CHAP 2

MODELISATION
MATHEMATIQUE: APPLICATION OF
LAPLACE TRANSFORM

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 1
 OBJECTIFS DU CHAPITRE
• Find the Laplace transform of time functions and the inverse
Laplace transform.
• Find the transfer function from a differential equation and solve
the differential equation using the transfer function.
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electrical
circuits
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant translational
mechanical systems.
• Find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant
electromechanical systems.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 2
 Introduction
• In the previous section, we have discussed the
analysis and design sequence that include
how to obtain system’s schematic.

• To obtain a schematic, the control systems

engineering will often make many simplifying
assumptions in order to get a simple model
and still approximate physical reality.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 3
 Introduction
• The next step is to develop mathematical models
from schematics of physical systems. Two methods
will be discussed:

Mathematical modelling

In Frequency domain: In time domain: using

Using Transfer Function State equations.
(Tool: Laplace Transform)
To be covered in the Last
This will be covered in Section
this Section
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 4
 Introduction (Continued)
• The mathematical model of physical dynamic
system describes a relationship between its input
and output.
• One such a model is the linear, time-invariant (LTI)
differential equation as given below:
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) d m x(t ) d m −1 x(t )
an n
+ an −1 n −1
+ ... + a0 y (t ) = bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+ ... + b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt

• Many systems can be approximately described by

the above, which relates the output, y(t), to the
input x(t), by way of system parameters, ai and bj.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 5
 Introduction (Continued)
• Linear (L): means there is no product between two
variable, or product between the same variable
(power functions), etc), or other non-linear
functions such as trigonometric, or exponential, or
logarithmic functions.
• Time Invariant (TI): means these parameters (are
constant. Linear means the is no product of two
variables (ai and bj) are constant.
• In control systems engineering, we usually assume
the LTI conditions (simplified models for may
dynamic systems).
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 6
 Introduction (Continued)
• We saw in Step 6 of the previous section, that once
the mathematical model of the control system is
obtained, one has to analysis its behavior to see
whether it complies with the
requirements/specifications. This means that the
time response of a system described by the LTI
differential equation has to be analyzed either in
frequency domain or time domain.
• Laplace Transform is one of the tool used in control
systems engineering to easily study the time
response of LTI differential equations. This converts
LTI differential equations to an algebraic equation.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 7
 Laplace Transforms
Definition
• Transforms -- a mathematical conversion from one
way of thinking to another to make a problem
easier to solve
problem solution
in original in original
way of solution inverse way of
thinking transform in transform thinking
transform
way of
thinking

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 8
 Laplace Transforms

solution
problem inverse in time
Laplace solution
in time Laplace Domain
transform in
domain transform (Time
s domain response)

• Other transforms
• Fourier
• z-transform
• wavelets

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 9
Laplace transformation

LTI time
differential domain
equation solution

Laplace transform
inverse Laplace
transform

Laplace algebra Laplace

transformed Solution
(partial fractions)
equation (Algebraic equation)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 10
 Basic Tool For Continuous Time: Laplace Transform
• Suppose that f(t) is a function of time t, such as f(t) = 0,
t<0. The Laplace Transform of f(t) is defined as

L[ f (t )] = F ( s) =  f (t )e dt − st
0
Where s=σ+jω, a complex number.

• Convert time-domain functions and operations into

frequency-domain (s-domain).
– f(t) → F(s) (tR, sC)
– LTI differential equations → algebraic expression in Complex plane
• Hence, Graphical solutions/methods can be used to analyse
key LDE characteristics (Bode diagrams, polar diagrams, etc).
• You can also discrete systems using the analogous z-
transform.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 11
 Basic Tool For Continuous Time: Laplace Transform
• The inverse Laplace Transform of a function
F(s) is defined as
 + j
L [ F ( s )] = 
−1
F ( s )e ds = f (t )u (t )
st
 − j

Where = 1 t  0
u (t ) = 
= 0 t  0

Is a unit step function.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 12
 The Complex Plane (review)

