node in a circuit must be equal to zero. In other words, the sum of the currents flowing into a
node must equal the sum of the currents flowing out of the node.

KCL is based on the principle of conservation of charge, which states that charge cannot be created
or destroyed, only transferred from one point to another. This law is important for analyzing
complex circuits with multiple branches, as it allows engineers and technicians to calculate the
currents flowing through individual components and to identify any errors or problems that may be
affecting the performance of the system.

In summary, KCL is a fundamental principle of circuit analysis that helps to ensure the proper
functioning and reliability of electrical and electronic devices.
For the network of Figure 9.3 the currents are related by the following expression:

I = I1 + I 2
Required Equipment and Devices:
1. Function Generator
2. Oscilloscope
3. Breadboard
4. Resistor ( 1 KΩ )
5. Capacitor (4.7 µF )
6. Inductor (100 mH)
7. Connecting Wire

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig 9.1

Fig 9.2
 Fig 9.3

Experimental Procedure:

To Verify KVL
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 9.1. Set the function generator to supply a
voltage of 15 V (P-P) at a frequency of 500Hz.
2. Measure VR (CH1), VL (CH2) (Peak to Peak) voltage and phase angle by
Oscilloscope.
3. Again, construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 9.2. Set the function generator to
supply a voltage of 15 V (P-P) at a frequency of 500Hz.
4. Measure VR (CH1), VC (CH2) (Peak to Peak) voltage and phase angle by
Oscilloscope.

KVL (For Fig. 9.1)

Data table:
VS VR VL Ɵ VR+ VL Deviation
V V V V V

Calculation:

Suppose, VS= 15 V, VR= 14 V, VL=5 V, Ɵ = 90˚

VS= VR + VL∠Ɵ
15= 14 + 5∠90˚ [ putting values]
15= 14 + j5 [From polar to rectangular 5∠90˚ = j5]
15 ≈ 14.88∠18˚ [From rectangular to polar]
 KVL (For Fig. 9.2)
Data table:

VS VR VC Ɵ VR+ VC Deviation
V V V V V

Calculation:

Suppose, VS= 15 V, VR= 14 V, VC=5 V, Ɵ = 90˚

VS= VR + VC∠Ɵ
15= 14 + 5∠90˚ [ putting values]
15= 14 + j5 [From polar to rectangular 5∠90˚ = j5]
15 ≈ 14.88∠18˚ [From rectangular to polar]

To Verify KCL
5. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 9.3. Set the function generator to supply a
voltage of 15 V (P-P) at a frequency of 500Hz.
6. Measure VR (CH1), VL (CH2) (Peak to Peak) voltage and phase angle by
Oscilloscope, [Note. R= 1Ω or 1kΩ, I=VR/R, resistor and inductor are connected
in series so same current will follow both of them.]
7. End of step 5 & 6, we can get total current I with phase angle Ɵ.
8. Now, in parallel side, Measure VR (CH1), VL (CH2) (Peak to Peak) voltage and
phase angle by Oscilloscope.
9. Current, I2=VR/R, resistor and inductor are connected in series so same current
will follow both of them.
10. End of step 8 & 9, we can get total current I2 with phase angle Ɵ
11. Again, in parallel side, Measure VR (CH1), VC (CH2) (Peak to Peak) voltage and
phase angle by Oscilloscope.
12. Current, I1=VR/R, resistor and inductor are connected in series so same current
will follow both of them.
13. End of step 11 & 12, we can get total current I2 with phase angle Ɵ.
 KCL (For Fig. 9.3)
Data table:
I (mA) I1(mA) I2(mA)
VR VL Ɵ VR VC Ɵ VR VL Ɵ
V V V V V V

Calculation:

𝑽𝑹 𝑽𝑹 𝑽𝑹
I= 𝑹 ∠ Ɵ, I1= 𝑹 ∠ Ɵ, I2= 𝑹 ∠ Ɵ, I= I1+ I2

To find out I, To find out I1, To find out I2,

Suppose, VR=10 V, R= 1Ω, Suppose, VR=5 V, R= 1Ω, Suppose, VR=5 V, R= 1Ω,
Ɵ = 90˚ Ɵ = 90˚ Ɵ = 90˚

𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
I= 𝑅 ∠ Ɵ, I1= 𝑅 ∠ Ɵ, I2= 𝑅 ∠ Ɵ,
10 5 5
I= 1 ∠ 90˚, I1=1 ∠ 90˚, I2=1 ∠ 90˚,
I=10∠ 90˚ I1=5∠ 90˚ I2=5∠ 90˚

I= I1+ I2
10∠ 90˚ = 5∠ 90˚+ 5∠ 90˚ [putting values]
10∠ 90˚= j5 + j5 [From polar to rectangular 5∠90˚ = j5]
10∠ 90˚ = 𝑗10
10∠ 90˚ = 10∠ 90˚ [From rectangular to polar]

Results and Discussion:

Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the experiment was successful in
complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways /procedures
to overcome the variations.
State the particular steps adopted to overcome the deviations between theory and experiment.
Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.
Lab Viva Sample Questions:

1. Define current.
2. Define voltage.
3. Define resistance.
4. Define ohm’s law.
5. State KVL.
6. State KCL.
Experiment No. 10

Name of the Experiment: Study of Series R, L, C in AC Circuit.

