SLIDE 41

Good Day, everyone. So now, let’s continue on 1.3 SUBMARINE WEATHERING PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS. Although we
commonly think of weathering as being a subaerial process, meaning these are the processes that cause the breakdown,
disintegration, and decomposition of rocks and other materials at Earth's surface, exposed to the atmosphere. This
happens without the presence of water bodies like oceans, lakes, or rivers; an important kind of weathering also takes
place on the ocean floor, which is a process called Halmyrolysis. (Read the slide) Halmyrolysis encompasses a combination
of physical, chemical, and biological processes that break down and alter the composition of seafloor sediments.

• (Clay Minerals - are the main constituents of recent deep-sea or abyssal sediments.
• Glauconite - is a green, ferric iron-rich micaceous mineral that forms predominantly in marine environments.)
• Phillipsite and Palagonite - In sedimentary rocks zeolites (phillipsite) and palagonite occur as alteration products
of volcanic glass. Extensive deposits of these occur in all oceans.
• Dissolution of the siliceous and calcareous tests of organisms (the external, protective shell, covering or
exoskeleton of certain organism) may also be considered a type of submarine weathering, as halmyrolysis or
submarine weathering encompasses a combination of both physical and chemical weathering, so dissolution of
tests of these organisms falls in the submarine weathering process.

Before, there has been no great deal of research, and it was not recognized that they might have a significant effect on the
overall chemical composition of the oceans. Our concept of the importance of submarine weathering has changed
dramatically since the mid-1970s because studies of volcanic rocks and weathering processes on the seafloor show that
submarine weathering of basalts, particularly on mid-ocean ridges, that results the hydration (is a form of chemical
weathering that changes the chemical bonds of the mineral as it interacts with water) and leaching (the process of
dissolving minerals from rocks through the action of water), is an extremely important chemical phenomenon of basalts
as well as changes in composition of seawater owing to ion exchange during the reaction of seawater with basalt.

SLIDE 42

(Read the slide) Such as olivine and interstitial glass in your basalts, are replaced by smectite clay minerals, and further
alteration may lead to the formation of zeolite minerals and chlorite. As a result of these changes, chemical elements are
exchanged between rock and water, and large volumes of seawater become fixed in the oceanic crust in hydrous clay
minerals and zeolites.

SLIDE 43

(Read the subtitle) led to the awareness that large-scale hydrothermal activity takes place in the ocean. Since that initial
discovery, scientists using submersible vehicles and water-sampling techniques have located many additional hot springs
along mid-ocean ridges in both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, as well as along convergent plate margins, in back-arc
basins, and even on mid-plate volcanoes in the Hawaiian chain. (Read the bullets) Hydrothermal vents form at locations
where seawater meets magma.

• These vents are typically found near underwater volcanoes, which occur at spreading ridges (where tectonic
plates move apart) or subduction zones (where tectonic plates converge). Hydrothermal vents are like geysers, or
hot springs, on the ocean floor. Seawater circulates deep in the ocean’s crust and becomes superheated by hot
magma. As pressure builds and the seawater warms, it begins to dissolve minerals and rise toward the surface of
the crust. The hot, mineral-rich waters then exit the oceanic crust and mix with the cool seawater above. As the
vent minerals cool and solidify into mineral deposits, they form different types of hydrothermal vent structures.

SLIDE 44

(Read the slide) These chimneys are either called “black smokers” (formed from iron sulfide deposits, appearing black)
or “white smokers” (formed from barium, calcium, and silicon deposits, appearing white). The temperature of the water
when it emerges from the vents may exceed 350°C. When these hot solutions mix with seawater of ambient temperature,
they precipitate various minerals, particularly pyrite (FeS2) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2 ), to build sulfide deposits around the
vents.

• Black smokers emit the hottest, darkest plumes, which are high in sulfur content and form chimneys up to 18
stories tall, or 55 meters (180 feet).
• The plumes of white smokers are lightly colored and rich in barium, calcium, and silicon. Compared to black
smokers, white smokers usually emit cooler plumes and form smaller chimneys.

SLIDE 45

Reactions between hot basalt and seawater play a role in regulating the chemical composition of seawater. (Read the slide)
which has a significant impact on the budget of several elements, including silica.

SLIDE 46

The magnitude of hydrothermal alteration of basalts along mid-ocean ridges and its effect on ocean chemistry is still being
investigated and uncertainties remain; however, it now appears that circulation of ocean water through hydrothermal
systems throughout geologic time has added significant quantities of certain ions to the ocean while removing others.

