CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to;

a) Explain the meaning of disaster

b) Describe the historical background of disasters in Kenya
c) Discuss issues in disaster management
d) Classify disasters

INTRODUCTION

Meaning of disaster management

WHO defines Disaster as "any occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life,
deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from
outside the affected community or area". Disasters can be defined in different ways.

 A disaster is an overwhelming ecological disruption occurring on a scale sufficient to require outside

assistance
 A disaster is an event located in time and space which produces conditions whereby the continuity of
structure and process of social units becomes problematic
 It is an event or series of events which seriously disrupts normal activities
 A disaster’ is normally defined as damage and disruption that exceeds the affected society’s capacity to
cope. Databases define disasters according to levels of casualties and losses.

The magnitude of the effects of the event will be viewed differently.

Characteristics of Disasters

In order to be able to identify that a situation is a disaster, the following characteristics must be eminent and
must seem to resonate with the events leading to the situation:

 It is an extra-ordinary

 Usually occurs because of one of the danger sources, whether caused by nature or human action.

 Seriously and substantially impact the most vulnerable groups

 Results in serious imbalance in the community functions

 Results in significant losses in human lives, materials and environment

 Exceeds the ability of an affected community to cope with using its own resources
 Differences between Emergencies and Disasters
• A situation in which community is CAPABLE of coping is EMERGENCY.
• Emergency situations are generated by a real occurrence of events that require immediate attention
of emergency resources.
• A situation in which community is INCAPABLE of coping is DISASTER.
• Disaster situations are natural or human-caused events which causes severe negative impact on
community.
An emergency is an unforeseen incidence that can be responded to using available resources. They
occur more regularly than disasters and are therefore more anticipated by a community. These
may include medical crises, vehicular accidents, and neighborhood fires. As such, the availability
of emergency medical services, fire departments, police departments, and other such public
services ensure the proper response to such unfortunate events.

A disaster, however, is a critical event much wider in scope. It is the sudden occurrence of an
unfavorable situation that causes serious disruption to the social routine. It endangers a larger
social space, and while it occurs much less frequently than emergencies, the effects are graver, often
causing multiple casualties and/or property damage. Such a greater impact can disrupt and
incapacitate emergency responders, leading to the need for assistance outside of the locality. Resources
may very well become choked.

While its effects are much greater than an emergency, a disaster is unlike a calamity in that it
affects only a single community. As such, neighboring communities with ample resources and
responders are able to offer support to usher the affected community towards its recovery. Disaster
types include natural hazards (earthquakes, tsunamis, wildfire, disease outbreaks), accidents (nuclear
power plant accidents, widescale equipment failure), and terrorism (cyber attacks, bombings, use
of chemical weapons).

TERMS AND CONCEPTS

What is a Hazard?
(1) A potential threat to humans and their welfare. Hazards can be natural (such as earthquakes and
droughts) or induced by human processes (such as industrial accidents). Some people use the term
“environmental hazards”.
(2) A hazard is anything that has the potential of destroying life and property. It is a dangerous event or
circumstance that has the potential to lead to or disaster. An extreme natural or human-made
phenomenon that may cause physical damage, economic losses, threaten human life and well- being,
if it occurs in an area of human settlement, agricultural or industrial activity.
(3) A hazard is any element that has the potential to threaten or destroy life and property.eg Fire, Floods,
Earthquakes, Droughts etc.
John Whittow in his classic book disasters. The anatomy of environmental Hazards, suggested that,
"A hazard is a perceived event which threatens both life and property – a disaster is the realization of this
hazard.”

What is Vulnerability?
• Is the susceptibility (how prone?) of the individual community, property, infrastructural base or the
environment to a hazardous event.
• The extent to which a person, group or socio-economic structure is likely to be affected by a hazard
(related to their capacity to anticipate it, cope with it, resist it and recover from its impact). Some
scientists and engineers often use the term in a more narrow sense, referring to physical structures.
Vulnerability is lack of capacity to deal with a potential threat. Caused by
 Lack of information
 lack of resource
 Lack of technology

Factors contributing to Vulnerability

(1) Poverty
(2) Population growth
(3) Rapid unplanned urbanization
(4) Environmental degradation
(5) Conflicts
(6) Lack of awareness

What is Disaster Management?

Disaster Management
It is the collective term for all activities that contribute to increasing capacities and will lead to reducing
immediate and long-term vulnerabilities. It covers activities before, during and after a disaster. There is
gradual shift and currently Disaster Risk
Management is more in usage.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT. Disaster management connotes all the process for designing, implementing,
and evaluating strategies, policies, and measures that promote and improve disaster preparedness, response,
and recovery practices at different organizational and societal levels.

According to REDCROSS, disaster management refers to the organization and management of resources
and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies including; preparedness,
response and relief in order to lessen the impact of disasters. In other
words disaster management implies the key principles of management i.e. planning, organizing, controlling
and leading.

Disaster management" can be also be defined as the range of activities designed to maintain control over
disaster and emergency situations and to provide a framework for helping
at-risk persons to avoid or recover from the impact of the disaster. Disaster management deals with
situations that occur prior to, during, and after the disaster

• Disaster management is a collective term comprising all aspects of planning for and responding to
disasters, including both pre- and post-disaster programmes, projects and activities, designed to
contribute to more effective response and recovery from adverse events, and to reduce the risks they
pose. It may refer to the management of the risks, vulnerability and consequences.
• Disaster management is an organized analysis, planning, decision- making, and assignment of
available resources to mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from the effects of disasters.
• It includes prevention, mitigation, preparedness, rehabilitation and reconstruction in
the larger conventional disaster management circle. In other words, disaster management refers to all
actions calculated to prevent, prepare for, respond to and help those affected recover from effects of
disaster.
AIMS

1. Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;

2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences
3. Capacity-building;
4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster;
5. Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
6. Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster; evacuation, rescue and relief;
7. Rehabilitation and reconstruction

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISASTERS IN KENYA

Whereas disasters attack when least expected, the frequency of both natural and man-made disasters can be
attributed to human causes. This include: increasing poverty levels, corruption, lack of political will, beliefs/
culture, lack of adequate resources and blatant ignorance of the law. The main natural factor influencing
occurrence of disasters is climate change.

Poverty
Poverty is the spring board of all disasters in the country. A combination of falling household income, rising
cost of living and poor governance have worked to escalate poverty in Kenya where about 46% live below
poverty line. In Nairobi for instance, about 60% of residents live in slums with no or limited access to even
the most basic services. This makes the poor the most vulnerable to disasters. To eke a living, the poor work
in very dangerous environment that are prone to disasters. In most cases, they dash to accident scene with an
aim of looting. For instance, the need to siphon fuel in Sachang’wan oil tanker tragedy led to loss of slives.
HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is common in poverty stricken areas. A study by Huho (2005) on socio-cultural
and economic impacts of floods in Budalangi revealed that, the area having a semi-arid climate, residents of
the flood prone area did not want to be evacuated since they will lose on relief assistance. More so, the
vulnerable poor are easily corrupted by the rich minority, particularly the politician dividing them along
tribal lines.

Corruption
Even though corrupting is not a stand-alone cause, it cuts across all other causes increasing the frequency
and severity of the disasters, may it be natural or man-made. Opinion polls in Kenya have consistently
indicated corruption as the leading cause of underdevelopment. Bribing of traffic officers by rogue motorists
and cyclists has largely contributed to ever increasing road accidents. Corrupt government engineers have in
various occasions authorized construction of sub-standard buildings which eventually collapse. Corruption
on issues of disaster management such as procurement and distribution of relief food to hunger qstricken
people have aggravated problem of malnutrition and starvation in drought stricken areas.

Lack of political will

The politics of Kenya are based along tribal lines causing hatred amongst citizen. As a result, Kenya has
experienced politically instigated violence which arises every election year since 1992 with exception of
2013 elections. The worst violence occurred in 2007 where over 1300 lives were lost. Political incitement
against people evacuating conservation areas have led to increased destruction of forests such as Mau. An
example of such incitements was a statement by the former President Moi in 2009 that "Rain comes from
the sky not forests." The aftermath of continued destruction has been increased runoff and occasional flash
floods as experienced in Narok town. The former Prime Minister Raila Odinga attempts to conserve Mau
forest between 2007 and 2013 were thwarted by politician from the communities to be evicted. The 2015
National Youth Service politics that led to demolition of sanitation facilities in Kibra, Nairobi is a sure way
of triggering diseases

Ignorance of law
The major disasters associated with ignorance of law include road accidents and structural collapse.
Statistics indicates that most bodaboda transport accidents result from blatant disregard of traffic rules and
lack of safety regulations. Whereas it is a requirement that the rider and the passenger wear reflective
jackets and helmets, over 70% of the bodaboda users do not adhere to these safety regulations. In most
cases, the cyclists carry more than one passenger. Drunk driving and over speeding has been the major
cause of road accidents both to motorists and cyclists. In addition, more often, there are warnings over an
upcoming drought /floods given by meteorological department, but seldom do people heed.
Inadequate Resources
Coupled with increasing human population, low technology, inadequate infrastructure and human resource
are some of the resources influencing the occurrence of disasters. During the Sinai fire tragedy for instance,
limited knowledge in the management of fire disasters among the community members hampered their
efforts to rescue the victims. Poor roads hindered accessibility to Sinai fire site. The tragedy was also
compounded by poor coordination from the response teams. The 2009 Mau forest fire went out of control in
most affected areas due to lack of firefighting equipment. In order to reduce the impacts of droughts and
flooding, it is necessary to have relevant instruments that aid in early warning signs. It is important for the
government to invest in modern weather forecasting instruments.
Figure 11: Firefighting using twigs in Mau forest

Beliefs and Culture

Traditional beliefs and culture can be associated with some of the disasters. For instance, the practice of
wife inheritance and cleansing ceremonies among some communities in Nyanza and western Kenya has led
to spread of HIV/AIDS. In addition, the belief that sleeping with a virgin girl will cure HIV/AIDs has also
led to new infections in Nyanza. Attachment to ancestral land has thwarted the efforts of relocate
communities living in areas prone to floods in Nyanza, western and coast. Similarly, the Ogiek community
living in the forest has resisted relocation by the government.