Objective: -
This exercise examines the voltage and current relationships in series R, L, C networks. Of
particular importance is the phase of the various components and how Kirchhoff’s voltage law
is extended for AC circuits. Both time domain and phasor plots of the voltages are generated.
Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Upon completion this
experiment, students
will be able to: Lab tests
CO2: Verify different
Simulation Lab reports
electrical laws and
theorems for alternating PO1– Experiment Final lab
Affective
current by proposing Engineeri test
domain/ Practice lab
10 simulation procedures ng
analyzing Open ended
and by applying knowledge Group
level lab
mathematical discussion
equations, graphical Project
Tutorial
analysis to the show & project
simulated data. presentation

Theory:
Each element has a unique phase response: for resistors, the voltage is always in phase with the
current, for capacitors the voltage always lags the current by 90 degrees, and for inductors the
voltage always leads the current by 90 degrees. Consequently, a series combination of R, L, and
C components will yield a complex impedance with a phase angle between +90 and -90 degrees.
Due to the phase response, Kirchhoff’s voltage law must be computed using vector (phasor) sums
rather than simply relying on the magnitudes. Indeed, all computations of this nature, such as a
voltage divider, must be computed using vectors.
Required Equipment and Devices:
(1) AC function generator
(2) Oscilloscope
(3) 10 nF
(4) 10 mH
(5) 1 k-ohm

Circuit Diagrams:

Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Experimental Procedure:

RC Circuit

1. Using Figure 10.1 with Vin=2 V (p-p) sine at 10 kHz, R=1 k, and C=10 nF, determine the
theoretical capacitive reactance (X = 1 / (2 × π × f × C)) and circuit impedance (
Z=√(R2+(1/ωC)2), (Z θ = tan-1 Xc/R) and record the results in Table 10.1 (the experimental
portion of this table will be filled out in step 5). Using the voltage divider rule, compute the
resistor and capacitor voltages and record them in Table 10.2.

2. Build the circuit of Figure 10.1 using R=1 k, and C=10 nF. Place one probe across the
generator and another across the capacitor. Set the generator to a 10 kHz sine wave and 2 V
p-p. Make sure that the Bandwidth Limit of the oscilloscope is engaged for both channels.
This will reduce the signal noise and make for more accurate readings. Also, consider using
Averaging for the acquisition mode, particularly to clean up signals derived using the Math
function.
3. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage across the capacitor and record in Table 10.2. Along with
the magnitude, be sure to record the time deviation between VC and the input signal (from
which the phase may be determined). Using the Math function, measure and record the
voltage and time delay for the resistor (Vin – VC). Compute the phase angle and record these
values in Table 10.2.

4. Take a snapshot of the oscilloscope displaying Vin, VC, and VR.

5. Compute the deviations between the theoretical and experimental values of Table 10.2 and
record the results in the final columns of Table 10.2. Based on the experimental values,
determine the experimental Z and XC values via Ohm’s law (i=VR/R, XC=VC/i, Z=Vin/i) and
record back in Table 10.1 along with the deviations.

6. Create a phasor plot showing Vin, VC, and VR. Include both the time domain display from
step 4 and the phasor plot with the technical report.

R-L Circuit-
7. Replace the capacitor with the 10 mH inductor (i.e. Figure 10.2), and repeat steps 1 through
5 in like manner, using- (X = 2 × π × f × L) and circuit impedance ( Z=√(R2+(ωL)2), (Z θ =
tan-1 XL/R) and Tables 10.3 and 10.4.

R-L-C circuit-
8. Using Figure 10.3 with both the 10 nF capacitor and 10 mH inductor, repeat steps 1 through 5
in similar manner, using Tables 10.5 and 10.6. Using a four channel oscilloscope: To obtain
proper readings, place the first probe at the input, the second probe between the resistor and
inductor, and the third probe between the inductor and capacitor. Probe three yields VC. Using
the Math function, probe two minus probe three yields VL, and finally, probe one minus probe
two yields VR. Assigning Reference waveforms can be useful to see all of the signals together.
Using a two channel oscilloscope: Unfortunately, it will be impossible to see the voltage of
all three components simultaneously with the source voltage using a two channel oscilloscope.
To obtain proper readings, place the first probe at the input and the second probe across the
capacitor in order to see the phase and magnitude of VC. Then, swap C and L (placing the
second probe across the inductor) to see VL, and finally, swap L and R (with the second probe
across R) in order see VR.
Precautions: As we have to take some measurements of voltages, everyone should be careful
about using the voltmeter in parallel, it should never be connected in series.
In the reciprocity theorem, the students should be aware that there will be only one source in the
circuit. Moreover, the polarity of the source should be carefully checked.
Circuit should be checked so that there are no short circuits.

Experimental Data tables:

RC Circuit: -

Theory Experimental % Deviation

XC
Z Magnitude
Zθ

Table 10.1

Theoretical V & I Phase Shift of Capacitor- Theoretical V & I Phase Diagram of Resistance

Theoretical Example-
Let's say we have an RC circuit with a resistance of 100 ohms and a capacitance of 1 microfarad (μF). We
want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz
(kHz).

Reactance:

Xc = 1/(2πfC)
Substituting the values we have:
Xc = 1/(2π * 1000 * 1e-6) = 159.2 ohms

Impedance:

Z = √(R^2 + Xc^2)
Substituting the values we have:
Z = √(100^2 + 159.2^2) = 189.6 ohms
Phase shift:

ϕ = arctan(-Xc/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan(-159.2/100) = -56.3 degrees

Phasor plot showing Vm, VC, and VR

Theory Theory θ Exp Mag Exp Delay Exp θ % Dev % Dev θ

Mag Mag

Vc

VR

Table 10.2
 RL Circuit:

Theory Experimental % Deviation

XL

Z Magnitude

Zθ

Table 10.3

Theoretical (V & I) Phase Shift of Inductor

Theoretical Example-
Let's say we have an RL circuit with a resistance of 50 ohms and an inductance of 10 millihenries (mH).
We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz
(kHz).

Reactance:

XL = 2πfL
Substituting the values we have:
XL = 2π * 1000 * 10e-3 = 62.83 ohms
Impedance:

Z = √(R^2 + XL^2)
Substituting the values we have:
Z = √(50^2 + 62.83^2) = 80.6 ohms
Phase shift:

ϕ = arctan(XL/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan(62.83/50) = 51.3 degrees
Phasor plot showing Vm, VL, and VR

Theory Theory θ Exp Mag Exp Delay Expθ % Dev % Dev θ

Mag Mag
VL
VR

Table 10.4

RLC Circuit: -

Theory Experimental % Deviation

Z Magnitude

Zθ

Table 10.5

R-L-C Phase (V-I ) Phase Diagram-

Theoretical Example-

Let's say we have an RLC circuit with a resistance of 100 ohms, an inductance of 20 millihenries (mH),
and a capacitance of 0.1 microfarads (μF). We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift
of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz (kHz).