Imaginary axis (j)

u = x + jy
y u   = tan
y
−1


r
x
Real axis
− x | u | r | u |= x + y
2 2

−y
r

u = x − jy
2024/07/17
(complex) conjugate
CHAP 2 13
 Advantages of the Laplace Transform
• Describing/analyzing a system in the complex
frequency domain s reveals information about the
system, information that is not available when the
system is described in the time domain.
• By Using graphical methods (Bode diagrams, polar
diagrams, etc.), the behavior of the system is studied
without having to solve the differential equations
that describe it.
• Finally, as stated earlier, the use of Laplace transform
converts a LTI differential equation into an algebraic
equation, which can be easily solved.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 14
Laplace Transform Properties and Theorems
• The Laplace transform has many properties and
theorems. Some of the most important for the study
of automatic control systems are the following:
1. Linearity: Laplace Transform is a linear
transform, which means that:
La1 f1 (t ) + a2 f 2 (t ) = La1 f1 (t ) + La2 f 2 (t ) =
a1 L f1 (t ) + a2 L f 2 (t ) = a1 F1 (s ) + a2 F2 (s )

where a1 and a2 are constant coefficients

Linearity also applies to the Inverse Laplace
Transform.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 15
Laplace Transform Properties and Theorems
2. Laplace transform of derivatives:
• The Laplace transform of a function’s first
derivative is given by:
 df (t ) 
L  = sF (s ) − f (0 )
 dt 
Where f(0) is the initial condition (value of f(t) at
t=0s).
• For the nth derivative, we have
 d n f (t )  n
L n  = s n
F ( s ) −  s n−k
f k −1
(0)
 dt  k =1

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 16
Laplace Transform Properties and Theorems
2. Laplace transform of derivatives:
• If all initial conditions are zero, the previous
equation becomes:
 d n f (t ) 
L n  = s n
F (s )
 dt 
3. Time scaling: If a function is scaled by a in the
time domain, it is scaled by 1/a in the s-domain:
1 s
L f (at ) = F  , a  0
a a

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 17
Laplace Transform Properties and Theorems
4. Frequency shifting: This property is also
known as modulation:

 
L e − at f (t ) = F (s + a )

5. Final value theorem: This theorem is widely

used in the study of automatic control system as
it allows the direct calculation of the system’s
steady-state response:

lim f (t ) = lim sF (s )
t → s →0

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 18
 Simple transformations
• Unit Impulse (impuslion) at t=0s: f(t) =  (t)

F(s) = e-st  (t) dt= 1

f(t) = (t)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 19
 • Unit Step (echelon unite) function without
delay (retard):
f(t)=u (t)=1 

F(s) = 1*e-st dt = 1/s

f(t)=u(t)
1

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 20
• f(t) = e-at

   1 −( s + a )t 
F (s ) =  f (t )e dt =  e e dt =  e
− st − at − st − ( s + a )t
=− e
0 0 0 s+a t =0
1
=
s+a

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 21
 Properties and Theorems
Linearity f1(t)  f2(t) F1(s) ± F2(s)

Constant multiplication a f(t) a F(s)

Complex shift eat f(t) F(s-a)

Real shift f(t - T) eTs F(as)

Scaling f(t/a) a F(as)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 22
 Tables of Laplace Transforms

• Tables of Laplace Transforms are available

and can be used for transformations
instead of using the basic formula.

• Most mathematical handbooks have tables

of Laplace transforms

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 23
 Tables of Laplace Transforms

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 24
 Tables of Laplace Transforms

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 25
 Example (Voire Maths de L1)
Express the following LTI differential equation
in s-domain and determine final value:
dy (t )
5 + 4 y (t ) = 2 with y (0 ) = 1
dt
First, apply L on both sides of equation:
 dy (t ) 
L 5  + 4 y (t ) = L2u (t )

 dt 
 dy (t ) 
5L   + 4 L y (t ) = 2 Lu (t )
 dt 

5(sY (s ) − 1) + 4Y (s ) =
2
s
Rearranging the above, we get: Y (s ) = 5s + 2
s (5s + 2 ) 2 s (5s + 4 )
Final value: lim sY (s ) = lim = = 0 .5
s →0 s → 0 s (5 s + 4 ) 4
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 26
 Tutorial
Express the following LTI differential equation
in s-domain and determine final values:

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
1. 2 2
+5 − 20 y (t ) = 12u (t )
dt dt
with y (0 ) = 2; y ' (0 ) = 1

2. y (t ) + 6 y (t ) + 11 y (t ) + 6 y (t ) = 1
''' '' '

With zero initial conditions

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 27
 Inverse Laplace Transform
• The inverse Laplace Transform has been previously
defined. This is usually calculated directly using tables as
solving the integral of the inverse Laplace Transform is a
difficult task.