Climate Change
Disasters associated with extreme weather events linked to climate change account for up to 70% of all
disasters in Kenya. These disasters cancel progress made on poverty reduction exposing people to disaster
risks. Droughts are the most common leading to loss of livelihood source. However, only few deaths are
reported emanating from droughts. This is because droughts are slow in onset and therefore people seek for
coping strategies. More deaths are reported as a result of floods Vis a Vis droughts. Landslides occur as a
result of heavy rains and are common in central and western parts of Kenya.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS

Disasters are classified in various ways.

 Natural disasters and Man made disasters

 Sudden disasters and Slow onset disasters

The dividing line between these types of disasters is imprecise. Activities related to man may exacerbate
natural disasters.

Disaster means Sudden or Great Misfortune

Although experts may differ in their definitions of disaster, many public health practitioners would
characterize a disaster as a "sudden, extraordinary calamity or catastrophe, which affects or threatens
health". Disasters include

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

Hazards and disasters may be classified in a number of ways. Various factors are considered when
categorizing and classifying hazards and disasters into groups for ease of study. It is important to
understand how disasters are classifying in order to design better and more appropriate management,
Mitigation and Preparedness programmes and actions. How would you classify hazards and disasters
in Kenya?

Criteria for Classification

The classification of hazards/disasters are based on a wide-range of criteria including:-
(1) Origins of the hazard/disaster. Some hazards are entirely natural in origin while
others have distinctive human element or a combination of
natural/human origin. There are reference to antghropogenic, technological, semi-natural, entirely
natural, etc

(2) By hazard type: the simplest is by type of event – according to the causal process –
eg. Meteorological, biological, geological, hydrological e.t.c

• . Natural Hazards: Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute
damaging event Natural hazards can be classified by origin geological, hydrometeorological or
biological.

(a) Geological Hazards

• Natural earth processes or phenomena in biosphere, which include geological, geotechnical and
hydrogeological nature:

• Earthquakes, tsunamis;
• Volcanic activity and emissions;
• Mass movements i.e. landslides.
• Subsidence, surface collapse, geological fault activity

(b) Hydro-meteorological hazards

• Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature
• Floods, debris and mud flows;
• Drought, desertification
• Wildfires
(c) Biological hazards
• Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors including exposure to pathogenic
micro-organisms, toxins and bio- active substances.
• Outbreaks of epidemic diseases,
• Plant or animal contagius and extensive infestations.

(d) Technological hazards: Danger originating from technological or industrial

accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or certain human activities, which may cause
loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Sometimes referred to as anthropogenic hazards. Some examples:
• Industrial pollution,
• Nuclear and radioactivity, toxic wastes,
• Dam failures
• Transport, industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills. Air crash, road accidents).

(e) Environmental degradation: Process induced by human behaviour and activities

(sometimes combined with natural hazard), that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter
natural processes or ecosystems. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in
vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Some examples:
• Land degradation,
• Deforestation, desertification,
• Wildland fires
• Water and air pollution,
Climate change, sea level arise, ozone depletion.

EFFECTS OF MAJOR DISASTERS

Disasters throughout history have had significant impact on the numbers, health status and life style of
populations.

 Deaths
 Severe injuries, requiring extensive treatments
 Increased risk of communicable diseases
 Damage to the water systems
 Food shortage
  Population movements Loss of life
 Damage to and destruction of property
 Disruption of lifestyle
 Loss of livelihood
 Disruption of essential services
 Damage to national infrastructure
 Disruption to governmental systems
 National economic loss
 Sociological and Psychological after effect
Environmental Disruption

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF DISASTERS:

 Lowering of morale
 Creation of panic
 Disturbance in the social fabric
 Makes poor more vulnerable-aggravates poverty
 Can led to serious political and social changes

PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF DISASTERS:

 Psycho-physiological effects include fatigue, gastrointestinal upset, as well as cognitive signs such as
confusion, impaired concentration, and attention deficits.
 Psychological impacts include emotional signs such as anxiety, depression, and grief. They also include
behavioural effects such as sleep and appetite changes, ritualistic behaviour etc
 Long term mental health and psychological well-being of a disaster affected person can be there.

Hence, there is a need for psychological first aid.

 The concept of psychological first aid aims at providing immediate supportive response to someone
who is suffering in wake of disaster.
 The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a framework consisting of three action principles
to assist in the delivery of psychological first aid:
1. to view and safely enter an emergency situation (LOOK)
2. to understand the needs of affected people (LISTEN) and
3. link them with the information and practical support they need (LINK)

Health problems common to all Disasters

 Social reactions
 Communicable diseases
 Population displacements
 Climatic exposure
 Food and nutrition
 Water supply and sanitation
 Mental health
 Damage to health infrastructure
CHAPTER TWO

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to;

a) Explain the meaning of disaster preparedness

b) Discuss the process of disaster preparedness
c) Discuss management cycle

INTRODUCTION

Preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster occurs, i.e., planning.
Preparedness measures can take many forms including the construction of shelters, installation of warning
devices, creation of back-up life-line services (e.g., power, water, sewage), and rehearsing evacuation plans.
Two simple measures can help prepare the individual for sitting out the event or evacuating, as necessary.
For evacuation, a disaster supplies kit may be prepared and for sheltering purposes a stockpile of supplies
may be created. The preparation of a survival kit such as a "72-hour kit" is often advocated by authorities.
These kits may include food, medicine, flashlights, candles and money. Also, putting valuable items in safe
area is also recommended.

The objectives of the disaster preparedness is to ensure that appropriate systems, procedures and resources
are in place to provide prompt, effective assistance to disaster victims, thus facilitating relief measures and
rehabilitation services.

Preparedness, implies
Preparing people to meet the challenges of a disaster.
Disasters are bound to occur no matter the mitigation measures.
Preparedness will involve early warning and (preparing the people mentally)
Institutional management policies ( having organizations and structures in place)

Disaster preparedness is an ongoing, multi-sectoral activity to carry out the following activities;

 Evaluate the risk of the country or particular region to disasters.

 Adopt standards and regulations
 Organize communication, information and warning systems
 Ensure coordination and response mechanisms
 Adopt measures to ensure that financial and other resources are available for increased readiness and
can be mobilized in disaster situations.
 Develop public education programs
 Coordinate information sessions with news media
 Organize disaster simulation exercises that test response mechanisms

For the Health Sectors Disaster Preparedness plan to be successful, clear mechanisms for coordinating with
other sectors and internationally must be in place.
DISASTER MITIGATION

It is virtually impossible to prevent occurrence of most Natural Disasters, but it is possible to minimize or
mitigate their damage effects.

Mitigation measures aim to reduce the Vulnerability of the System [ e.g. By improving & enforcing building
codes etc]

Disaster prevention implies complete elimination of damages from a hazard, but it is not realistic in most
hazards. [e.g. relocating a population from a flood plain or from beach front]

Medical Casualty could be drastically reduced by improving the Structural Quality of Houses, Schools, and
Public or Private Buildings.

Also ensuring the Safety of Health facilities, Public Health Services, Water Supply, Sewerage System etc.

Mitigation complements the Disaster Preparedness and Disaster Response activities.

The Mitigation Program will direct the following activities

1. Identify areas exposed to Natural Hazards and determine the vulnerability

2. Coordinate the work of Multi Disciplinary teams in designing and developing building codes and protect
the water distribution from damages

3. Ensure that mitigation measures are taken into account in a facility’s maintenance plans

4. Inform, sensitize and train those personnel’s who are involved in planning, administration, operation,
maintenance and use of facilities about disaster mitigation

5. Promote the inclusion of Disaster Mitigation in the curricula of Professional training institutes

TECHNICAL HEALTH PROGRAMS

 Treatment of casualties
 Identification and disposal of bodies
 Epidemiological surveillance and disease control
 Basic sanitation and sanitary engineering
 Health management in shelters or temporary settlements
 Training health personnel and the public
 Logistical resources and support
 Simulation exercises / Mock Exercises
 EVALUATION

In the case of disaster management, the Evaluator will be looking at the “actual" verses the "desired" on two
levels, i.e. the overall outcome of disaster management efforts and the impact of each discrete category of
relief efforts (Provision of food, shelter, management of communications etc)

A critical step in the management of any disaster relief is the setting of objectives, which specify the
intended outcome of the relief.

The general objectives of the disaster management will be the elimination of unnecessary morbidity,
mortality and economic loss directly and indirectly attributable to mismanagement of disaster relief.

The comparison of the "actual" with "desired" is the first critical step of evaluation. If the objectives were
met, those who have participated in the relief have demonstrated that they have accomplished what they set
out to do.

On the other hand, if the objectives were not met, it is desirable for those conducting the evaluation to
continue with the evaluation process, identify the reasons for the discrepancy and suggest corrective action.

Stimulate Disaster Preparedness Operations should be undertaken to test the various components before
actual need arise.