Reactance:

The reactance of the inductor can be calculated using the formula:

XL = 2πfL
Substituting the values we have:
XL = 2π * 1000 * 20e-3 = 125.66 ohms

The reactance of the capacitor can be calculated using the formula:

XC= 1/(2πfC)
Substituting the values we have:
XC = 1/(2π * 1000 * 0.1e-6) = 1591.55 ohms

Impedance:

The impedance of the RLC circuit can be calculated using the formula:
Z = √(R^2 + (XL - XC)^2)
Substituting the values we have:
Z = √(100^2 + (125.66 - 1591.55)^2) = 1592.7 ohms
So the impedance of the RLC circuit at 1 kHz is 1592.7 ohms.

Phase shift:

ϕ = arctan((XL – XC)/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan((125.66 - 1591.55)/100) = -84.3 degrees
So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -84.3 degrees.
 Theory Mag Theory θ Exp Mag Exp Delay Expθ % Dev Mag % Dev θ

VC

VR
VL

Table 10.6

Phasor plot showing Vm, VL, Vc and VR-

Data Analysis: Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).

Results and Discussion: Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the
experiment was successful in complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective was fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.

Reference:
1.Robert L. Boylestad , “introduction circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666
Post Lab Viva Sample Questions:
1. What is the phase relationship between R, L, and C components in a series AC
circuit?
2. Based on measurements, does Kirchhoff’s voltage law apply to the three tested circuits
(show work)?
3. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 5.1 change if the frequency was
raised?
4. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 10.2 change if the frequency was
lowered?

RLC Theory-

A series RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor
(C) connected in series. In this circuit, the current flows through each component one after the other. The
behavior of this circuit can be analyzed using a combination of Kirchhoff's laws and the principles of
circuit analysis.

The behavior of a series RLC circuit depends on the frequency of the AC voltage source applied to it. At
low frequencies, the inductor dominates the behavior of the circuit, and the impedance of the circuit
increases with frequency. At high frequencies, the capacitor dominates, and the impedance of the circuit
decreases with frequency.

The impedance (Z) of the circuit can be calculated using the following formula:

Z = R + j(XL - XC)

Where R is the resistance, XL is the inductive reactance, and XC is the capacitive reactance. XL and XC
can be calculated using the following formulas:

XL = 2πfL

XC = 1/2πfC

Where f is the frequency of the AC voltage source, L is the inductance of the inductor, and C is the
capacitance of the capacitor.
Overall, the behavior of a series RLC circuit is complex and depends on the values of the components and
the frequency of the AC voltage source applied to it. Understanding the principles of circuit analysis and
using mathematical formulas can help in analyzing and designing these circuits for various applications.

Example-
Let's say we have an RLC circuit with a resistance of 100 ohms, an inductance of 20 millihenries (mH),
and a capacitance of 0.1 microfarads (μF). We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift
of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz (kHz).

Reactance:
The reactance of the inductor can be calculated using the formula:

XL = 2πfL

where f is the frequency in hertz and L is the inductance in henries.

Substituting the values we have:

XL = 2π * 1000 * 20e-3 = 125.66 ohms

The reactance of the capacitor can be calculated using the formula:

XC = 1/(2πfC)

where f is the frequency in hertz and C is the capacitance in farads.

Substituting the values we have:

XC = 1/(2π * 1000 * 0.1e-6) = 1591.55 ohms

So the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 125.66 ohms and the reactance of the capacitor at 1 kHz is
1591.55 ohms.

Impedance:
The impedance of the RLC circuit can be calculated using the formula:

Z = √(R^2 + (XL - XC)^2)

Substituting the values we have:

Z = √(100^2 + (125.66 - 1591.55)^2) = 1592.7 ohms

So the impedance of the RLC circuit at 1 kHz is 1592.7 ohms.

Phase shift:
The phase shift of the circuit can be calculated using the formula:

ϕ = arctan((XL - XC)/R)
Substituting the values we have:

ϕ = arctan((125.66 - 1591.55)/100) = -84.3 degrees

So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -84.3 degrees.

In summary, the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 125.66 ohms, the reactance of the capacitor at 1 kHz
is 1591.55 ohms, the impedance of the RLC circuit at 1 kHz is 1592.7 ohms, and the phase shift of the
circuit at 1 kHz is -84.3 degrees.

RC Circuit-

n a simple RC circuit, a resistor (R) and capacitor (C) are connected in series to a voltage source, such as
a battery, and the capacitor is charged through the resistor. The behavior of the circuit is influenced by the
time constant, which is the product of the resistance and the capacitance.

The phase relationship between the voltage across the capacitor and the voltage across the resistor in an
RC circuit is given by the phase angle (ϕ) between the two voltages. The phase angle can be calculated
using the following formula:

ϕ = arctan(-1/(2πfRC))

where f is the frequency of the voltage source.

At low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor is high, and the capacitor acts as an open circuit. In this
case, the current through the circuit is limited by the resistance, and the voltage across the resistor and the
capacitor are in phase with each other.

At high frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor is low, and the capacitor acts as a short circuit. In this
case, the current through the circuit is limited by the reactance of the capacitor, and the voltage across the
capacitor and the resistor are out of phase with each other by 90 degrees.

At the frequency where the reactance of the capacitor is equal to the resistance, the phase angle between
the voltage across the capacitor and the resistor is 45 degrees. This frequency is called the cutoff
frequency, and it represents the frequency where the circuit's response begins to roll off.

In summary, the phase relationship between the voltage across the capacitor and the resistor in an RC
circuit depends on the frequency of the voltage source. At low frequencies, the two voltages are in phase,
while at high frequencies, they are out of phase by 90 degrees. The phase angle between the two voltages
varies continuously with frequency and is given by the arctan function. The cutoff frequency is the
frequency where the reactance of the capacitor is equal to the resistance and is where the circuit's
response begins to roll off.