• The procedure is first to convert a function F(s) into a

sum of partial fractions and then find the inverse Laplace
Transform of the fractions through the given tables.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 28
 Inverse Laplace Transform
• The roots of the numerator’s polynomial are called zeros, while the roots
of the denominator’s polynomial are called poles.
• In order to compute the inverse Laplace transform of F(s), we must
express F(s) as a sum of partial fractions.
• Depending on the form of its poles, three cases can be distinguished.

a. Case of distinct real poles: F(s) is expanded as:

N (s )
F (s ) =
k1 k2 kn
= + + ... +
(s + p1 )(s + p2 )...(s + pn ) (s + p1 ) (s + p1 ) (s + p n )
• The coefficients ki can be either computed algebraically through
identification or using Heaviside formula, which is a much easier
approach. Hence, we will be using Heaviside method in this subject. The
coefficients ki are therefore computed as:
 N (s ) 
ki = lim (s + pi )F (s ) = lim (s + pi ) 
s → − pi s → − pi
 (s + p1 )(s + p2 )...(s + pn )
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 29
 Inverse Laplace Transform
• Applying inverse Laplace transform, we have:
 k1  −1  k 2  −1  k n 
f (t ) = L F (s ) = L 
−1 −1
+ L   + ... + L  
 s + p1  s + p 2  s + p n

Hence f (t ) = k1e − p t + k2e − p t + ... + kn e − p t

1 2 n

b. The case of multiple real poles:

Suppose that p1is a pole of multiplicity r. In this case F(s) is
written as:
N (s )
F (s ) =
k1 k2 kr k r +1 kn
= + + ... + + + ... +
(s + p1 ) ...(s + pn ) (s + p1 ) (s + p1 )
r r r −1
(s + p1 ) (s + p2 ) (s + p n )
The coefficients ki are computed according to the Heaviside
formula as:  d (i −1) 
lim  (i −1) (s + pi ) F (s ) with i = 1,2,3..., r
1
ki =
r

2024/07/17
(i − 1)! s→− pi  ds CHAP 2  30
 Inverse Laplace Transform
• The rest of coefficients (k2,k3, …kn) are calculated
according to the case of distinct real poles.
c. The case of complex roots:
• The same formula as in the case of distinct real poles is
used, except that the solution in the time domain will
have the complex operator ”j” since some of the poles
will be complex numbers.
• After the inverse Laplace Transform has been applied,
and the solution in time domain is obtained, the
following complex number identities can be used to get
rid of the complex operator ”j”:

e j
+ e − j
= 2 cos 
 j

e − e
− j
= 2 j sin  CHAP 2
2024/07/17 31
 Tutorials
• Compute the inverse Laplace Transforms of the functions:
b ) F (s ) =
5s + 2 2
a ) Y (s ) =
s (5s + 4 ) s(s + 1)( s + 2)

s+3 F (s ) =
10
c) F (s ) = d)
(s + 4)3 ( s + 3) 2
(s + 1)( s 2 + 4s + 5)

10(s + 6 ) 3s + 1
F (s ) = f) F (s ) =
e)
(
s (s + 5)( s 2 + 3s + 2) s 2 + 7 s + 12 ) (s − 1)( s 2 + 1)

2s 2 − 4
g ) F (s ) =
(s + 1)(s − 2) 2 (s − 3)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 32
 Solutions: Examples
• Spep1: Write sum of partial fractions for distinct poles
5s + 2
Y (s ) =
k k
a) = 1+ 2
s (5s + 4 ) s s + 4
5
Step 2: Find k1 and k2 using Heaviside method
5s + 2 0+2 2
k1 = lim sF (s ) = lim s = lim = = 0 .5
s →0 s →0 s (5s + 4 ) s → 0 0+4 4
 4  4  5s + 2   5s + 4  5s + 2 
k 2 = lim  s +  F (s ) = lim  s +   = lim   
s →− 
4
5
5  s →− 
4
5
5  s (5 s + 4 )  s →− 5 
4 5  s (5 s + 4 ) 
 4
5  −  + 2
 5s + 2   5 −4+2 −2
= lim = = = = 0 .5
 5s   4  −4 −4
4 5  − 
s →−
5  5
Hence the sume of partial fractions : F (s ) =
0 .5 0 .5
+
s 4
s+
5
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 33
 Solution: Examples
• Spep3: Apply Inverse Laplace Transform to partial fractions of F(s)
   
−1  0.5 
 0 .5  −1  1 
 1 
y (t ) = L Y (s ) = L   + L 
−1 −1 −1
 = 0 .5 L   + 0 .5 L  
 s  s + 4  s  4
s + 
 5  5

• Step 4: Use Laplace Transform Tables:

(
y (t ) = 0.5 + 0.5e −0.8t u (t ) )
Use can use Matlab code to verify the values of partial fraction constants, k1, k2
(also called residues) that you have manually calculated. The Matlab code is:
[k,p]=residue(N,D)
Where the input vectors are coefficients of the numerator N = [n1,n2,n3…] and
denominator, D = [d1,d2,d3,…] polynomials. The outputs are the residues k =
[k1,k2,k3…] and the poles p = [p1,p2,p3….]

