AR413/S – Building Technology 5

AUTHORSHIP AND DISCLAIMER

03 – Construction Systems This work is prepared and consolidated by
Alternative Building Construction Systems Ar. Noel T. Amor, Jr.
Designed for UM-CAFAE Bachelor of Science in Architecture
Program. For questions and corrections, contact the author at
[email protected].

REINFORCED CONCRETE
Overview on Reinforced Concrete:
❑ Concrete is a material that is strong in
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS: compression, but weak in tension.

❑ Steel is strong in tension.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ❑ Reinforced Concrete uses concrete to

resist compression and to hold bars in
position and uses steel to resist tension.

❑ Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.

❑ Reinforced Concrete beams allows crack

Prepared by: Ar. Ken Benjamin T. Camao under service load.
Designed for UM-CAFAE Bachelor of Science in Architecture Program
REINFORCED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Overview on Reinforced Concrete:
Even without a load, the
ordinary concrete beam
❑ In ordinary reinforced concrete,
must carry its own weight.
the Beam supports a load by
developing compressive stresses
at the top, but since the concrete Reinforced Concrete
cannot resist the tension at the
bottom, it cracks.
An upward force is
created which in effect
❑ Reinforcing steel bars are placed
relieves the beam of
within this tension zone to resist
having to carry its own
the tension and control the
weight.
cracking.
Prestressed Concrete

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

What is a Prestressed Concrete? What is a Prestressed Concrete?
Definition (1): Prestress is defined as a method of applying pre- Definition (2): Pre-stressed concrete is a form of reinforced
compression to control the stresses resulting due to external concrete that builds in compressive stresses during
loads below the neutral axis of the beam tension developed construction to oppose those found when in use. It is a
due to external loads which is more than the permissible limits combination of steel and concrete that takes advantages
of the plain concrete. Prestressed concrete is a method of
of the strength of each material.
overcoming concrete’s natural weakness in tension.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
What is a Prestressed Concrete? Principles of Prestressed Concrete
Pre-stressing is a method in which compression force is
Definition (3): Involving the application of forces to bend
applied to the reinforced concrete section.
and compress a concrete element in order to counteract
❑ Pre-stressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel
bending which comes from the structural load. The force
cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load
applied is the tensioning of stretching of the steel which produces a compressive stress that balances
the tensile stress that the concrete compression
component which usually in the form of high tensile
member would otherwise experience due to a
strands, wires or bars. bending load.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Principles of Prestressed Concrete Principles of Prestressed Concrete
❑ The effect of pre-stressing is to reduce the tensile
stress in the section to the point until the tensile stress
is below the cracking stress. Thus, the concrete does ❑ The concrete can be visualized to have two
not crack. compressive force.

❑ It is then possible to treat concrete as an elastic ❑ Internal pre-stressing force

material. ❑ External force
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Cement:
Materials for ❑
❑
Ordinary Portland cement
Portland slag cement
Forms of Strands – Two, three
or seven wires are
wound to form a pre-
Prestressed ❑
❑
Rapid hardening Portland cement
High strength ordinary Portland cement
Pre-stressing stressing strand.

Concrete Steel:
Concrete:
Member ❑ Prestressed concrete requires high strength concrete, which has
Wire - Pre-stressing wire is a single
high compressive strength comparatively higher tensile strength
unit made of steel.
than ordinary concrete.
❑ The concrete as a material should be composed of gravels,
crushed stones, sand, and cement.
❑ In prestressed concrete, minimum grade of concrete used in M20.

Steel:
❑ High tensile steel, tendons and strands.
❑ In prestressed concrete, high tensile steel with tensile strength
around 2000MPa is required.
❑ The steel should be in accordance with IS: 1343-1980 prestressed Bars – A tendon can be made up of a
single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is
concrete design. Tendons – A group of strands or wires are
much larger than that of a wire.
wound to form a pre-stressing tendon.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

How do we Pre-stress a material?
1
1 2 3 4 MECHANICAL
DEVICES

The mechanical devices generally used include weights with or without

lever transmission, geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks,
MECHANICAL HYDRAULIC ELECTRICAL CHEMICAL
DEVICES DEVICES DEVICES DEVICES screw jacks with or without gear devices and wire-winding machines.
These devices are employed mainly for prestressing structural concrete
components produced on a mass scale in factory.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

2 3 The wires are electrically heated and anchored before

placing the concrete in the mould. This method is often
referred to as thermo-prestressing and used for
HYDRAULIC ELECTRICAL tensioning of steel wires and deformed bars.
DEVICES DEVICES

These are the simplest means of producing large prestressing force,

extensively used as tensioning devices.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4 4
CHEMICAL CHEMICAL
DEVICES DEVICES

Expanding cements are used and the degree of expansion is controlled Expanding cement, also known as expansive cement, is a kind of
by varying the curing condition. Since expansive action of cement. Portland cement that produces slight volume expansion during the
hydration and setting process
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed Concrete: Methods Prestressed Concrete: Methods
There are two basic methods of applying pre-stress to
a concrete member:
PRE-TENSION & POST-TENSION
Pre-tensioning: A method of prestressing concrete in These two methods mainly differs in the method
which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is of stressing their components. A difference in the
placed. In this method, the concrete is introduced by bond construction sequence and stress application.
between steel and concrete.