Example-
Let's say we have an RC circuit with a resistance of 100 ohms and a capacitance of 1 microfarad (μF). We
want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz
(kHz).

Reactance:

Xc = 1/(2πfC)
Substituting the values we have:

Xc = 1/(2π * 1000 * 1e-6) = 159.2 ohms

Impedance:

Z = √(R^2 + Xc^2)

Substituting the values we have:

Z = √(100^2 + 159.2^2) = 189.6 ohms

Phase shift:

ϕ = arctan(-Xc/R)

Substituting the values we have:

ϕ = arctan(-159.2/100) = -56.3 degrees

So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -56.3 degrees.

In summary, the reactance of the capacitor at 1 kHz is 159.2 ohms, the impedance of the RC circuit at 1
kHz is 189.6 ohms, and the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -56.3 degrees.

RL Circuit-

An RL circuit is a circuit that contains a resistor (R) and an inductor (L) connected in series. When an AC
voltage source is applied to an RL circuit, the inductor produces a counter electromotive force (EMF) that
opposes the flow of current in the circuit. This opposition to the flow of current is called inductive
reactance.

The inductive reactance of an RL circuit is given by the formula:

XL = 2πfL

where f is the frequency of the AC voltage source and L is the inductance of the inductor.

The total impedance of the RL circuit is the combination of the resistance and inductive reactance, and it
is given by the formula:

Z = √(R^2 + XL^2)

where R is the resistance of the resistor.

The phase angle between the voltage and current in an RL circuit is given by the formula:
ϕ = arctan(XL/R)

At low frequencies, the inductive reactance is small, and the phase angle between the voltage and current
is small. As the frequency increases, the inductive reactance increases, and the phase angle between the
voltage and current becomes larger. At a certain frequency called the resonance frequency, the inductive
reactance is equal to the resistance, and the phase angle is 45 degrees.

Example-
Let's say we have an RL circuit with a resistance of 50 ohms and an inductance of 10 millihenries (mH).
We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz
(kHz).

Reactance:
The reactance of the inductor can be calculated using the formula:

XL = 2πfL

where f is the frequency in hertz and L is the inductance in henries.

Substituting the values we have:

XL = 2π * 1000 * 10e-3 = 62.83 ohms

So the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 62.83 ohms.

Impedance:
The impedance of the RL circuit can be calculated using the formula:

Z = √(R^2 + XL^2)

Substituting the values we have:

Z = √(50^2 + 62.83^2) = 80.6 ohms

So the impedance of the RL circuit at 1 kHz is 80.6 ohms.

Phase shift:
The phase shift of the circuit can be calculated using the formula:

ϕ = arctan(XL/R)

Substituting the values we have:

ϕ = arctan(62.83/50) = 51.3 degrees

So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is 51.3 degrees.

In summary, the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 62.83 ohms, the impedance of the RL circuit at 1
kHz is 80.6 ohms, and the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is 51.3 degrees.
Experiment No. 11

Name of the Experiment: Study of Parallel R, L, C in AC Circuits.

Objective
This exercise examines the voltage and current relationships in parallel R, L, C networks, Of
particular importance is the phase of the various components and how Kirchhoff’s current law is
extended for AC circuits. Both time domain and phasor plots of the currents are generated. A
technique to measure current using a current sense resistor will also be explored.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Upon completion this
experiment, students
will be able to: Lab tests
CO2: Verify different
Simulation Lab reports
electrical laws and
theorems for alternating PO1– Experiment Final lab
Affective
current by proposing Engineeri test
domain/ Practice lab
10 simulation procedures ng
analyzing Open ended
and by applying knowledge Group
level lab
mathematical discussion
equations, graphical Project
Tutorial
analysis to the show & project
simulated data. presentation

Theory:
The analysis of a parallel RLC circuits can be a little more mathematically difficult than for series
RLC circuits.
This time instead of the current being common to the circuit components, the applied voltage is
now common to all so we need to find the individual branch currents through each element. The
total impedance, Z of a parallel RLC circuitis calculated using the current of the circuit similar to
that for a DC parallel circuit, the difference this time is that admittance is used instead of
impedance. Consider the parallel RLC circuit illustrated in Figure 11.1:

Recall that for resistors, the voltage is always in phase with the current, for capacitors the voltage
always lags the current by 90 degrees, and for inductors the voltage always leads the current by 90
degrees. Because each element has a unique phase response between +90 and -90 degrees, a parallel
combination of R, L, and C components will yield a complex impedance with a phase angle between
+90 and -90 degrees. Due to the phase response, Kirchhoff’s current law must be computed using
vector (phasor) sums rather than simply relying on the magnitudes. Indeed, all computations of this
nature, such as a current divider, must be computed using vectors.
Required Equipment and Devices:
(1) AC function generator
(2) Oscilloscope
(3) 1 μF / 47μF
(4) 10 mH
(5) 1k-ohm
(6) 10 ohm

Circuit Diagrams:

Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Experimental Procedure:

RC Circuit

1. Using Figure 11.1 with a 10 V p-p 10 kHz source, R=1 k, and C=10 nF, determine
the theoretical capacitive reactance and circuit impedance, and record the results in
Table 11.1 (the experimental portion of this table will be filled out in step 6). Using
 the current divider rule, compute the resistor and capacitor currents and record them
in Table:

2. Build the circuit of Figure 11.1 using R=1k and C=10 nF. A common method to
measure current using the oscilloscope is to place a small current sense resistor in line
with the current of interest. If the resistor is much smaller than the surrounding
reactances it will have a minimal effect on the current. Because the voltage and current
of the resistor are always in phase with each other, the relative phase of the current in
question must be the same as that of the sensing resistor’s voltage. Each of the three
circuit currents will be measured separately and with respect to the source in order to
determine relative phase. To measure the total current, place a 10 resistor between
ground and the bottom connection of the parallel components. Set the generator to a
10 V p-p sine wave at10 kHz. Make sure that the Bandwidth Limit of the oscilloscope
is engaged for both channels. This will reduce the signal noise and make for more
accurate readings. Also, consider using waveform averaging, particularly to clean up
signals derived via the Math function.
3. Place probe one across the generator and probe two across the sense resistor. Measure
the voltage across the sense resistor, calculate the corresponding total current via
Ohm’s law and record in Table 11.2. Along with the magnitude, be sure to record the
time deviation between the sense waveform and the input signal (from which the phase
may be determined eventually).