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 34
 Examples: Solution
Use can use Matlab code to verify the values of partial fraction constants, k1, k2
(also called residues) that you have manually calculated. The Matlab code is:
[k,p]=residue(N,D)
Where the input vectors are coefficients of the numerator N = [n1,n2,n3…] and
denominator, D = [d1,d2,d3,…] polynomials. The outputs are the residues k =
[k1,k2,k3…] and the poles p = [p1,p2,p3….]

Answer from Matlab:

This means the first value in k vector, 0.5 is to k1, and
corresponds to the first pole p1=-0.8; the second
coefficient k2=0.5 corresponds to the second pole
p2=0

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 35
 Examples
• Spep3: Apply Inverse Laplace Transform to partial fractions of F(s)
b ) F (s ) =
2
s(s + 1)( s + 2)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 36
 Examples
• PLEASE TRY TO SOLVE THE REST OF EXAMPLES. SOLUTIONS ARE
ALSO FOUND IN THE additional prescribed book: by ANASTASIA
VELONI

• When you have a second order equation of “s”, you can solve this
by using Delta method to get its roots and get rewrite this as
factors. If the delta value is negative, introduce complex operator
“j” , for instance: − 4 = (4)( j ) = 2 j
2

• Example: s 2 + 3s + 2
 = b 2 − 4ac = 32 − 4  1 2 = 1
 − b +  − 3 +1 − 2
1s = = = = −1
 2a 2 1 2

 − b −  − 3 −1 − 4
 2
s = = = = −2
 2 a 2  1 2
s 2 + 3s + 2 = (s − s1 )(s − s2 ) = (s + 1)(s + 2 )

2024/07/17 
 CHAP 2 37
Solve Differential Equations using Laplace Transform

• Solving a LTI differential Equation means get its solution in time

domain.
• Now that you know how to use LAPLACE TRANSFORM to get the
solution of the differential equation in s-domain,
• and the use INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM to convert s-domain
solution to time-domain,
• Hence, to solve the LTI differential equation, use the following
steps:
1) Apply LAPLACE TRANSFORM to the LTI differential equation to get
its solution in s-domain (Use Laplace Transform Tables)
2) Get partial fractions of the s-domain solution,
3) Apply INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM to partial fractions to get
the solutions in t-domain (Use Laplace Transform Tables).
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 38
 Tutorials

a) Solve the differential equations below:

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
+5 + 4 y (t ) = 10 with y (0) = −1, y ' (0) = 1
dt dt

b) Solve the following system of differential equations

 dx(t )
 dt = 2 x(t ) − 3 y (t )

 dy (t ) = y (t ) − 2 x(t )
 dt
The initial conditions x(0 ) = 8 and y (0 ) = 3
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 39
 Example: Solutions
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
a) 2
+5 + 4 y (t ) = 10 with y (0 ) = −1, y ' (0 ) = 1
dt dt
 d 2 y (t ) dy (t ) 
L 2
+5 + 4 y (t ) = L10
 dt dt 
s 2Y (s ) − sy (0 ) − y ' (0 ) + 5(sY (s ) − y (0 )) + 4Y (s ) =
10
s
s 2Y (s ) + s − 1 + 5(sY (s ) + 1) + 4Y (s ) =
 s 2Y (s ) + s − 1 + 5sY (s ) + 5 + 4Y (s ) =
10 10
s s
2
 
Factorizing Y (s ) : Y (s ) s + 5s + 4 = −4 − s +
10
s


Y (s ) s + 5 s + 4 =
2
− 4 s − s 2 + 10
s
The solution in s − domain is therefore :
− s 2 − 4 s + 10
Y (s ) =
2024/07/17
(
s s 2 + 5s + 4 ) CHAP 2 40
 Example: Solutions
To get the solution in t (time) domain, you now have to apply Inverse
Laplace Transform to the s − domain solution :
− s 2 − 4 s + 10 − s 2 − 4 s + 10 k1 k 2
Y (s ) =
k3
= = + +
(
s s 2 + 5s + 4) s (s + 1)(s + 4 ) s s + 1 s + 4
with coefficients being calculated as
 − s 2 − 4 s + 10  − s 2 − 4 s + 10 10 5
k1 = lim sY (s ) = lim   s = lim = =
s →0 s →0 s (s + 1)(s + 4 ) s →0 (s + 1)(s + 4 )
  4 2
− s 2 − 4 s + 10 − 1 + 4 + 10
k 2 = lim (s + 1)Y (s ) = lim
13
= =−
s → −1 s → −1 s (s + 4 ) − 1(− 1 + 4 ) 3
− s 2 − 4 s + 10 − 16 + 16 + 10 10 5
k3 = lim = (s + 4 )Y (s ) = lim = = =
s → −4 s → −4 s (s + 1) − 4(− 4 + 1) 12 6
Now apply Inverse Laplace Transform to get the solution in t − domain :
5   13   5  5 13
     