PREVENTION OF DISASTERS

Existing knowledge that might reduce the undesirable effects of disasters is often not applied.

warning systems

¨ Legislation preventing building in the flood prone areas

¨ Requirement of protective cellars/shelters in disaster prone a

reas

¨ A Seismic housing code for earthquake-prone area

¨ Strict procedural code followed to prevent Nuclear, Toxicological and Chemical disasters

¨ Early warning systems and Disaster preparedness which will help to minimize morbidity, mortality and
economic loss

Disaster Preparedness Plan and Development in Kenya

Republic of Kenya is one country that has a vast history of being at the receiving end of numerous natural
and man-made disasters. In fact, the list of disasters in Kenya almost goes on endlessly. Some of these
major disasters that happened in Kenya include El Nino floods, Kyanguli fire disaster, droughts, poverty,
USA embassy bombing, ethnic clashes in the coastal region, health-related disasters such as malaria and
HIV/AIDS and frequently occurring political conflicts that result in massive loss of lives, property and
displacement of people. Over the years, Kenya did not have a proper disaster preparedness plan. However,
the situation seems to be changing in the recent times with the intervention of several national and
international organizations including the International Red Cross Society.

As per the International Red Cross Society, every country should have an effective disaster preparedness
plan so as to respond to the disaster in an effective way. Any disaster should be first handled at the local
level by local organizations. An international response is then built up on these local efforts.

Under the disaster preparedness plan, the Government of Kenya is doing a lot to ensure that preventive
measures are properly in place so as to reduce the impact caused by these dangers. Some of the
achievements include

1. Installation of early warning systems and weather forecasts

2. Development of local disaster management teams. These teams are structured in accordance with the
disasters that frequently happen at a particular place. In order to know about the disasters happening
at one place, information and data is gathered from the local people and accordingly a disaster
preparedness plan is developed. Training is also provided to disaster management teams at the local
level.
3. Disaster committees comprising of government, non-government, national and international
agencies.
4. Creating public awareness and imparting education to local people regarding health-related issues so
as to reduce the spread of conditions like HIV/AIDS and other infections.

All these plans are a step towards improvement. There are several other challenges that the country is facing
and is looking for ways to tackle them. Some of these include poverty, illiteracy, extreme weather
conditions and increased crime rate.

Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt and
appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective recovery. The Disaster
management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments, businesses, and civil society plan
for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during and immediately following a disaster, and take steps to
recover after a disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in the cycle lead to greater
preparedness, better warnings, reduced vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during the next iteration
of the cycle. The complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of public policies and plans that
either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people, property, and infrastructure.

The mitigation and preparedness phases occur as disaster management improvements are made in
anticipation of a disaster event. Developmental considerations play a key role in contributing to the
mitigation and preparation of a community to effectively confront a disaster. As a disaster occurs, disaster
management actors, in particular humanitarian organizations become involved in the immediate response
and long-term recovery phases. The four disaster management phases illustrated here do not always, or even
generally, occur in isolation or in this precise order. Often phases of the cycle overlap and the length of each
phase greatly depends on the severity of the disaster.

o Mitigation - Minimizing the effects of disaster.

Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses; public education.
o Preparedness - Planning how to respond.
Examples: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems.
o Response - Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster.
Examples: search and rescue; emergency relief .
o Recovery - Returning the community to normal.
Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care.

Disaster Risk Management Cycle

THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
Meaning of Disaster Management
This is the continuous and integrated multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary process of planning and
implementing measures aimed at:
Preventing or reducing the risk to hazards
Mitigating the severity of hazards when they impact on vulnerability
Emergency preparedness
A rapid and effective response to disasters and
Post- disaster recovery and rehabilitation
All these can be located in the conventional disaster circle as will be illustrated below

The disaster risk management cycle, consists of four phases: Prevention/Mitigation and Preparedness in the
pre-disaster stage, and Response and Rehabilitation/Reconstruction in post-disaster stage. In the
“Prevention/Mitigation” phase, efforts are made to prevent or mitigate damage (e.g. construction of dikes
and dams against floods). Activities and measures for ensuring an effective response to the impact of
hazards are classified as “Preparedness” (e.g. emergency drills and public awareness) and are not aimed at
averting the occurrence of a disaster. “Response” includes such activities as rescue efforts, first aid, fire
fighting and evacuation. In the “Rehabilitation/Reconstruction” phase, considerations of disaster risk
reduction should form the foundations for all activities.

Developmental considerations contribute to all aspects of the disaster management cycle. One of the main
goals of disaster management, and one of its strongest links with development, is the promotion of
sustainable livelihoods and their protection and recovery during disasters and emergencies. Where this goal
is achieved, people have a greater capacity to deal with disasters and their recovery is more rapid and long
lasting. In a development oriented disaster management approach, the objectives are to reduce hazards,
prevent disasters, and prepare for emergencies. Therefore, developmental considerations are strongly
represented in the mitigation and preparedness phases of the disaster management cycle. Inappropriate
development processes can lead to increased vulnerability to disasters and loss of preparedness for
emergency situations.
 Mitigation

Mitigation activities actually eliminate or reduce the probability of disaster occurrence, or reduce the effects
of unavoidable disasters. Mitigation measures include building codes; vulnerability analyses updates; zoning
and land use management; building use regulations and safety codes; preventive health care; and public
education.
Mitigation will depend on the incorporation of appropriate measures in national and regional development
planning. Its effectiveness will also depend on the availability of information on hazards, emergency risks,
and the countermeasures to be taken. The mitigation phase, and indeed the whole disaster management
cycle, includes the shaping of public policies and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate
their effects on people, property, and infrastructure.

Preparedness

The goal of emergency preparedness programs is to achieve a satisfactory level of readiness to respond to
any emergency situation through programs that strengthen the technical and managerial capacity of
governments, organizations, and communities. These measures can be described as logistical readiness to
deal with disasters and can be enhanced by having response mechanisms and procedures, rehearsals,
developing long-term and short-term strategies, public education and building early warning systems.
Preparedness can also take the form of ensuring that strategic reserves of food, equipment, water, medicines
and other essentials are maintained in cases of national or local catastrophes.

During the preparedness phase, governments, organizations, and individuals develop plans to save lives,
minimize disaster damage, and enhance disaster response operations. Preparedness measures include
preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems; emergency communications systems;
evacuations plans and training; resource inventories; emergency personnel/contact lists; mutual aid
agreements; and public information/education. As with mitigations efforts, preparedness actions depend on
the incorporation of appropriate measures in national and regional development plans. In addition, their
effectiveness depends on the availability of information on hazards, emergency risks and the
countermeasures to be taken, and on the degree to which government agencies, non-governmental
organizations and the general public are able to make use of this information.

Response

The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate assistance to maintain life, improve health and
support the morale of the affected population. Such assistance may range from providing specific but
limited aid, such as assisting refugees with transport, temporary shelter, and food, to establishing semi-
permanent settlement in camps and other locations. It also may involve initial repairs to damaged
infrastructure. The focus in the response phase is on meeting the basic needs of the people until more
permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. Humanitarian organizations are often strongly present in
this phase of the disaster management cycle.

Recovery

As the emergency is brought under control, the affected population is capable of undertaking a growing
number of activities aimed at restoring their lives and the infrastructure that supports them. There is no
distinct point at which immediate relief changes into recovery and then into long-term sustainable
development. There will be many opportunities during the recovery period to enhance prevention and
increase preparedness, thus reducing vulnerability. Ideally, there should be a smooth transition from
recovery to on-going development.

Recovery activities continue until all systems return to normal or better. Recovery measures, both short and
long term, include returning vital life-support systems to minimum operating standards; temporary housing;
public information; health and safety education; reconstruction; counseling programs; and economic impact
studies. Information resources and services include data collection related to rebuilding, and documentation
of lessons learned.

Disaster recovery consists of three main phases:

 Rehabilitation
 Reconstruction
 Relief
Relief is immediately after the disaster and its aim is the immediate and basic needs such as;
Food
Clothing
Medical care
Emotional support
Security.
Search and rescue
Rehabilitation
The aim is to restore the basic services necessary for the affected to return to pre- disaster
condition. For example, enabling the community and the individuals to
Start business
Move freely
Communicate and Recover social networks
Reconstruction
New modes of organizing the community and reducing its vulnerability. For example;
Administrative reforms
Altering systems of livelihood
Enhancing community participation in planning and administration.

REVISION QUESTION

1. Explain the meaning of disaster preparedness

2. Discuss the disaster management cycle
CHAPTER THREE

DISASTER RESPONSE

INTRODUCTION
Meaning of Disaster Response

DISASTER RESPONSE
Disaster response is the sum total of actions taken by people and institutions in the face of
disaster. These actions commence with the warning of an oncoming threatening event
or with the event itself if it occurs without warning. The focus in the response and recovery
phases of the disaster management cycle is on meeting the basic needs of the people until
more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found.

OBJECTIVES OF DISASTER RESPONSE

 To ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of victims, keeping them in
the best possible health in the circumstances.
 To re-establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as possible for all
population groups, with special attention to those whose needs are greatest: the
most vulnerable and underprivileged.
 To repair or replace damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable
economic activities. To do this in a manner that contributes to long- term
development goals and reduces vulnerability to any future recurrence of potentially
damaging hazards.
 In situations of civil or international conflict, the aim is to protect and
assist the civilian population, in close collaboration with the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and in compliance with international
conventions.
 In cases involving population displacements (due to any type of
disaster) the aim is to find durable solutions as quickly as possible, while ensuring
protection and assistance as necessary in the meantime
Disaster Response Activities
1. Warning
 Warning refers to information concerning the nature of the danger and imminent
disaster threats.
 Warnings must be rapidly disseminated to government officials, institutions and the
population at large in the areas at immediate risk so that appropriate actions may
 be taken,
or secure property and prevent further damage. The warning could be disseminated
via radio, television, the written press, telephone system and cell phone.