4. Remove the main sense resistor and place one 10 resistor between the capacitor and
ground to serve as the capacitor current sense. Place a second 10 resistor between the
resistor and ground to sense the resistor current. Leave probe one at the generator and
move probe two across the sense resistor in the resistor branch. Repeat the Ohm's law
process to obtain its current, recording the magnitude and phase angle in Table 6.2.
Finally, move probe two so that it is across the capacitor’s sense resistor. Measure and
record the appropriate values in Table 11.2. Note that if you are using a four-channel
oscilloscope, simultaneous input, resistor and capacitor measurements are possible.

5. Move probe one to the resistor’s sense resistor and leave probe two at the capacitor’s
sense resistor. Save a picture of the oscilloscope displaying the voltage waveforms
representing iR, iC and iin (i.e., the Math waveform computed from (iR+iC).

6. Compute the deviations between the theoretical and experimental values of Table 11.2
and record the results in the final columns of Table 11.2. Based on the experimental
values, determine the experimental Z and XC values via Ohm’s law (XC=VC/iC, Z=Vin/iin)
and record back in Table 11.1 along with the deviations.
 7. Create a phasor plot showing iin, iC, and iR. Include both the time domain display from
step 4 and the phasor plot with the technical report.

8. Replace the capacitor with the 10 mH inductor (i.e. Figure 11.2), and repeat steps 1
through 6 in like manner, using Tables 11.3 and 11.4.

9. Using Figure 11.3 with both the 1μF capacitor and 10 mH inductor (and a third sense
resistor), repeat steps 1 through 6 in like manner, using Tables 11.5 and 11.6. Note that
it will not be possible to see all four waveforms simultaneously in step 5 if a two
channel oscilloscope is being used. For a four channel oscilloscope, place a probe
across each of the three sense resistors.

Precautions: As we have to take some measurements of voltages, everyone should be careful about
using the voltmeter in parallel, it should never be connected in series.
In the reciprocity theorem, the students should be aware that there will be only one source in the
circuit. Moreover, the polarity of the source should be carefully checked.
Circuit should be checked so that there are no short circuits.

Experimental Data tables:

RC Circuit:

Theory Experimental % Deviation

XC
Z Magnitude
Zθ

Table 11.1

Theory Mag Theory θ Exp Mag Exp Delay Expθ % Dev Mag % Dev θ

IC

IR
Iin

Table 11.2
 Fig 11.4: Phasor of parallel RC circuit. As voltage is same here, supply voltage
and resistor current are in the same phase and capacitor current leads supply voltage
by 90 degrees.

RL Circuit:

Theory Experimental % Deviation

XC
Z Magnitude
Zθ

Table 11.3

Theory Mag Theory θ Exp Mag Exp Delay Expθ % Dev Mag % Dev θ

IL

IR
Iin

Table 11.4
 Fig 11.5: Phasor of parallel RL circuit. As voltage is same here, supply voltage and
resistor current are in same phase and inductor current lags supply voltage by 90
degrees.

RLC Circuit:

Theory Experimental % Deviation

XC

XL

Z Magnitude

Zθ

Table 11.5

Theory Theory θ Exp Mag Exp Delay Expθ % Dev % Dev θ

Mag Mag

Ic

IL

IR

Iin

Table-11.6
 Fig 11.6: Parallel RLC circuit.

Theoretical Example-
Let's say we have an RC circuit as shown in Figure 11.1 with a resistance of 100 ohms and a
capacitance of 1 microfarad (μF). We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift
of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz (kHz).

Reactance:

Xc = 1/(2πfC)
Substituting the values we have:
Xc = 1/(2π * 1000 * 1e-6) = 159.2 ohms

Impedance:

Z = (R × Xc) / √(R^2 + Xc^2)

Substituting the values we have:
Z = (100 × 159.2) / √(100^2 + 159.2^2) = 84.68 ohms

Phase shift:

ϕ = arctan(-Xc/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan(-159.2/100) = -56.3 degrees
Fig 11.7: Phasor of Parallel RLC circuit. Assuming inductor current is more than
capacitor current. IL is more than IC.
Data Analysis: Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).

Results and Discussion: Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the
experiment was successful in complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective was fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.

Reference:
1.Robert L. Boylestad , “introduction circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666
Post Lab Viva Sample Questions:

1. What is the phase relationship between R, L, and C components in a parallel AC

circuit?
2. Based on measurements, does Kirchhoff’s current law apply to the three tested circuits
(show work)?
3. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 11.1 change if the frequency
was raised?
4. In general, how would the phasor diagram of Figure 11.2 change if the frequency was
lowered?