y (t ) = L−1  2  − L−1  3  + L−1  6  = − e −t + e − 4t
5
 s   s + 1  s + 4  2 3 6
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 41
 Tutorials
• Solve the following differential equations
using Laplace Transform (you should get
solution in time domain)

a ) y"+6 y '+5 y = 0 with y (0 ) = 1, y ' (0 ) = −3

b) y"−3 y '+2 y = e 3t with y (0 ) = 1, y ' (0 ) = 0
c) 9 y"−24 y '+16 y = 0 given y (0 ) = 3 and y ' (0 ) = 3
d ) x"+100 x = 0, given x(0 ) = 2 and x' (0 ) = 0
e) i ' '+1000i '+250 000i = 0, given i (0 ) and i ' (0 ) = 100
f ) x"+6 x'+8 x = 0, given x(0 ) = 4 and x' (0 ) = 8

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 42
 System representation in Frequency
Domain:Transfer Function
• Now that you know how to use Laplace Transform and its inverse;
we are now ready to formulate the system representation in s,
called frequency domain.
• We all initial conditions set to Zero (not always the case), the s-
domain solution of the general LTI differential equation (given
below)
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) d m x(t ) d m −1 x(t )
an n
+ an −1 n −1
+ ... + a0 y (t ) = bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+ ... + b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt

can be expressed as a RATIO of the output, Y(s) and input x(s), which
is made of two polynomials in s (numerator and denominator). We
call this ratio, G(s), the TRANSFER FUNTION of the system.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 43
 System representation in Frequency
Domain:Transfer Function

Transfer
function

Y (s ) bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + ... + b1s + b0

= G (s ) =
X (S ) an s n + an −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a0

Block
diagram

X (s ) bm s m + bm −1s m −1 + ... + b1s + b0 Y (s )

an s n + an −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a0

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 44
 System representation in Frequency
Domain:Transfer Function
• The transfer function relates the output of the system to its input,
hence the dynamic of that the system.
• This can be therefore used to study the system behavior dynamic in
frequency domain.
Example 1: Find the transfer function (TF) of the RL circuit below,
where the current i (t) is the output and the applied voltage, v(t) is the
input. Take L=1H and R=2ꭥ di (t )
L + Ri (t ) = v(t )
dt
Solution: When applying LT, we have:
LsI (s ) + RI (s ) = V (s )  Ls + R I (s ) = V (s )

I (s )
G (s ) =
The TF is the 1 1
= =
V (s ) Ls + R s + 2

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 45
 System representation in Frequency
Domain:Transfer Function
Example 1: Find the transfer function, G(s) of the corresponding
differential equation:
d 3C (t ) d 2 c(t ) dc(t ) d 2 r (t ) dr (t )
2 3
+ 4 2
+ 6 + 3c (t ) = 2
+ 3 + 2r (t )
dt dt dt dt dt
where c(t) is the output variable and r(t) is the input variable
Solution: When applying LT, we have:

2 s 3C (s ) + 4 s 2C (s ) + 6 sC (s ) + 3C (s ) = s 2 R (s ) + 3sR (s ) + 2 R (s )
2s 3
  
+ 4 s 2 + 6 s + 3 C ( s ) = s 2 + 3 s + 2 R (s )
C (s ) s 2 + 3s + 2
Hence G (s ) = = 3
R (s ) 2 s + 4 s 2 + 6 s + 3

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 46
 Application1: Transfer Function of Electric Circuits
• Now that you know how to get transfer functions of
LTI differential equations,

• In this section, you will now apply the transfer

function to the mathematical modeling of electric
circuits.

• This means that you will first have to derive

mathematical models of electric circuits using
physical laws such as Kirchhoff’s voltage and current
laws.
• We will work with electric circuits consisting with
three passive components: resistors, capacitors and
inductors.
• 2024/07/17
Passive means there is no CHAP
internal
2
source of energy 47
Application1: Transfer Function of Electric Circuits
• Table below summarizes the components and the
relationships between voltage and current and between
voltage and charge under ZERO initial conditions.
• You will now combine electrical components into circuits,
and decide on the input and output, and hence find the
transfer function.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 48
Example1: Transfer Function of single loop via the
differential equation
• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, vC(t),
to the input voltage, v(t).