Thus, both seafloor hydrothermal reactions and continental weathering processes supply the ocean with ions that may
eventually be extracted to form chemically deposited rocks such as limestones, iron-rich sedimentary rocks, and cherts.
(Read the Slide)

SLIDE 47

Soils

Considered from the standpoint of sedimentary-rock origin, we are perhaps more interested in the products of weathering
than in the processes that bring about weathering, although it is useful for students to understand just how weathering
processes operate to generate these products.

(Read the Slide)

The materials that make up sedimentary rocks are either siliciclastic grains derived from the land as a result of weathering
(or explosive volcanism in some cases) or they are so-called "chemical" minerals that were precipitated from ocean or lake
water. The elements that make up these chemical minerals were released from parent rocks by chemical weathering
processes operating on land and in the ocean.

Thus, it is quite reasonable to consider that the generation of both siliciclastic and chemical/biochemical sedimentary rocks
begins with weathering.

SLIDE 48

Explain the SOIL TEXTURE DIAGRAM

SLIDE 49

(Read the Slide)

These factors govern the intensity of weathering and determine which minerals survive to become part of the soil profile,
what new minerals are created in the soil, and the length of time soil materials remain before being eroded and transported
to depositional basins.

On very steep slopes, for example, the weathered mantle may be removed so rapidly by erosion that little soil accumulates.
SLIDE 50

In addition to the chemical and physical weathering processes that cause the breakdown of bedrock to form soils, several
other biologic and chemical processes operate within soils over time to modify their characteristics.

(Read the Slide) (First process)

"Influx of solid particles such as windblown dust" in geology refers to the introduction or arrival of solid particles, typically
dust, into a particular geological environment due to the action of wind. Windblown dust is a common form of sediment
transport in many environments, especially arid and semi-arid regions where wind erosion is prevalent. These particles
can be transported over long distances by wind and eventually settle out of the atmosphere onto the Earth's surface,
where they may accumulate and contribute to the formation of sedimentary deposits over time. This influx of solid
particles plays a significant role in shaping the landscape and geology of various regions.

(Second process)

Primary minerals in geology refer to minerals that are formed directly from cooling magma or lava during the process of
solidification and crystallization. These minerals are the first to crystallize out of a molten state as igneous rocks cool and
solidify. They form in a sequence based on their melting points and chemical compositions. Such as Quartz, Feldspars
(including orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline), Micas (including muscovite and biotite) Pyroxenes, ad Olivine.

Secondary minerals are minerals that form through processes such as weathering, alteration, and metamorphism acting
on pre-existing primary minerals. Secondary minerals are typically found in sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, and
hydrothermal veins. Such as Clay minerals (such as kaolinite) formed through the weathering of primary minerals like
feldspars and micas. Hydrated iron oxides (such as goethite and hematite) formed through the weathering of primary iron-
bearing minerals like magnetite and pyroxenes. Serpentine minerals (such as lizardite, antigorite, and chrysotile) formed
through the alteration of primary minerals like olivine. Silica minerals: While quartz is already a silica mineral, it can
transform into other silica polymorphs such as chalcedony, opal, or amorphous silica through various alteration processes.

SLIDE 51

(Third process) In sedimentary rocks, diagenetic processes can involve the movement of fluids containing ions through
pore spaces. This fluid flow can result in mineral dissolution and precipitation, leading to the transfer of ions within the
rock.

(Fourth process) Sometimes, dissolved substances in a solution may reach a concentration threshold where they can no
longer remain dissolved. In such cases, they may precipitate out of the solution as solid minerals. This often happens when
the solution becomes oversaturated with the dissolved substances due to changes in temperature, pressure, or chemical
composition.

(Fifth process) (Read the slide) Bioturbation of the soil refers to the mixing and disturbance of soil layers caused by
biological activities of organisms living within the soil. These organisms include various animals, such as earthworms,
insects, rodents, and burrowing mammals, as well as plant roots.

These processes generate distinct soil horizons, which are collectively referred to as the soil profile.

SLIDE 52

Read only.

SLIDE 53

Read until mineral soils ( Mineral soils are soils consisting primarily of mineral material, such as sand, silt, and clay) and
read again.
SLIDE 54

Read until illuvial (these are materials removed thru the action of rainwater) and read again.

SLIDE 55

Read only.