RLC Theory-
A parallel RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a
capacitor (C) connected in parallel. In this circuit, the voltage remains equal across all the
components and current flows through each component depending on their reactance. The
behavior of this circuit can be analyzed using a combination of Kirchhoff's laws and the principles
of circuit analysis.
The behavior of a parallel RLC circuit depends on the frequency of the AC voltage source applied
to it. At low frequencies, the inductor dominates the behavior of the circuit, and the impedance of
the circuit increases with frequency. At high frequencies, the capacitor dominates, and the
impedance of the circuit decreases with frequency.
The impedance (Z) of the circuit can be calculated using the following formula:
Z = 1 / √[ (1/R)2 + (1/XL – 1/XC)2 ]
Where R is the resistance, XL is the inductive reactance, and XC is the capacitive reactance. XL and
XC can be calculated using the following formulas:
XL = 2πfL
XC = 1/2πfC
Where f is the frequency of the AC voltage source, L is the inductance of the inductor, and C is
the capacitance of the capacitor.
Overall, the behavior of a paralle RLC circuit is complex and depends on the values of the
components and the frequency of the AC voltage source applied to it. Understanding the principles
of circuit analysis and using mathematical formulas can help in analyzing and designing these
circuits for various applications.
Example-
Let's say we have an RLC circuit with a resistance of 100 ohms, an inductance of 20 millihenries
(mH), and a capacitance of 0.1 microfarads (μF). We want to calculate the reactance, impedance,
and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency of 1 kilohertz (kHz).
Reactance:
The reactance of the inductor can be calculated using the formula:
XL = 2πfL
where f is the frequency in hertz and L is the inductance in henries.
Substituting the values we have:
XL = 2π * 1000 * 20e-3 = 125.66 ohms
The reactance of the capacitor can be calculated using the formula:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
where f is the frequency in hertz and C is the capacitance in farads.
Substituting the values we have:
XC = 1/(2π * 1000 * 0.1e-6) = 1591.55 ohms
So the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 125.66 ohms and the reactance of the capacitor at 1
kHz is 1591.55 ohms.
Impedance:
The impedance of the RLC circuit can be calculated using the formula:
Z = 1 / √[ (1/R)2 + (1/XL – 1/XC)2 ]
Substituting the values we have:
Z = 1 / [ √(1/100)^2 + (1/125.66 – 1/1591.55)^2) ] = 80.65 ohms
So the impedance of the RLC circuit at 1 kHz is 80.65 ohms.
Phase shift:
The phase shift of the circuit can be calculated using the formula:
ϕ = arctan((XL - XC)/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan((125.66 - 1591.55)/100) = -84.3 degrees
So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -84.3 degrees.
In summary, the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 125.66 ohms, the reactance of the capacitor
at 1 kHz is 1591.55 ohms, the impedance of the RLC circuit at 1 kHz is 80.65 ohms, and the phase
shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -84.3 degrees.

RC Circuit-
In a simple RC circuit, a resistor (R) and capacitor (C) are connected in parallel to a voltage source,
such as a battery, and the capacitor is charged through the resistor. The behavior of the circuit is
influenced by the time constant, which is the product of the resistance and the capacitance.
The phase relationship between the voltage across the capacitor and the voltage across the resistor
in an RC circuit is given by the phase angle (ϕ) between the two voltages. The phase angle can be
calculated using the following formula:
ϕ = arctan(-1/(2πfRC))
where f is the frequency of the voltage source.
At low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor is high, and the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
In this case, the current through the circuit is limited by the resistance, and the voltage across the
resistor and the capacitor are in phase with each other.
At high frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor is low, and the capacitor acts as a short circuit.
In this case, the current through the circuit is not limited by the reactance of the capacitor, and the
voltage across the capacitor and the resistor are out of phase with each other by 90 degrees.
At the frequency where the reactance of the capacitor is equal to the resistance, the phase angle
between the voltage across the capacitor and the resistor is 45 degrees. This frequency is called
the cutoff frequency, and it represents the frequency where the circuit's response begins to roll off.
In summary, the phase relationship between the voltage across the capacitor and the resistor in an
RC circuit depends on the frequency of the voltage source. At low frequencies, the two voltages
are in phase, while at high frequencies, they are out of phase by 90 degrees. The phase angle
between the two voltages varies continuously with frequency and is given by the arctan function.
The cutoff frequency is the frequency where the reactance of the capacitor is equal to the resistance
and is where the circuit's response begins to roll off.

Example-
Let's say we have an RC circuit with a resistance of 100 ohms and a capacitance of 1 microfarad
(μF). We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency
of 1 kilohertz (kHz).
Reactance:
Xc = 1/(2πfC)
Substituting the values we have:
Xc = 1/(2π * 1000 * 1e-6) = 159.2 ohms
Impedance:
Z = (R*Xc) / (√(R^2 + Xc^2))
Substituting the values we have:
Z = (100*159.2) / (√(100^2 + 159.2^2)) = 84.68 ohms
Phase shift:
ϕ = arctan(-Xc/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan(-159.2/100) = -56.3 degrees
So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -56.3 degrees.
In summary, the reactance of the capacitor at 1 kHz is 159.2 ohms, the impedance of the RC circuit
at 1 kHz is 189.6 ohms, and the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is -56.3 degrees.

RL Circuit-
An RL circuit is a circuit that contains a resistor (R) and an inductor (L) connected in parallel.
When an AC voltage source is applied to an RL circuit, the inductor produces a counter
electromotive force (EMF) that opposes the flow of current in the circuit. This opposition to the
flow of current is called inductive reactance.
The inductive reactance of an RL circuit is given by the formula:
XL = 2πfL
where f is the frequency of the AC voltage source and L is the inductance of the inductor.
The total impedance of the RL circuit is the combination of the resistance and inductive reactance,
and it is given by the formula:
Z = (R*XL) / √(R^2 + XL^2)
where R is the resistance of the resistor.
The phase angle between the voltage and current in an RL circuit is given by the formula:

Example-
Let's say we have an RL circuit with a resistance of 50 ohms and an inductance of 10 millihenries
(mH). We want to calculate the reactance, impedance, and phase shift of the circuit at a frequency
of 1 kilohertz (kHz).
Reactance:
The reactance of the inductor can be calculated using the formula:
XL = 2πfL
where f is the frequency in hertz and L is the inductance in henries.
Substituting the values we have:
XL = 2π * 1000 * 10e-3 = 62.83 ohms
So the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 62.83 ohms.
Impedance:
The impedance of the RL circuit can be calculated using the formula:
Z = (R*XL) / √(R^2 + XL^2)
Substituting the values we have:
Z = (50*62.83) /√(50^2 + 62.83^2) = 39.12 ohms
So the impedance of the RL circuit at 1 kHz is 39.12 ohms.
Phase shift:
The phase shift of the circuit can be calculated using the formula:
ϕ = arctan(XL/R)
Substituting the values we have:
ϕ = arctan(62.83/50) = 51.3 degrees
So the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is 51.3 degrees.
In summary, the reactance of the inductor at 1 kHz is 62.83 ohms, the impedance of the RL circuit
at 1 kHz is 39.12 ohms, and the phase shift of the circuit at 1 kHz is 51.3 degrees.
ϕ = arctan(XL/R)
At low frequencies, the inductive reactance is small, and the phase angle between the voltage and
current is small. As the frequency increases, the inductive reactance increases, and the phase angle
between the voltage and current becomes larger. At a certain frequency called the resonance
frequency, the inductive reactance is equal to the resistance, and the phase angle is 45 degrees.
Experiment no. 12
Name of the Experiment: Study of Series Resonance and Parallel Resonance
Objective
This exercise investigates the voltage relationships in a series resonant circuit. Of primary importance are
the establishment of the resonant frequency and the quality factor, or Q, of the circuit with relation to the
values of the R, L, and C components.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Upon completion this Lab tests
experiment, students
will be able to: Simulation Lab reports
CO3: Design and PO3– Experiment Final lab
Affective
develop a system for Engineeri test
domain/ Practice lab
12 real life use or for ng
analyzing Open ended
analyzing the circuit knowledge Group
level lab
activities in depth based discussion
on electrical circuits Project
knowledge achieved by Tutorial
show & project
the course. presentation

Theory:
A series resonant circuit consists of a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor in a simple loop. At some
frequency the capacitive and inductive reactance’s will be of the same magnitude, and as they are 180
degrees in opposition, they effectively nullify each other. This leaves the circuit purely resistive, the source
“seeing” only the resistive element. Consequently, the current will be at a maximum at the resonant
frequency. At any higher or lower frequency, a net reactance (the difference between X L and XC) must be
added to the resistor value, producing a higher impedance and thus, a lower current. As this is a simple
series loop, the resistor’s voltage will be proportional to the current. Consequently, the resistor voltage
should be a maximum at the resonant frequency and decrease as the frequency is either increased or
decreased. At resonance, the resistor value sets the maximal current and consequently has a major effect
on the voltages developed across the capacitor and inductor as well as the “tightness” of the voltage versus
frequency curve: The smaller the resistance, the tighter the curve and the higher the voltage seen across the
capacitor and inductor. The Q of the circuit can be defined as the ratio of the resonant reactance to the
circuit resistance, Q=X/R, which also corresponds to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the circuit
bandwidth, Q=F0/BW.

Let us consider a series connection of R, L and C. This series connection is excited by an AC source.

Let us first calculate the impedance Z of the circuit.

 1
Z=R+jωL− 𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
Z=R+j(ωL− 𝜔𝐶)

With the condition of resonance, the circuit is purely resistive. This means the imaginary part of the
impedance Z will be zero during resonance condition or at a resonant frequency. You should always
keep this in your mind while calculating the resonant frequency for a given circuit.

This means,

1
𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶 = 0
1
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
1
𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶
Also

1
𝜔=
2𝜋𝑓

1
i.e.𝑓 = 2𝜋𝜔

Substituting the values , we get

1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Therefore, Resonant Frequency f0 for the Resonance Circuit, will be

1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Required Equipment and Devices:

(1) AC function generator

(2) Oscilloscope
(3) 1 nF
(4) 10 mH
(5) 47 Ohm
(6) 470 Ohm
Circuit Diagram:

Figure 12.1

Experimental Procedure:

Low Q Circuit
1. Using Figure 12.1 with R=470 Ohm, L= 10 mH, and C=10 nF, determine the theoretical
resonance frequency and Q, and record the results in Table 12.1. Based on these values
determine the upper and lower frequencies defining the bandwidth, f1 and f2, and record them
in Table 12.1.

2. Build the circuit of Figure 12.1 using R=470 Ohm, L=10 mH and C=10 nF. Place a probe
across the resistor. Set the output of the generator to a 1 V p-p sine wave. Set the frequency
to the theoretical resonance frequency of Table 12.1. Make sure that the Bandwidth Limit of
the oscilloscope is engaged for both channels. This will reduce the signal noise and make for
more accurate readings.

3. Adjust the frequency in small amounts, up and down, until the maximum voltage is found.
This is the experimental resonance frequency. Record it in Table 12.1. Note the amplitude (it
should be approximately equal to the source voltage of 1 V p-p). Sweep the frequency above
and below the resonance frequency until the experimental f1 and f2 are found. These will
occur at a voltage amplitude of approximately 0.707 times the resonant voltage (i.e., the half-
power points). Record these frequencies in Table 12.1. Also, determine and record the
experimental Q based on the experimental f0, f1, and f2.

4. Transcribe the experimental frequencies of Table 12.1 to the top three entries of Table 12.2.
For all of the frequencies in Table 12.2, measure and record the voltage across the resistor. Also
measure and record the inductor and capacitor voltages. Note that the inductor and capacitor
will have to be swapped with the resistor position in order to maintain proper ground reference
with the oscilloscope.
5. Based on the data from Table 12.2, plot VR, VC, and VL as a function of frequency.
6. Change R to 47 and repeat steps 1 through 5 but using Tables 12.3 and 12.4 for high Q.

Precautions: As we have to take some measurements of voltages, everyone should be careful

about using the voltmeter in parallel, it should never be connected in series.
In the reciprocity theorem, the students should be aware that there will be only one source in the
circuit. Moreover, the polarity of the source should be carefully checked.
Circuit should be checked so that there are no short circuits.
Experimental Data tables:
Low Q Circuit

Theory Experimental % Deviation

fo

f1

f2

Table 12.1
 Frequency VR VC VL
f0=
f1=

f2=

1 kHz

5 kHz

8 kHz

12 kHz

20 kHz

30 kHz

50 kHz

100 kHz

Table 12.2
High Q Circuit

Theory Experimental % Deviation

fo
Q
f1
f2

Table 12.3
 Frequency VR VC VL
f0=
f1=

f2=

1 kHz

5 kHz

8 kHz

12 kHz

20 kHz

30 kHz

50 kHz

100 kHz

Table 12.4
Data Analysis: Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).