2. Evacuation and migration

 Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones at risk of an
imminent disaster to a safer location.
 The primary concern is the protection of life of the community and immediate
treatment of those who may be injured.
3. Search and rescue (SAR)
 Search and rescue (SAR) is the process of identifying the location of disaster
victims that may be trapped or isolated and bringing them to safety and medical
attention.
 In the aftermath of tropical storms and floods, SAR usually includes
locating stranded flood victims, who may be threatened by rising water, and either
bringing them to safety or providing them with food and first aid until they can be
evacuated or returned to their homes.
 In the aftermath of earthquakes, SAR normally focuses on locating
people who are trapped and/ or injured in collapsed buildings.

4. Response and relief

 When a disaster has occurred response and relief have to take place immediately;
there can be no delays. It is therefore important to have contingency plans in
place.Relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid and
emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve human lives.
 It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and health care,
shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare food).
 Relief supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the
days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster.
5. Logistics and supply
 The delivery of emergency relief will require logistical facilities and capacity.
 A well-organized supply service is crucial for handling the procurement or
receipt, storage, and dispatch of relief supplies for distribution to disaster
victims.
6. Communication and information management
 All of the above activities are dependent on communication.
 There are two aspects to communications in disasters. One is the equipment that is
essential for information flow, such as radios, telephones and their supporting
systems of repeaters, satellites, and transmission lines.
 The other is information management: the protocol of knowing who communicates
what
information to whom, what priority is given to it, and how it is disseminated and
interpreted.
8 Survivor response and coping
  In the rush to plan and execute a relief operation it is easy to overlook the real
needs and resources of the survivors.
 The assessment must take into account existing social coping mechanisms that
negate the need to bring in outside assistance.
 On the other hand, disaster survivors may have new and special needs for social
services to help adjust to the trauma and disruption caused by the disaster.
 Participation in the disaster response process by individuals to community
organizations is critical to healthy recovery. Through these appropriate coping
mechanisms will be most successfully developed.
9 . Security
 Security is not always a priority issue after a sudden onset of disasters. It is typically
handled by civil defence or police departments.
 However, the protection of the human rights and safety of displaced populations and
refugees can be of paramount importance requiring international monitoring.
10 Emergency operations management
 None of the above activities can be implemented without some degree of emergency
operations management.
 Policies and procedures for management requirements need to be established well
in advance of the disaster.
11. Rehabilitation
 Rehabilitation consists of actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic
services to resume functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair dwellings
and community facilities, and to facilitate the revival of economic activities
(including agriculture).
 Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and local
communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life. It may
be considered as a transitional phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii) more
major, long- term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

12. Reconstruction
 Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged
physical structures, the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and
the revitalization of the economy (including agriculture). Reconstruction must be
fully integrated into ongoing long-term development plans, taking account of future
disaster risks.
 It must also consider the possibilities of reducing those risks by the
incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures.
 Damaged structures and services may not necessarily be restored in their previous
form or locations. It may include the replacement of any temporary arrangements
established as a part of the emergency response or rehabilitation. Under conditions
of conflict, however, rehabilitation and reconstruction may not be feasible.
 For obvious reasons of safety and security, activities in rehabilitation and
reconstruction may need to wait until peace allows them.

Modern and traditional responses to disasters

 The responses to disasters may employ a mix of approaches from traditional to modern
with these approaches moving back and forth depending on the nature of disaster in term of
their scope. The scope of disasters has influenced responses in the following ways:

 Humanitarian (aid to relieve pain and suffering),

 Remittance (Cash sent to victims),
 Relief assistance (food, medication, tents),
 Networking (contacting organizations),
 Volunteerism (internal and external groups of people volunteering help or
community- based approach) and
 Mutual aid agreements (pre-drawn up agreements to provide resources
Other examples of response are:
 Local Partnerships: One charitable organization, (World Vision) has a rich
network of local partnerships with churches, community organizations and
government agencies that come to us when families in their community suffer a
disaster. Local police precincts and politicians’ offices often call on World Vision
to assist them after an emergency.
 Gifts-in-Kind: Charitable organisations actively solicit corporate
partners to donate needed new products to assist disaster survivors in their recovery
and supervise the distribution of these products. Their goal is for every Storehouse
to have a constant supply of emergency resources to be distributed at a moment’s
notice. Products will include such things as water, blankets, medical supplies, latex
gloves, and kits containing enough hygiene and paper products, and other
necessities to supply a family of four for up to four days.
 Civil Service: World Vision as one of the charitable organisations works to be a
voice in the community by serving on planning committees such as National and
State Volunteer Organizations Active in Disasters (VOAD), Office of Emergency
Management (OEM), FEMA, Red Cross, Salvation Army and Habitat for Humanity
(H4H). These relationships allow organisations to serve as a liaison to the
community and be a voice for the children and families they serve.
 Specific Needs: In the aftermath of an emergency, families have many
needs. Because of the large variety of donations that are received and distributed,
World Vision is able to meet these special needs. New clothes, shoes, furniture,
mattresses, school supplies, building materials and

The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first
responders in the disaster area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency
services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews. When conducted as a military
operation, it is termed Disaster Relief Operation (DRO) and can be a follow-up to a Non-
combatant evacuation operation (NEO). They may be supported by a number of secondary
emergency services, such as specialist rescue teams.

A well rehearsed emergency plan developed as part of the preparedness phase enables
efficient coordination of rescue. Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at an
early stage. Depending on injuries sustained by the victim, outside temperature, and victim
access to air and water, the vast majority of those affected by a disaster will die within 72
hours after impact.

Organizational response to any significant disaster - natural or terrorist-man made is based on

existing emergency management organizational systems and processes

There is a need for both discipline (structure, doctrine, process) and agility (creativity,
improvisation, adaptability) in responding to a disaster. Combining that with the need to
onboard and build a high functioning leadership team quickly to coordinate and manage
efforts as they grow beyond first responders indicates the need for a leader and his or her
team to craft and implement a disciplined, iterative set of response plans. This allows the
team to move forward with coordinated, disciplined responses that are vaguely right and
adapt to new information and changing circumstances along the way;

a) Appropriate application of current technology can prevent much of the death, injury,
and economic disruption resulting from disasters
b) Morbidity and mortality resulting from disasters differ according to the type and
location of the event.
c) In any disaster, prevention should be directed towards reducing;
 Losses due to the disaster event itself
 Losses resulting from the Mismanagement of disaster relief.

Therefore, the public health objectives of disaster management can be stated as follows:

1. Prevent unnecessary morbidity, mortality, and economic loss resulting directly from the
disaster.

2. Eliminate morbidity, mortality, and economic loss directly attributable to

Mismanagement of disaster relief efforts.

The relative numbers of deaths and injuries differ on the type of disaster.

Injuries usually exceed deaths in explosions, hurricanes, fires, famines, and epidemics.

Deaths frequently exceed injuries in landslides, avalanches, volcanic eruptions, tidal waves,
floods, and earthquakes.

Disaster victims often exhibit emotional stress or the "disaster shock" syndrome. The
syndrome consists of successive stages of shock, suggestibility, euphoria and frustration.

Each of these stages may vary in extent and duration depending on other factors.

Epidemics are included in the definition of disaster; however, they can also be the result of
other disaster situations.
Diseases, which may be associated with disasters, include

 ¨ specific food and/or water bone illnesses

 (e.g., typhoid, gastroenteritis and cholera),
 ¨ vector bone illnesses
 (e.g., plague and malaria),
 ¨ diseases spread by person-to-person contact
 (e.g., hepatitis A and shigellosis)
 ¨ Diseases spread by the respiratory route (e.g., measles and influenza).

a. The current status of environmental sanitation, disease surveillance, and

preventive medicine has led to a significant reduction in the threat of
epidemics following disaster.
b. Immunization programs are rarely indicated as a specific post disaster
measure.
c. A disaster is often followed by an increase in the prevalence of diseases
indigenous to the area due to the disruption of medical and other health
facilities and programs.

Disaster wears many faces. It can be a hurricane, a flash flood, a fire in your home, a terrorist
attack etc. Surviving and thriving during adverse events takes more than a vague idea of
"doing something, going somewhere and waiting for the government to take care of me."
Surviving a disaster takes planning and preparation.

Personal Preparation

o A disaster is any event that swamps a community's or individual's ability to cope and
respond. During an emergency, all levels of government may be overwhelmed with
managing the crisis. Government help may not reach you and your family for days.
Being able to meet your basic needs for at least a week is a sensible course of action.
Meeting Needs
o The immediate needs of you and your family are air to breathe, water to drink, a warm
and secure place to stay, nutritious and easy-to-prepare food to eat, and the ability to
stay in contact with others. Stocking up on face masks like the N100, storing at least
one gallon of water per day per person for a week or more, having the materials and
skills to repair a damaged roof, maintaining enough nonperishable canned and
packaged food and the means to prepare it, and keeping your cell phone charged at all
times can work wonders in making life bearable and safe until help arrives.