SOLUTION:
• In any problem, the control systems designer must first decide what the
input and output should be.
• In this circuit, several variables could have been chosen to be the output:
for instance, the inductor voltage, capacitor voltage, the resistor voltage,
or the current.
• The problem statement, however, is clear in this case: we are to treat the
capacitor voltage, vC(t) as the output and the applied voltage, v(t) as the
input.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 49
Example1: Transfer Function of single loop via the
differential equation
• By applying KVL (sum of voltages around the loop), assuming zero
initial conditions, we have the following integrodifferential for
this circuit; equation:

di (t )
t
+ Ri (t ) +  i (t )dt = v(t )
1
L ( Eq.1)
dt C0

• Since the above equation only relates the current, i(t) to the
input voltage, v(t), we will have to write an additional equation
relating the current i(t) to the capacitor voltage, vC(t) and
substitute in Eq. 1
• The relationship between i(t) and vC(t) is:
dvC (t )
i (t ) = C (Eq.2)
dt
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 50
Example1: Transfer Function of single loop via
the differential equation
• Applying Laplace Transform to the two equations gives:

 LsI (s ) + RI (s ) + I ( s ) = V (s )
1
( Eq.3)
 Cs
 I (s ) = CsVC (s )
 ( Eq.4)

• Substitution of (Eq. 4) in Eq.3) yields:

LsCsVC (s ) + RCsVC (s ) + CsVC (s ) = V (s )

1
Cs
LCs 2V (s ) + RCsVC (s ) + VC (s ) = V (s )
LCs 2

+ RCs + 1 VC (s ) = V (s )

VC (s )
1
G (s ) =
1 LC
= =
V (s ) LCs 2 + RCs + 1 s 2 + R s + 1
L LC
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 51
Transfer Function of single loop via transform
methods and mesh analsysis
• Let us now develop a technique for simplifying the solution for
future problems. First, take Laplace Transform of the equations in
the voltage-current column of the previous table, assuming zero
initial conditions.

 For the capacitor VC ( s ) =
1
I (s ) = Z C I (s )
Cs

 For the resistor VR (s ) = RI (s ) = Z R I (s )
 For the inductor V (s ) = LsI (s ) = Z I (s )
 L L


Where ZC=1/Cs, ZR=R and ZL=Ls are transfer function impedances of
capacitor, resistor and inductor, respectively.
• We see that the concept of impedance simplifies the solution for
the transfer function initially given the integrodifferential
equation. The Laplace Transform of the given integrodifferntial
equation is:  1 
 Ls + R +  I (s ) = V (s )
 Cs 
• Or [sum of impedances]*I(s)=[Sum of applied voltages] for a
single loop series RLC circuit
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 52
Example1: Transfer Function of single loop via
transform methods
• By repeating the previous example using mesh analysis and
transform methods without writing differential equations, we
have:

  1   LCs 2 + RCs + 1 
V (s ) =  Ls + R +  I (s ) =   I (s ) ( Eq.1)
  Cs   Cs 

VC (s ) = I (s )
1
( Eq.2)
 Cs
 Diving ( Eq.2) by ( Eq.1)

I (s )
 1
G (s ) = C =
V ( s ) Cs =
1
 V (s )  LCs + RCs + 1 
2
LCs 2 + RCs + 1
   I (s )
  Cs 

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 53
Example2: Transfer Function of Multiple loops
via transform methods

• Referring the circuit below, use Mesh analysis with transfer

function impedances to get the transfer functions,
G1(s)= I1(s)/V(s) and G2(s)= I2(s)/V(s)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 54
Example2: Transfer Function of Multiple loops
via transform methods
STEPS:
• Replace passive component values with their transfer function
impedances;
• Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace
transforms;
• Assume a transform current and a current direction in each
mesh;
• Write KVL around each mesh
• Solve the simultaneously equations for the output;
• Form the transfer function

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 55
Solution2: Transfer Function of Multiple loops
via transform methods

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 56
Solution2: Transfer Function of Multiple loops
via transform methods

The block diagram of the this electric circuit in terms out

I2(s) as output and V(s) as input is:

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 57
Application2: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems
• We have previously shown that an electrical circuit can
be modelled by a transfer function that relates the
Laplace transform of its output to that of its output.
• In this section, you find transfer functions of translational
mechanical systems.
• Remember, for electric circuits, we dealt with passive
electric components such as resistor, inductor and
capacitor, were inductor and capacitor are electrical
energy-storage elements and resistor is an energy-
dissipative element.
• Mechanical systems, we have also two energy-storage
elements: spring and mass, while the energy dissipative
element is a viscous damper (Dashpot).
• These mechanical elements and their coefficients are
found in Table below:
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 58
Application2: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems
Analogy with Electrical circuits: by comparing force-velocity
relationship to voltage-current relationship, and force-displacement
relationship to voltage-charge relationship.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 59
Application2: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems
• We can also see that the spring is analogous to the capacitor, the viscous
damper is analogous to the resistor, and the mass is analogous to the
inductor.