Results and Discussion: Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the
experiment was successful in complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.

Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not with in a short
paragraph.

Reference:
1.Robert L. Boylestad , “introduction circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666
Post Lab Viva Sample Questions:

1. What is the effect of changing resistance on Q?

2. Are the VC and VL curves the same as the VR curves? If not, why?
3. In practical terms, what sets the limit on how high Q may be?

Study of Parallel Resonance.

Objective:
This exercise investigates the voltage relationships in a parallel resonant circuit. Of primary
importance are the establishment of the resonant frequency and the quality factor, or Q, of the
circuit with relation to the values of the R, L, and C components.
Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Upon completion this Lab tests
experiment, students
will be able to: Simulation Lab reports
CO3: Design and PO3– Experiment Final lab
Affective
develop a system for Engineeri test
domain/ Practice lab
12 real life use or for ng
analyzing Open ended
analyzing the circuit knowledge Group
level lab
activities in depth based discussion
on electrical circuits Project
knowledge achieved by Tutorial
show & project
the course. presentation

Theory:
A parallel resonant circuit consists of a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor in parallel, typically
driven by a current source. At some frequency the capacitive and inductive reactances will be of
the same magnitude, and as they are 180 degrees in opposition, they effectively nullify each
other. This leaves the circuit purely resistive, the source “seeing” only the resistive element. At
any lower or higher frequency, the inductive or capacitive reactance will shunt the resistance.
The result is a maximum impedance magnitude at resonance, and thus, a maximum voltage. Any
resistance value in series (such as the inductor’s coil resistance) should be transformed into a
parallel resistance in order to gauge its effect on the system voltage. The combined parallel
resistance sets the Q of the circuit and can be defined as the ratio of the combined resistance to
the resonant reactance, Q=R/X, which also corresponds to the ratio of the resonant frequency to
the circuit bandwidth, Q=f0/BW.
Required Equipment and Devices:
(1) AC function generator
(2) Oscilloscope
(3)1 nF
(4)10 mH
(5)2.2 k-ohm
(6)10 k-ohm
(7)100 k-ohm

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 12.2

Experimental Procedure:
1.Using Figure 12.2 with Rs=100 k , Ra=2.2 k , L=10 mH, Rcoil=7 and C=10 nF, determine the
theoretical resonance frequency and Q, and record the results in Table 12.5 Based on these values
determine the upper and lower frequencies defining the bandwidth, f1 and f2, and record them in
Table 12.5 also.
2.Build the circuit of Figure 12.2 using Rs=100 k , Ra=2.2 k , L=10 mH and C=10 nF. Set the
output of the generator to a 10 V p-p sine wave at the theoretical resonant frequency. The large
value of Rs associated with the voltage source will make it appear as a current source equal to
approximately 100 μA p-p, assuming the parallel branch impedance is much less than Rs. Place a
probe across the parallel branch. Set the frequency to the theoretical resonance frequency of Table
12.5. Make sure that the Bandwidth Limit of the oscilloscope is engaged for both channels. This
will reduce the signal noise and make for more accurate readings.
3. Adjust the frequency in small amounts, up and down, until the maximum voltage is found. This
is the experimental resonant frequency. Record it in Table 12.5. Note the amplitude. Sweep the
frequency above and below the resonance frequency until the experimental f1 and f2 are found.
These will occur at a voltage amplitude of approximately 0.707 times the resonant voltage (i.e.,
the half-power points). Record these frequencies in Table 12.5. Also, determine and record the
experimental Q based on the experimental f0, f1, and f2.

4.Transcribe the experimental frequencies of Table 12.6 to the top three entries of Table 12.6. For
all of the frequencies in Table 12.6, measure and record the voltage across the parallel branch.
5.Based on the data from Table 12.6, plot the parallel branch voltage as a function of frequency.
6.For high Q, change Ra to 10 k and repeat steps 1 through 5 but using Tables 12.7 and 12.8.
Precautions: As we have to take some measurements of voltages, everyone should be careful
about using the voltmeter in parallel, it should never be connected in series.
In the reciprocity theorem, the students should be aware that there will be only one source in the
circuit. Moreover, the polarity of the source should be carefully checked.
Circuit should be checked so that there are no short circuits.

Experimental Data tables:

Low Q Circuit

Theory Experimental % Deviation

f0
Q
f1
f2

Table 12.5
Frequency VParallel
f0=
f1=

f2=
1 kHz
5 kHz
8 kHz
12 kHz
20 kHz
30 kHz

50 kHz

100 kHz

Table 12.6
High Q Circuit: A high Q resonant circuit has narrow bandwidth has compared to low Q

Theory Experimental % Deviation

f0
Q
f1
f2

Table 12.7

Frequency VParallel
f0=
f1=

f2=
1 kHz
5 kHz
8 kHz
12 kHz
20 kHz
30 kHz

50 kHz

100 kHz

Table 12.8
Data Analysis: Analyze the obtained data and plot the figures if needed.
Compare the simulation results with your experimental data /wave shapes and comment on the
difference (If any).
Results and Discussion: Interpret the data /findings and determine the extent to which the
experiment was successful in complying with the goal that was initially set.
Detect the variation between theory and experimental result if any and propose the ways
/procedures to overcome the variations.
Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not with in a short
paragraph.
Reference:
1.Robert L. Boylestad , “introduction circuit analysis’’, prentice Hall , 12th Edition , Newyork,
2010, ISBN 9780137146666
Post Lab Viva Sample Questions:
1. What is the effect of changing resistance on Q?
2. Are f1 and f2 spaced symmetrically around f0?
3. In practical terms, what sets the limit on how high Q may be?