Financial Matters
o Financial preparation is an area sometimes overlooked. Maintain adequate levels of
insurance on your possessions and on yourself in case your family needs to continue
without you. Have spare cash on hand, enough to operate for a week or more. ATMs
will not work without electricity, leaving you without funds. Point-of-sale cash
registers won't work for the same reason. Make sure you have a stash of small bills
and coins because store owners will be unable to give you change.
Home Communications
 o Establish a safe rallying point outside of your home where all family members can
meet in case your home is uninhabitable or you can't make it back. Call a family
member or friend who lives out of state to let them know you're all right. Local phone
lines may be swamped and it is often easier to contact someone in a different state
because of the way phone traffic is switched and routed. Consider keeping your
landline telephone in case of an emergency, because cell towers are often swamped
with traffic or may sustain damage in a disaster.
News from the Outside
o Being able to access information during and after a disaster can give you peace of
mind and help you avoid more danger. Internet access may not be available if the
power goes off or if regional servers are not in service. A battery- or solar-powered
multi-band radio will provide you with information when there is no electricity.

PERSONAL SURVIVAL SKILLS

First Aid skills

Disaster can lead to the destruction of property and the occurrence of different types of
injuries to people. When injuries occur, it is those who are around the scene that will help the
victims before professionals arrive. It is only possible to help yourself or the people around
you if you have First Aid skills that can be used in different situations.

To help save the many lives that are always lost in disaster scenes, it is essential to develop
different types of First Aid skills. You can learn skills related to helping people with burns as
well as those with cuts. Once you acquire such skills, you are sure to help yourself as well as
other people who might get injuries when a disaster occurs.

Know how to react to the situation and get yourself out of danger
During a disaster, many people panic and get confused about how they need to get out of the
location fast to avoid sustaining injuries. The first steps you take when an emergency occurs
will determine your survival rates or severity of injuries. You need to develop skills that can
help you get out of the location first before and figure out what to do next.

In case of fire, you need to react very fast and move to the direction where there is no fire
without panic. Confusion can make you head to directions with fire that can result in more
injuries. You also need to figure out where the fire assembly point is so that you find the help
you need.

Self-defense skills
The presence of different types of emergencies can mean that you need to have defense
mechanisms to help you to get out of the situation. Self-defense ranges from arming yourself
against attacks from other people and wild animals to the process of protecting yourself
against injuries that can take place as you take part in a rescue mission.

You may need to carry a firearm or a knife to help you counter attacks from animals and
humans.
Signaling skills
An emergency requires you to know the different ways that you can use to reach out to
rescuers. When you are lost, and you make an emergency call, they will likely require you to
state the coordinates of your location. You need to carry a map with you and be sure that you
know how to read the map well because giving the right coordinates will make the rescuers to
access you fast.

Inter-personal skills
When you get displaced during a disaster, you will have to cooperate with other people so
that you can overcome the situation. The cooperation will help you get the things that you do
not have yet you need to survive as a human being.

Ways of responding to disaster

The specific information required would vary from disaster to disaster, but a basic, three -step
processes includes:

(1) Collect data,

(2) Analyze data,

(3) Respond to data.

The analysis involves collecting and interpreting the data and can include asking questions as
the following:

· What problems are occurring? Why are they occurring?

· Where are problems occurring?

· Who is affected?

· What problems are causing the greatest morbidity and mortality?

· What problems are increasing or decreasing?

· What problems will subside on their own?

· What problems will increase if unattended?

· What relief resources are available?

· Where are relief resources available?

· How can relief resources be used most efficiently?

· What relief activities are in progress?

· Are relief activities meeting relief needs?

· What additional information is needed for decision making?

After answering such questions one can carry out the third part, i.e., planning an appropriate
Response to the situation described in the surveillance data.

In developing this plan one will decide what types of relief responses are appropriate and
what the relative priorities are among the relief activities.

This 3-step process of Data Collection, Analysis and Response can be described as a closed
feedback system involving re-evaluation of relief needs and their effects.

Surveillance following a disaster evolves in phases:

1. Immediate Assessment

2. Short term assessment

3. Ongoing Surveillance

Immediate Assessment

The object of this phase of surveillance is to obtain as much general information as possible
and as quickly as possible.

The most basic information needed at this point is the following:

(1) The geographical extent of the disaster-stricken area,

(2) The major problems occurring in the area,

(3) The number of people effected.

This information can be obtained by whatever means seems most efficient. Listening
carefully and asking questions is the best way to begin.

An Arial survey may be useful in defining the geographical extent of the disaster-stricken
area and in observing major damage and destruction.

Census data can be examined to determine how many people previously lived in the
disaster-stricken area and thus were at risk.

Hospitals, clinics, and morgues, which were in operation, may be able to obtain numbers of
known deaths and injuries.
It is useful to determine the most frequent causes of deaths and types of injuries in order to
predict whether demands for medical care will be increasing or decreasing.

Some problems likely to occur after a disaster can be predicted according to past experience
with that particular type of disaster.

For example, experience has shown that disruption of water supplies has often been a
problem following earthquakes.

New types of disasters, such as chemical emergencies and nuclear accidents, still present
many unknown problems.

Short-term Assessment

The short-term assessment involves more systematic methods of collecting data and is likely
to result in more detailed reliable information on problems, relief resources, and relief
information on problems, relief resources and relief activities in progress.

One way to organize data collection during this phase of assessment is to divide the disaster-
stricken area into smaller areas or "blocks" to be surveyed simultaneously by different
workers or teams of workers.

Simple reporting forms can be developed and workers sent out to survey the different areas
and report at a specified time.

The following is a list of Information, which may be needed in order to make relief
decisions

· The geographical extent of the affected area as defined by streets and other clear
boundaries.

· The number of persons known to be dead, possibly according to age groups and sex.

· The estimated number of persons severely injured and / requiring medical care,
possibly according to age group, sex, and type of injury or medical problem.

· Estimated number of homes destroyed, homes uninhabitable, and homes, which are
still habitable.

· Condition of schools, churches, temples and other public buildings etc.

· Condition and extent of water supply.

· Condition and extent of food supply.

· Condition of roads, bridges, communication facilities and public utilities.

· Location and condition of health facilities

· Estimates of medical personnel, equipment's and supplies available

· Description of relief activities already in progress, (E.g. search and rescue, first aid,
food relief etc).

Ongoing Surveillance

Depending on the factors above, short-term assessment may take as little as 5-6 hours or
up to 3-4 days. As early as possible, relief priorities should be determined, resources
ordered and full scale relief activities initiated.

Once the short-term assessment is complete and appropriate relief is in progress,

surveillance becomes an ongoing system.

When information obtained by the ongoing surveillance is analyzed, new problems may
become apparent, requiring investigation.

The surveillance report is one way of coordinating different agencies and preventing
duplication of relief efforts.

A relief plan developed during any of the surveillance cycle may include some or all
of the following activities:

· Rescue of victims

· Provision of emergency medical care

· Elimination of physical dangers (fire, gas leak etc)

· Evacuation of the population (nuclear and chemical emergencies)

· Provision of preventive and routine medical care

· Provision of water

· Provision of food

· Provision of clothing

· Provision of shelter

· Disposal of human waste

· Control of vector born diseases

· Disposal of human bodies

· Disposal of solid waste

MASS CASUALTY MANAGEMENT

Management of mass casualties is divided into three main areas

1. Pre-Hospital Emergency Care

¨ Search and Rescue

¨ First Aid

¨ Field Care

¨ Stabilization of the victims

¨ Triage

2. Hospital Reception and Treatment

¨ Organizational structure in the hospital with a disaster management team consists of

senior officers in the medical, nursing and administrative fields

¨ Standardized simple therapeutic procedures followed

3. Re-distribution of Patients between Hospitals

Principles: Emergency management must be:

1. Comprehensive – emergency managers consider and take into account all hazards, all
phases, all stakeholders and all impacts relevant to disasters.
2. Progressive – emergency managers anticipate future disasters and take preventive and
preparatory measures to build disaster-resistant and disaster-resilient communities.
3. Risk-driven – emergency managers use sound risk management principles (hazard
identification, risk analysis, and impact analysis) in assigning priorities and resources.
4. Integrated – emergency managers ensure unity of effort among all levels of
government and all elements of a community.
5. Collaborative – emergency managers create and sustain broad and sincere
relationships among individuals and organizations to encourage trust, advocate a team
atmosphere, build consensus, and facilitate communication.
6. Coordinated – emergency managers synchronize the activities of all relevant
stakeholders to achieve a common purpose.
7. Flexible – emergency managers use creative and innovative approaches in solving
disaster challenges.
8. Professional – emergency managers value a science and knowledge-based approach;
based on education, training, experience, ethical practice, public stewardship and
continuous improvement.

Role of the community in disaster response

Community members play a vital role in reducing the impact of a disaster. People at this level
are often the most vulnerable to disaster and experience the greatest impacts for various
reasons. Yet they are not passive victims. With knowledge of the local geology, the hazard
context, and the livelihoods options available, local communities must be involved in disaster
management programs from the start, and supported by projects to develop the capacities and
linkages that help overcome.

As it is the community which is going to face the disaster, it is very important that
community should be part of the complete disaster management process in all three phases-
pre, during, post.

Community knows itself, its environment better. Many times, senior citizens are aware of
incidences that have happened in the past, which others may not be aware of. One just needs
to make community aware, and provide necessary inputs to identify hazards and risks.

When community is involved in disaster management planning process, it does not become
responsibility of only government, or any external agency. Community accepts it as their own
responsibility and this feeling in community makes the process, response easier.

Also in case of any disaster, community itself acts as a first responder before the external
help reaches to victims. So if the capacity building of community is done, community will be
ready to face disaster and it will reduce the work load on external agencies coming to help.

Community’s role can be in all three phases- training, plan, early warning, communication,
shelter, search and rescue, food arrangements etc can be planned better with help of youths,
women etc from the community.