• Thus, summing forces written in terms of velocity is analogous to

summing voltages written in terms of current, and the resulting
mechanical differential equations are analogous to mesh equations.

• This mechanical differential equations of motion are obtained by the

second law of Newton.
Sum ( All External Forces applied to the system) = m  a,
where m is the mass of the system and a its acceleration

But force directions should be considered :

• If the force is in same direction of mouvement , then this is assumed positive,
• If2024/07/17
the force is in opposite direction of mouvement , then this is assumed negative
CHAP 2 60
.
Application2: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems
• Modelling of Newton’s law of motion: Given 6 forces
applied to a free-body system of mass, m.
x(t )..........Motion direction (take this as + )
F1 F2
F3 m F4
F5 F6

F1 − F2 − F3 + F4 + F5 + F6 = m  a
• F1, F4, F5 and F6 are positive since they have same direction of the system motion:
These are mechanical forces that cause the motion of the system, also called excitation
forces.
• F2 and F3 are negative since they have opposite direction as the system motion: The are
mechanical forces such as developed by spring and developed by viscous damper that
oppose the movement.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 61
 Example1: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems- Case of One Degree of Freedom (one Equat. Of
Motion)
• Find the transfer function, G(s)=X(s)/F(s), of the
mechanical system below. All initial conditions are ZERO.

Solution:
• First draw a free-body diagram of the system (mass M):

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 62
 Example1: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems

• write Newton’s motion law by considering motion

direction as positive direction of all forces:
dx(t ) d 2 x(t )
f (t ) − f v − Kx (t ) = M
dt dt 2
d 2 x(t ) dx(t )
or M 2
+ f v + kx(t ) = f (t )
dt dt

• Apply Laplace Transform: Ms 2 X (s ) + f v sX (s ) + KX (s ) = F (s )

X (s )
G (s ) =
1
=
2024/07/17 CHAP 2
F (s ) Ms 2 + f v s + K 63
 Example2: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems: Case of TWO Degrees of Freedom (TWO
Equations Of Motion) –Problem 2.12 by ANASTASIA

1) Find transfer function, G1(s)=X1(s)/F(s) and

G2(s)=X2(s)/F(s).
2) Compute displacement x2 (t) with M1=0.25kg, k1=2N/m,
k2=k3=4N/m, M2 is almost equal to zero. Assume all initial
conditions are ZERO.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 64
 Example3: Transfer Function of Translational Mechanical
Systems: Case of TWO Degrees of Freedom (TWO
Equations Of Motion)

Find transfer function, G(s)=X(s)/F(s) of the following

systems. All friction forces fv1 and fv2 are not coulomb
forces but are viscous forces that arise because of viscous
interface. Assume all initial conditions are ZERO.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 65
• The forces on M1 are due to (1) its own motion and (2) the
motion of M2 transmitted to M1 through the system.
• We will consider these two sources separately.
• If we hold M2 still and move M1 to the right, we see the
forces shown in Figure 3(a).
• If we hold M1 still and move M2 to the right, we see the
forces shown in Figure 3(b).
• The total force on M1 is the superposition, or sum, of the
forces just discussed.
• This result is shown in Figure 3(c).
• For M2, we proceed in a similar fashion: First we move M2
to the right while holding M1 still; then we move M1 to the
right and hold M2 still. This is shown in Figure 4 (a)(b)(c).

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 66
• Figure 3 Figure 4

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 67
 Example4: Transfer Function of rotational Electro-
Mechanical Systems

A common actuator in control systems is the DC motor. The DC motor

has two main components: Stator (provide magnetic field from DC
winding or permanent magnets) and Rotor/armature winding.
The electric circuit of the armature and the free body diagram of the
rotor are shown in the following Figure

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 68
 Example4: Transfer Function of Translational Electro-
Mechanical Systems

• The motor torque, T, is related to the armature current, ia, by a

constant factor Kt.
• The back emf, E, is related to the rotational velocity by the
constant factor Ke (approximately equal to Kt) as in the following
equations

• The dynamic of the dc motor may be expressed by the following equations

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 69
 Example4: Transfer Function of Translational Electro-
Mechanical Systems

• Tf is the load torque.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 70
 Exemple 5. Liquid level system: Single Tank
qi (input flow rate) is input, h (water level) is the output.