Read again until “length of soil-forming processes” The length of the soil-forming process refers to the duration over
which various natural processes shape and transform soil. These processes, known as pedogenic processes, determine
the characteristics of the soil that ultimately forms.

SLIDE 56

Explain more on aridisol and ultisol. Aridisol - These are soils that are too dry for the growth of plants with limited
number of plants that can grow. The lack of moisture greatly restricts the intensity of weathering processes and limits
most soil development processes to the upper part of soils. Ultisol - They formed from fairly intense weathering and
leaching processes. They are basically acid soils in which most nutrients are concentrated in the upper few inches.

SLIDE 57

So now, we are now on topic of Paleosols, (read the first bullet) Paleosols are ancient soils that formed in the geological
past and are preserved within the rock record. Most soil horizons that developed in the past on elevated landscapes were
eventually destroyed as erosion lowered the landscape. Nonetheless, some soils, presumably those formed mainly in
lowlying areas, escaped erosion to become part of the stratigraphic record. "Presumably those formed mainly in low-lying
areas": This part indicates that the features or formations being discussed were likely formed in areas of relatively low
elevation, such as river valleys, floodplains, or coastal plains. Low-lying areas often accumulate sediment and can be
conducive to the preservation of sedimentary deposits. (read the second bullet) Paleosols can range in age from thousands
to millions of years old and are often found interbedded with sedimentary rocks or volcanic deposits.

SLIDE 58

We have different types of paleosols, Kinds of paleosols are defined in terms of location relative to the land surface. Ruhe
1965, 1975 defined these terms as follows:

(read the relict soil definition) Relict soils are typically found within the context of older geological formations or
landscapes. They may be associated with ancient river terraces, glacial deposits, or other landforms that have undergone
significant geomorphic changes over time. "And continues today": This suggests that the processes responsible for forming
these features or formations are still active and ongoing in the present day. It indicates that the geological processes
responsible for shaping the landscape have persisted over time and continue to operate, potentially modifying or shaping
the landscape further.

(read the buried soil definition) Buried paleosols are ancient soils that have been buried beneath layers of sediment or
volcanic material. The word buried, meaning they are buried beneath other layers that were deposited by deposition
agents like water and wind.

(read the exhumed soil definition) Exhumed paleosols are ancient soils that were buried beneath layers of sediment or
volcanic material, but have since been exposed at the Earth's surface through erosion or tectonic uplift.

SHOW SLIDE 59

Explain briefly.
SHOW SLIDE 60

Explain briefly.

SLIDE 61

Because interbedded paleosols in sedimentary successions superficially resemble sediments or sedimentary rocks, many
paleosols have unquestionably gone unrecognized in the past. Many of us have simply identified them as gray, red, or
green mudstones. As awareness of paleosols has increased, however, more and more paleosols are being recognized.

Retallack (1988, 1997) suggests three principal kinds of diagnostic characteristics of paleosols that help distinguish them
from sedimentary rocks: traces of life, soil horizons, and soil structure.

Waterlogging occurs when the soil or sediment holds so much water that it becomes water-saturated, with little to no
drainage or air spaces between soil particles.

Anoxic conditions can arise due to factors such as organic matter decomposition, microbial activity, or stagnant water.
These areas are often characterized by slow-moving or stagnant water flow, which can lead to waterlogging and anoxic
conditions, especially in poorly drained or poorly ventilated areas.

• Diagnostic features are characteristics or attributes of a geological formation that are distinctive or unique and can
be used to identify or classify the formation. Diagnostic features may include specific mineral compositions, fossil
assemblages, sedimentary structures, or other geological attributes that are characteristic of a particular formation
or depositional environment.
• Prominent features are characteristics or aspects of a geological formation or landscape that are noticeable or
conspicuous due to their size, shape, or significance. These features may not necessarily be unique or diagnostic
but are notable enough to stand out in the landscape or to attract attention.

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SLIDE 63

Paleosols can be recognized to have characteristics similar to those of modern soils; thus, U.S. Soil Taxonomy names such
as aridosol and ultisol can be applied to paleosols (e.g., Retai lack, 1992). Because the characteristics of paleosols reflect
the conditions under which they formed, including climatic conditions, the study of paleosols is an important tool in
paleoenvironmental analysis. For example, aridosols suggest formation under desert conditions whereas ultisols reflect
weathering under warm, moist conditions. Clearly, the processes of weathering that lead to the generation of sedimentary
particles and soil formation are intimately tied up with climatic conditions.

SHOW SLIDE 64

SLIDE 65

Read only.