They play an important role in assisting the government enumeration process to assess the
damage and loss incurred

The community members also help survivors in contacting their relatives so that they can get
social support

Community volunteers assist the various government agencies in evaluation of the loss
suffered by the community. since these agencies are likely to face information overload and
fake news, community volunteers can become a medium for collection and communication of
reliable feedback to them

Challenges in disaster response

Inadequate response

Disaster response in Kenya is often inadequate and characterized by a failure to act on

early warnings.
Poor coordination

Government Ministries/Departments, Agencies, NGOs, FBO’s and Civil Society

Organizations, the Private Sector, International Development Partners and UN Agencies have
pursued a wide range of strategies and programmes to prevent and respond to disaster
situations. However, these initiatives have been undertaken in a less consistent, less planned
and less harmonious manner, virtually always reactive and uncoordinated, and without a
coherent policy framework. Therefore, the present Policy initiative reflects the Government’s
commitment towards formulating a coherent and integrated strategy for addressing disaster
issues in a more proactive manner with a focus on reduction of risk to communities and their
vulnerabilities. This is so, particularly, with regard to the strengthening of their capabilities in
preparedness and resilience to the adverse impact of disasters. The document has been
prepared through a broad consultative process.

Lack of accurate data is also a problem.

Inadequate information and data Collection of data, analysis, and storage is not uniformly
adequate. Inadequacy of data and information, leads to poor planning, lack of institutional
memory and improvement towards best practices

Poor infrastructure

Poor infrastructure, [and the] complete absence of roads in some settlements makes rescue
and relief efforts difficult, costly [and] risky for aid workers.

Inadequate policy, legal and institutional frameworks

Over the years, disasters in Kenya have been handled without a coordinated disaster
management policy, legal and institutional frameworks. In addition, disaster response
activities have been poorly coordinated, due to lack of Standard operational procedures and
Disaster Emergency Operation Plans. This situation remains a challenge that has led to
duplication of efforts and wasteful use of resources. It also exposes disaster victims to greater
risks and slow recovery.

lack of adequately trained human resource in Disaster Management exacerbates the problem.
Poor resource management and inadequate coordination of finances, human resources and
equipment has also weakened disaster interventions.

Kenya Country Case Study:

Impacts and Responses to the 1997-98 El Niño Event

The short rains, which occur during the months of October to December, were extremely
magnified during the 1997-98 El Niño episode. The rains, which started as normal rains in
October in most parts of the country, picked up to flooding levels during the beginning of
November and continued at high levels into January of the following year. They subsided
slowly and ended by mid February 1998 in most parts of the country.
It was determined during that the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) had issued a
forecast for the 1997-98 El Niño event as early as July 1997. According to the KMD, this
forecast was sent to the Office of the President, Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of
Information, Transport and Communications, which are usually on their mailing list. The
information was also sent to the Kenya Power and Lighting Company, which normally uses
the monthly and seasonal rainfall forecasts for planning. This forecast was subsequently
widely published through the electronic and print media. However, it was received with
skepticism due to alleged earlier "wrong" forecasts from KMD. It was therefore not taken
seriously, and hence no mitigation and/or emergency response procedures were put in place.
In general, a sizable percentage of the Kenyan population were aware of the impending heavy
rainfall in advance, but did very little to safeguard against its effects.

As the heavy rains hit the country and continued into December 1997, almost everybody
realized that the warnings from KMD were real, and immediately thereafter, almost anything
that happened to the water resources in the country was attributed to the El Niño. The interest
in and awareness of El Niño was enhanced when its devastating impacts were seen
throughout the country. The various articles and presentations in the print and electronic
media created more interest and awareness on the subject. Due to its uniqueness, intensity
and destructive power, the 1997-98 El Niño event was an intriguing phenomenon to many in
the country, even to those involved in ENSO research. It was, therefore, not surprising that
the 1997-98 El Niño was blamed for almost all the problems, that individuals, groups and the
Kenyan population as a whole were facing, be they the worsening national economy, social
ills and diseases, retarded national development or even domestic hardships. The resultant
floods had wide-ranging positive and negative impacts on various sectors of the national
economy. The sectors identified that were seriously affected were agriculture, water
resources, transport, communications and health.

Water resources sector

The water resources sector was both negatively and positively affected by the 1997-98 El
Niño event. The negative impacts included widespread flooding that led to the destruction of
property in several sections of the country, increased soil erosion in areas with poor land use
and management practices, and increased frequency of mud- and landslides, especially in the
hilly areas. Other negative impacts included surface and ground water pollution, destruction
of small storage earth dams, and the increased sedimentation and siltation in the rivers and
streams that led to the sedimentation and siltation of the major water storage reservoirs. The
general cost of these negative impacts amounted to about US$9 million. However, this sector
also benefited from the excess rainfall during this period. Pollution loads were reduced
through the washout effect of the rainfall, soil moisture for agricultural production was
enhanced, and the water reservoirs were adequately recharged boosting the levels of the
hydroelectric dams.

Agriculture sector

The agricultural sector was also negatively and positively affected by the phenomenon. The
abundance of rainfall resulted in increased plant and animal diseases that affected the
livestock and crop production in several regions in the country. The flooding also affected the
farms through waterlogging leading to further reduction in yields, and destruction of
livestock water facilities. Several cases of deaths of animals through drowning were also
reported. The estimated combined loss suffered by this sector reached US$236 million.

However, in the arid and semiarid areas the rains were a welcome relief from the perennial
dry situation leading to development of good pasture and the resultant improved livestock
performance. Agricultural production in some areas increased due to the enhanced
availability of moisture for the crops. The rains enhanced and prolonged the time of moisture
availability for the biological soil and water conservation structures to take up. Tree planting
and survival rates were generally increased to nearly 100 percent.

Transport and communications sector

The El Niño rains devastated the transportation sector. The accompanying floods and
landslides wreaked havoc on the roads and transportation infrastructure throughout the
country. Several bridges and an estimated 100,000 km of both rural and urban roads were
destroyed leading to a general paralysis of the transportation system in most parts of the
country. The estimated cost of these damages was about US$670 million. The aviation and
shipping industries were also disrupted through the flooding of the facilities. Scheduled and
chattered flights were disrupted due to poor visibility and the submergence of the
navigational equipment and runways by floodwaters. The docking facilities at the shipping
ports were also submerged in floodwaters making it impossible to off load merchandise from
the ships. Telecommunications were severely affected by falling trees that destroyed the
communication lines. The underground cable channels were also flooded, causing a
disruption in services. Interruptions of electric energy supply were experienced as some
equipment was destroyed by floodwaters, falling trees, and collapsing buildings. However, a
positive effect of the event was experienced by the energy sector with the complete
recharging of the hydroelectric dams and, hence, the enhancement of the production of
electricity.

Health sector

The 1997-98 El Niño event greatly affected the health sector. Over 300,000 families were
adversely affected by the phenomenon. The country's health resources were stretched beyond
manageable levels. Several health facilities were physically destroyed, water sources were
contaminated, and there were increases in the number of stagnant water ponds, overgrowth
around homesteads and market centers, blockage and overflow of sewers and open drains,
and an increase in fly breeding as a result of decomposition of refuse. These factors led to an
upsurge of disease epidemics and an increase in the morbidity and mortality rates.

All of the above impacts directly or indirectly affected the socio-economic well-being of the
Kenyan society. The education sector was also affected, with schools being inaccessible
because of flooding which led to closures or to low attendance rates. The end-of-year
examinations were disrupted. Businesses were seriously affected through the aforementioned
transportation and energy disruptions. The political general elections, scheduled for the end
of 1997, were affected and by the problems in the transport sector and subsequently
rescheduled. The heavy rains that were experienced also interfered with social functions, such
as weddings, funerals and church services, during this period.

Considering the impacts of the 1997-98 El Niño event on various sectors of Kenya, it is
evident that Kenyans were not adequately prepared and had no facilities in place to cushion
the adverse impacts. Although the forecast was available in July 1997, no mitigation or
emergency procedures were put in place. Due to the low frequency of widespread flooding
problems in the country, the Kenya government had neither a flood disaster management
policy nor an institutional framework to monitor and manage flood disasters prior to the
1997-98 El Niño floods. The only disaster management institution that was in operation
during the early periods of the 1997-98 El Niño floods was The National Famine Relief
Program, whose mandate is almost exclusively related to the monitoring and management of
the negative impacts of droughts. This program was not well equipped to manage the impacts
of heavy rains. Further, an attempt by the government to mitigate the effects of the negative
impacts of the 1997-98 El Niño floods was hampered by the diversity of the impacts which
could not, therefore, be handled by any one government ministry in isolation.

However, after the effects of the rains began, the government acted by setting up the National
Disaster Operation Center to oversee and coordinate all efforts put toward addressing the
serious impacts. It also embarked on a public awareness campaign through the electronic and
print media and declared the floods a national disaster. Despite the limitations of the existing
economic and financial constraints, the government spent large amounts of money to
purchase and transport emergency food, water treatment chemicals and medical supplies to
the worst-affected communities. It also approached donor countries and agencies to help
defray the costs of rehabilitation and emergency operations.

The media played an important role during the 1997-98 El Niño event by publishing, on a
daily basis, stories related to the effects of the event. It raised the awareness of the public as
well as that of the policy makers. The private companies responded to the emergencies by
pooling their resources together and participating in the rehabilitation of the infrastructure
around them. They resorted to the use of diesel-generated power in cases where there were
power interruptions and hence were able to maintain some production levels.