• Application: The most of industrial application of

liquid level control is hazardous in chemical
petroleum industries, paper chemical, mixing
treatment industries, pharmaceutical & food
processing industries as well in nuclear power
plants.
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 71
 Exemple 5. Liquid level system: Single Tank
qi (input flow rate) is input, h (water level) is the output.

a) Determine the transfer function. Take R=4.5sec/m2 and tank

diameter=2m and maximum height = 3m.
b) Analyze the unit step response and comment on this time
response.
c) Double the tank diameter and analyse the unit step response

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 72
 Solution
a) Transfer function:
▪ Apply conservation of mass principle: Rate of change of fluid
mass, m(t) in tank = sum of all mass flow in – sum of all mass
flow out.
dm ( t )
dt
=  qm,i ( t ) −  qm,o ( t ) (1) (
with qm,i in kg
s ) is mass flow in and q
m ,o is mass flow out

For a liquid , express the above law as a function of volume, knowing that

m =  v and qm =  q, where  (in kg m ) is density of

3 liquid ,

( )
v m3 is the volume of liquid , and q in m
3
( s ) is the volumetric flow rate.

Eq.(1) becomes:
dv ( t )
 =  i qi ( t ) −  o qo ( t ) (2)
dt

For incompressible, such as a liquid, the density is constant; this

means the same at the input of the system, inside the system
and output of the system. Hence, dv (t ) =  qi (t ) −  qo (t ) (3)
dt
2024/07/17 CHAP 2 73
 Solution
▪ In this case, we have got only one input flow rate and one
output flow rate. Hence, the application conservation of mass
principle to the system given is:
dv ( t )
= qi ( t ) − qo ( t ) (4)
dt

▪ Since h(t) is chosen as output variable, express the volume as

function of the liquid height h(t): v(t) = A h(t).
▪ Since the cross-sectional area A is constant, Eq.(4) becomes:
dh ( t )
A = qi ( t ) − qo ( t ) (5)
dt

▪ Since only qi(t) and h(t) are the only variables in the transfer
function, look for equation that will help to cancel qo(t). This
equation comes from a linear hydraulic resistance law:
h (t ) h (t )
R=  qo ( t ) = (6)
qo ( t ) R

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 74
 Solution
▪ Substituting Eq.(6) in Eq.(5), we have
dh ( t ) h (t )
A = qi ( t ) − (7)
dt R

Eq.(5) can be rewritten as:

dh ( t )
AR = Rqi ( t ) − h ( t ) (8)
dt

Eq.(6) can be rearranged as follows:

dh ( t )
AR + h ( t ) = Rqi ( t ) (10)
dt

Applying Laplace Transform on both sides of Eq.(10), we

have:
ARsH ( s ) + H ( s ) = RQi ( s )  ( ARs + 1) H ( s ) = RQi ( s ) (11)

Finally, the Transfer function is

H (s) R 4.5
G (s) = = = (1st order TF ) (12)
2024/07/17 Qi ( s ) ARs + 1 14.13s + 1 CHAP 2 75
 Exemple 6: Liquid level system with Two Tanks interacting
q (input flow rate) is input, h1 and h2 (water level) are outputs the process.

Take R1=4.4sec/m2 , R2=3.94sec/m2, tank diameters: d1=d2=1.5m)

a) Derive the transfer function G2(s) = H2(s)/Qin(s)
b) Analyze the two responses for a unit step input h2(t) and comment on
these time responses.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 76
 Solution
a) Find transfer function H2(s)/Qin(s)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 77
 Solution

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 78
 Solution

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 79
 Solution

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 80
 Solution
To obtain the transfer function H2(s)/Qin(s), we have to cancel H1(s) in equations (6)
and (12), recalled below:

We therefore have:

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 81
 Exemple 7: Liquid level system with Two Tanks non-
interacting (Do this by yourself as SELF STUDY)

q (input flow rate) is input, h1 and h2 (water level) are outputs the process..

Take R1=4.4sec/m2 , R2=3.94sec/m2, tank diameters: d1=d2=1.5m)

a) Derive the transfer function G2(s) = H2(s)/Qi(s)
b) Analyze the two responses for a unit step input and comment on these time responses.

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 82
 Exemple 8: Heating (thermal) process
A thermal process as depicted below is used to heat water in the
industry. T1 is the temperature of water inside the tank, T2 is the
ambient temperature of the outside of the tank, Q1 is the heat
stored inside the tank and Qo is the heat lost by conduction through
the total surface of the tank.

(To be continued)!!!
(Include schematic here)

2024/07/17 CHAP 2 83