Lessons Learned

From the devastating impacts of the 1997-98 El Niño event, several lessons were learned.
The scientific community, which is involved with research on the ENSO phenomenon and
rainfall characteristics in the region, has learned that the warming (or cooling) of the Indian
as well as Pacific Oceans adversely affects the rainfall patterns in Kenya considerably.
However, research has not as yet revealed clearly the quantitative association between
ENSO's extremes in the tropical Pacific Ocean and the variations in rainfall in this region. A
lot of effort is, therefore, being made to understand the frequency and occurrence of extreme
rainfall events, and how these are related to El Niño. Several research papers have been
produced on this topic, furthering our knowledge about it and El Niño's teleconnections to
Kenya. The relationship between the El Niño and the rainfall over Kenya is now relatively
better understood leading to better rainfall forecasts.

The 1997-98 El Niño event hit the country at a time when the government had no plans or
policies in place to deal with the associated flood and resulting health hazards. The country
had neither a national plan nor a policy for responding to flood disasters that could impact
negatively on national economic sectors such as agriculture, health, and infrastructure. The
government has learned that such a plan or policy should be developed or added to either the
National Disaster Plans or to the National Water Policy, with clear flood early warning and
management mechanisms.
In addition, there are many uncoordinated efforts among different Early Warning Units in
various departments and ministries such as the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD),
the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), the Department of Resource Survey and Remote
Sensing (DRSRS), and the Arid Lands Resource Management Project (Office of the
President), among others. It has, therefore, been proposed that coordination among the noted
departments and ministries be strengthened and an early warning unit be established and be
well equipped to enable it to monitor the situation on the ground and collect reliable data,
which would enable the ministries to respond appropriately and effectively to disasters in
their economic or social sectors.

Some of the other lessons learned include the following:

 The forecast should, if possible, be for periods longer than 3 months, so that effective
control measures can be put in place.
 The storm drainage systems in urban areas should be maintained and serviced
regularly.
 The government should educate the public well in advance through pro-active
awareness campaigns about possible El Niño-related disasters.
 The Kenya Meteorological Department's forecasts should be as accurate as possible.
 The settlement of potential disaster areas, especially those in the flood plains, should
be discouraged through a clear government policy.
 In the future, planners should always incorporate climate and weather information in
their planning activities.
 The government should institute a policy or plan that supports flood prevention
through integrated watershed development programs in eroded mountainous regions.
 The government should also support the design and management of strategic food
security reserves.
 There is need to find a viable response to future disasters through intervention by, for
example, capacity building for early warning and disaster preparedness.

Disaster Drill

A disaster drill is an exercise in which people simulate the circumstances of a disaster so that
they have an opportunity to practice their responses. Disaster drills can range from
earthquake drills in schools to multi-day exercises which may span across entire
communities, including detailed simulations and a chance to work with the same equipment
which would be utilized in a disaster. Such drills are used to identify weak points in a disaster
response plan, and to get people familiar with the steps they need to take so that their
response in a disaster will be automatic.

Disasters are unpredictable by nature, and this can make them difficult when it comes to
preparation. Sometimes communities get advance warning, as in the case of some disasters
caused by severe weather, while in other cases, disaster can strike in an instant in the form of
an earthquake or a severe fire. If people do not practice their responses, they will usually not
be prepared when disaster does happen; while a disaster drill may not anticipate every
potential scenario, it gives people an idea of how to behave during a disaster.

On a basic level, drills can include responses by individuals to protect themselves, such as
learning how to shelter in place, understanding what to do in an evacuation, and organizing
meetup points so that people can find each other after a disaster. For emergency services and
other first responders, disaster drills hndle topics like what to do when communications are
cut off, how to deal with lack of access to equipment, tools, and even basic services like
water and power, and how to handle evacuations. A disaster drill also provides a chance to
practice for events such as mass casualties which can occur during a disaster.

Regular disaster drills are often required for public buildings like government offices and
schools. During the disaster drill, people are expected to practice things like evacuating the
building and assisting each other so that they will know what to do when a real alarm sounds.
People may also organize disaster drills for their families so that household members will
know what to do in an emergency.

Community-based disaster drills such as whole-city drills provide a chance to practice the full
spectrum of disaster response. These drills can include actors and civilian volunteers who
play roles of victims, looters, and other people who may be encountered during a disaster,
and extensive planning may go into such drills. A disaster drill on this scale may be done
once a year or once every few years

STEPS

DESIGN THE DRILL

As you design the drill, the key components should be an established organizational structure
with an existing emergency management plan details of the events that will unfold, clear
objectives that will be used to evaluate the success of the drill, finance, resources and
equipment to make the drill realistic and a safety plan in case a real danger arises during the
drill.

IDENTIFICATION OF KE PARTNERS
This should be followed by invitation of their representatives to participate in the drill. The
key partners usually include local, public safety and emergency management agencies such
as police, paramedics and other first responders working with these public agencies during a
drill will build relationships that will make you more effective during the actual disaster.

ASSIGN ROLES FOR ALL PARTICIPANTS TO PLAY AT PRE-DRILL BRIEFING

This involves naming listing the players who will respond as they would in a real emergency.
Stimulators who will present unexpected problems to the players and evaluators who will be
observing the drill and assessing everyone’s performance and a safety officer who will be
responsible for implementing medical aid in case of a real emergency.
INITIATE THE DRILL
By introducing the prepared mock situation that mimics a potential real hazard or
vulnerability, instruct everyone to follow the procedures outlined in the existing disaster
preparedness plan.

EVALUATE THE DRILL

This involves assessing the effectiveness of the procedure and addressing any shortcomings.
The feedback should be obtained from designated evaluators on the performance of the
participants and the fulfillment of the drill objectives.

REHABILITATION AND RECONSTRUCTION

Rehabilitation and reconstruction are mostly done during the disaster recovery phase.
The period following emergency phase focuses on activities that enable victims to resume to
normal viable life and means of living.
It also includes restoration of infrastructure services and the economy in a manner
appropriate to long-term needs.
Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected population to resume more or less to normal
patterns of life.
Reconstruction refers to the permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged
physical structures.

Post-disaster reconstruction efforts encompass both material reconstruction and the social
and economic recovery of the affected communities. Rehabilitation after a natural disaster is
a systematic return to your pre-disaster status.
POST DISASTER DEVELOPMENT

These include the sum total of activities, programmes and measures which can be taken after
a disaster occurrence with a purpose of reducing its impacts or recover from its losses.
These measures aim at recovery and reconstruction of damaged facilities.

Objectives of post disaster plan

 To ensure safety of the disaster prone victims
 To safeguard and make available important materials, supplies and equipment to
ensure safety and recovery.
 To reduce the risk of disasters caused by human error, deliberate destruction etc.
 To enhance the communities’ abilities to continue operating after a disaster
 To recover the lost or damaged facilities after a disaster

Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society. The first
priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to save and sustain the
lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the possibilities for facilitating and
expediting recovery and development.
Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and involving on-the-spot
surveys and the collation, evaluation and interpretation of information from various sources.
These surveys concern both direct and indirect losses as well as the short- and long-term
effects. Assessment involves
determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed, but also
defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided to the victims.
Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They include the
preparation of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage resulting from a disaster. The
damage assessment may also include
recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of structures, and
equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities.

Objectives of assessment
 The first objective of a post-disaster assessment is to determine when an emergency
exists. Next, define the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate threats to
health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems.
 A frequent problem of assessment is to assume that all property losses or survival
needs must be replaced or furnished from outside sources only. Instead the assessment
must also identify the local response capacity, including
 organizational, medical, and logistical resources. The assessment must help decide
how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also identify the priorities of the
affected people themselves.
 Another problem is that people making the assessment who are not from the disaster
area may have a difficult time[] distinguishing chronic needs from problems created
by the disaster. Knowledge of base line data is essential to identify the “starting point”
for post-disaster needs.
 If the results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster response
program, then the response agency must also know the policies of the government
with regard to emergency assistance. These policies will affect the estimate for the
additional support required from national and international sources for relief.
EVOLVING OBJECTIVES OF ASSESSMENT
Warning
! Determine extent to which affected populations are taking measures to protect lives and
facilities from expected hazard impact
! Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the implementation of assessment
Emergency
! Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall magnitude of the damage
! Identify, characterize and quantify “populations at risk” in the disaster
! Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate risks
! Identify local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistic resources
! Help anticipate future serious problems
! Help manage and control the immediate response
Rehabilitation
! Identify the priorities of the affected people
! Identify the policies of the government with regard to post-disaster assistance
! Estimate the additional support required from national and international sources for relief
and recovery
! Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and rehabilitation measures
Recovery
! Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its implications for
development policy
! Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs ! Identify new
development opportunities created by the disaster

The assessment process

Assessments must be carefully planned and managed. A sequence of activities is involved
and each must be planned in detail. The following activities typically constitute the
assessment process:
! Identify information needs and sources of reliable data
! Collect data
! Analyze and interpret data
! Report conclusions, forecasts and alternatives to appropriate planner and decision-makers
As the response actions begin in influence events, assessments become part of the monitoring
and control loop, allowing those involved to monitor outcomes and attempt to correct the
response. It becomes part of a continuing process of assessment, review, and correction by
which those managing the operation begin to restore the framework for survival and
recovery.
How assessment data is used
Assessment provides support for emergency decision makers. Assessment is conducted for a
specific user or group of users who are making decisions about emergency resource
allocation and response strategies in what may be a fast- changing environment. There are
three aspects involved in the assessment process: picture building, situation assessment, and
response planning.
Start by building up a picture of where people are, what condition they are in, what services
are still available, and what resources have survived.
The situation assessment involves the identification of operational priorities. The situation
itself is usually fast-changing and messy, this leads to the need to be able to forecast how the
situation is likely to develop. The assessment data needs to be structured to help with the
following:
" recognition and assessment of situations requiring decisions " formulation of the operational
strategies
" objectives and needs
" potential alternatives generated
" analysis of the alternatives: evaluate their impact
" interpretation and selection: alternatives compared by evaluating impacts The last process
of decision-making is response planning. This includes the detailed assignment and
scheduling of resources (people, equipment, and supplies) to meet specific relief objectives.

DISASTER OPERATIONS

Disaster operations are all activities undertaken before, during or after an event happens to
help reduce loss of human life, illness or injury to humans, property loss or damage, or
damage to the environment, including, for example, activities to mitigate the adverse effects
of an event.

There exists a partially spontaneous system, which has assisted the Government and its
development partners (the UN system and other relief agencies) to respond to disasters in the
country, such as the 1999-2001 droughts that affected more than 4.5 million Kenyans. The
various initiatives which work in place of a coordinated system include the following players
and organisations: the Kenya Food Security Meeting (KFSM)/ Kenya Food Security Steering
Group (KFSSG) and the Arid Lands Resource Management Project (ALRMP). The
demonstrable commitment and participation of a large number of stakeholders in the current
disaster management efforts is an indication of the existing good-will to address Disaster
Management in the country. Other participants in disaster management include specialised
departments such as the

 National Disaster Operation Centre (NDOC). The roles include:

- Coordination at the national level of all disaster management activities before, during and after the
disaster
- Ensuring that all personnel and volunteer agencies are informed of the activation of disaster
contingency plans
- Translating the decisions of the National Disaster Coordinating Committee (NDCC) into action
and/or instructions and ensuring that those instructions are transmitted and carried out by the
Ministries/Departments to whom they are directed
- Preparing all inventories of resources and assets countrywide
- Developing a prioritised list of needs for donors to meet shortfalls in relief supplies
- Preparation of evacuation plans, shelter and refugee areas including identification of executing
agencies
- Arranging clearance for aircraft, ships as well as customs and visa clearance for overseas relief
personnel and agencies
- Preparation of media programmes for public information and press briefings at the centre
- Carrying out an annual review, evaluation and validation of national and sectoral disaster
mitigation plans with a view of improving their effectiveness and efficiency
- Preparing and issuing a daily situation report (SITREP) to the subscribing ministries/departments
  Police

 Department of Defence

 National Youth Service (NYS)

 Local Fire Brigades

 St John’s Ambulance Service

 Kenya Red Cross Society

 Occupational Health and Safety Services

 Psychologists

 social workers

Kenya Wildlife Services and the National Environment Management Agency (NEMA).
These undertake pro-active and responsive disaster-related activities, including
Environmental Impact Assessments and Audits, ‘search and rescue’, first aid services and
evacuation, anti-terrorism surveillance, law enforcement and crowd control, peace building,
conflict resolution operations and firefighting.

The broad objectives of the existing Disaster Management system can be summarised as
follows:

• To assess and identify disaster sub-regions, evolve strategies for the subregions, integrate a
national strategic plan, harmonise Disaster Management for all disasters and provides for co-
ordination of all Disaster Management-related activities;

• To promote continuous stakeholder consultations with relevant line Ministries, to enhance

co-ordination of interventions;

• To promote partnership with stakeholders for improved action;

• To promote and facilitate co-ordination and access to research based information for
Disaster Management.

• To promote mass education and functional literacy in environment, Disaster Management

and Climate Change, in collaboration with the Ministry in charge of formal education;

• To promote mass sensitization and awareness creation on Disaster Management and

Climate Change for the general public;

• To promote and stress the urgent need for sustainable mainstreaming of Disaster
Management and Climate Change into Development Planning and Management, to promote
poverty alleviation, on the way to sustainable development;
• To encourage promotion, domestication and implementation of Kenya’s ratified
international, regional and sub-regional Agreements, Conventions and Treaties, which relate
to Disaster Management.

Despite the lack of a coordinated policy and legal basis, the Government, partner agencies
and institutions have largely been effective. This policy now provides for the establishment of
effective instruments for coordinated Disaster Management.

CHALLENGES OF THE CURRENT DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

 Inadequate policy, legal and institutional frameworks Over the years, disasters in
Kenya have been handled without a coordinated disaster management policy, legal
and institutional frameworks. In addition, disaster response activities have been
poorly coordinated, due to lack of Standard operational procedures and Disaster
Emergency Operation Plans. This situation remains a challenge that has led to
duplication of efforts and wasteful use of resources. It also exposes disaster victims to
greater risks and slow recovery.

 Similarly, in the absence of planned and coordinated action, prevention, preparedness

and mitigation have not always been attained. Owing to lack of a coordinated policy
framework, to give strategic guidelines on Disaster Management, the existing
Institutional framework for

 Disaster Management is heavily weighted towards emergency response. Therefore,

systematic approach to planned Disaster Management is inadequate, for example
effective coordination, for management of non-food relief items has been particularly
lacking.

 The food sub-sector, so far, is the most organised in terms of emergency response.
Management of other relief sub-sectors is more difficult to monitor and assess.

 These difficult sub-sectors include, provision of water, health, nutrition and education,
as well as care for livestock and agriculture. The number of activities, actors, and
approaches in these latter sub-sectors are many and uncoordinated. Most of the
activities are focused on immediate emergency interventions, such as water trucking
and de-stocking, giving little time and adequate emphasis for long-term plans for
complete disaster recovery process preventive measures and mitigation.

 Inadequate finances, human resources and equipment The participating institutions

charged with handling disasters in the country are faced with inadequate budgetary
 allocation and conditional donor support; such that the amount of money made
available for the Disaster Management is far less than the realistic amount actually
needed to manage successfully. In addition, there are other related problems, for
example, the turn-around time for proposals to release money in the non-food sub-
sectors is excessive because of inadequate technical handling.

 Also, procurement procedures remain largely cumbersome. The result of poor funding
and reallocation of development funds during times of emergencies has meant that
development priorities and Disaster management initiatives are undermined.

 Disaster occurrences have increased, resulting in available funds being too thinly
spread out to be effective. This rising demand for funding has made Government
increasingly reliant on development partners to fund Disaster Management initiatives.
With the ongoing crisis involving international financial downturn and global
recession, this is a precarious funding position to be in. Compounding this problem is
the reduction of our key National income earning sources.

 Non-availability of specialized equipment for use in Disaster Management hampers

effective processes in the country. Furthermore, lack of adequately trained human
resource in Disaster Management exacerbates the problem. Poor resource
management and inadequate coordination of finances, human resources and
equipment has also weakened disaster interventions.

 Inadequate information and data Collection of data, analysis, and storage is not
uniformly adequate, although in certain sub-sectors (such as in drought management)
data and relevant information is plentiful and available for dissemination and use in
Disaster Management. Elsewhere, inadequacy of data and information, leads to poor
planning, lack of institutional memory and improvement towards best practices.
Similarly, this inadequacy has also resulted in lack of effective monitoring and
evaluation of disaster risk trend analysis, and forecasts.

 Weak disaster management capabilities within communities and institutions The

linkages on disaster management capabilities between local communities, on the one
hand, and district and national levels, on the other, have remained weak. In addition,
the general degradation of traditional African socialism and livelihood systems has
resulted in the progressive erosion of the traditional coping strategies.
  The Kenyan community has not been sufficiently sensitized on disaster management,
especially, in preparedness and coping mechanisms thereby, increasing dependency
syndrome and thus increasing vulnerabilities and potential impacts on the victims.
More recently, there have been new challenges in the management of disaster cycles,
especially in the process of relief, repatriation, rehabilitation and resettlement geared
towards recovery of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).

 Inadequate integration and co-ordination Government Ministries/Departments,

Agencies, NGOs, FBO’s and Civil Society Organizations, the Private Sector,
International Development Partners and UN Agencies have pursued a wide range of
strategies and programmes to prevent and respond to disaster situations

DISASTER OPERATION SKILLS

Critical Thinking and Decision Making

In a disaster, circumstances can change in the blink of an eye, and individuals must be
flexible in order to adjust plans accordingly and be able to consider all the alternatives.
Therefore, in this position, you would need to possess strong critical thinking and problem
solving abilities in order to make assessments and judgments needed in a time of stress and
chaos.

Communication and Cooperation

Communication is a skill that cannot be overstated in importance when it comes to
emergency management services. You would be required to communicate clearly and
concisely to a vast array of individuals and groups. Effective communication with agency
representatives, emergency personnel and the public during trainings, drills, planning and
actual emergencies is what ensures that events will occur smoothly, with as few obstacles or
problems as possible. You will also need to get along with various groups of people.

Time Management and Organization

Skills in time management and organization are crucial. In this job, you will need to
constantly prioritize and decide which tasks are of higher importance. You also have to
process a great deal of information. Being organized and managing your time will help you
sort through all of the details on your plate in order to maintain efficiency and to maximize
how much you accomplish. This kind of preparation also lends itself well to those time when
you need to shift gears and address an emergency, pushing everything else to the side until
you have things at hand under control.

Rehabilitation consists of actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic services
to resume functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair dwellings and community
facilities, and to facilitate the revival of economic activities (including agriculture).
Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and local
communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life. It may be
considered as a transitional phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii) more major, long-
term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

Reconstruction
Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged physical
structures, the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and the revitalization of
the economy (including agriculture). Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing
long-term development plans, taking account of future disaster risks.