Post-tensioning: A method of prestressing concrete by

tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Prestressed Concrete: Methods Pre-stressed Concrete: Methods
PRE-TENSION & POST-TENSION PRE-TENSION & POST-TENSION
❑ Pre-tensioned Concrete is usually fabricated before after
away from the job site in a pre-stressing plant.

❑ Post-tensioned Concrete the application of “PRE-” “POST-”

stressing forces to the structure is done at the
job site.
Pre-tension Pre-tension
Prestressed Concrete Prestressed Concrete
After stretching the steel with
The beams or elements are hydraulic jacks, concrete is placed
constructed on a stressing bed in forms around the cables and
and stranded cable is place allowed to harden. When the
between two buttresses concrete reaches its sufficient
anchored to a stressing bed strength, the pre-stress force is
which holds the force in transferred to the concrete by
stretched cables. bond when the steel strand at the
ends of the beam is cut loose from
buttresses.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TENSILE STRUCTURE

Pre-Tensioning Methods Stages of Pre-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete

In Pre-tension, the tendon and reinforcements

are positioned in the beam mould. The tendon

1 2 3 1 are then tensioned to about 70% of their

ultimate strength against some abutments
before the concrete is placed.

APPLYING CASTING OF TRANSFERRING APPLYING

TENSION TO CONCRETE OF PRE-STRESS TENSION TO
TENDONS TENDONS
TENSILE STRUCTURE TENSILE STRUCTURE
Stages of Pre-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete Stages of Pre-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete

Concrete is cast into the beam mould and

2 3
allowed to cure to the required initial strength. When the concrete has cured, the stressing
force is released and the tendons anchor t

CASTING OF TRANSFERRING
CONCRETE OF PRE-STRESS

TENSILE STRUCTURE
Stages of Pre-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete

The tendon tries to shrink back to the initial

length but the concrete resists it through the
3 bond between them, thus, compression force is
induced in concrete.

TRANSFERRING
OF PRE-STRESS
Post-tension Post-tension
Prestressed Concrete Prestressed Concrete

In post-tensioning the steel is Another technique for reinforcing

stretched after the concrete concrete members. Commonly,
hardens. Unlike pre-tensioning metal or plastic ducts are placed
work, post-tensioning is usually inside the concrete before
carried out at the project site. casting. This can be done either
In the case of post-tensioning, as pre-cast or cast-in-place.
a duct is placed into the
concrete structure.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Post-Tensioning Methods Stages of Post-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete

Steel cables inside plastic ducts or sleeves are

positioned in the forms before concrete is

1 2 3 1 placed. Afterwards, once the concrete has

gained strength, the cables are pulled tight and
anchored against the outer edges of concrete.

CASTING OF TENSIONING OF ANCHORING THE CASTING OF

CONCRETE TENDONS TENDON AT THE CONCRETE
STRETCHING END
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Stages of Post-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete Stages of Post-tensioning a Prestressed Concrete

After the concrete hardens, the tendons placed The excess ends of tendons are then cut away
and the wedges are inserted into the end
2 inside the duct are anchored against the
concrete and then tensioned to about 70% of
their ultimate strength..
3 anchorages and the tensioning force on the
tendons is released.

TENSIONING OF ANCHORING THE

TENDONS TENDON AT THE
STRETCHING END Grout is then pumped into the ducts to protect
the tendons.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
What are the advantages and disadvantages of
Prestressed Concrete?

1 2 3 4
COST FAST
CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AESTHETICS
EFFICIENCY
SCHEDULE
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed Concrete: Advantages Prestressed Concrete: Advantages
❑ Take full advantages of high strength concrete and ❑ Very effective for deflection control due to better
high strength steel. shear resistance.
❑ Need less materials. ❑ Lower construction cost.
❑ Smaller and lighter structure. ❑ Thinner slabs, which are especially important in the
❑ No cracks. high-rise buildings where floor thickness savings can
❑ Use the entire section to resist the load. translate into additional floors for the same or lower
❑ Better corrosion resistance. cost.
❑ Good for water tanks and nuclear plant.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Prestressed Concrete: Advantages Prestressed Concrete: Disadvantages
❑ Fewer joints since the distance that can be spanned ❑ Need higher quality materials
by post-tensioned slabs exceeds that of reinforced ❑ More complex technically
construction with the same thickness. ❑ More expensive
❑ Longer span lengths increase the usable ❑ Harder to re-cycle
unencumbered floor space in buildings and parking ❑ The major problem with prestressed concrete is that
structures. it needs specialized construction machineries like
❑ Fewer joints lead to lower maintenance cost over the jacks, anchorage, etc.
design life of the structure, since joints are the major
focus of weakness in concrete buildings.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed Concrete: Disadvantages Prestressed Concrete: Common Application
❑ Advanced technical knowledge and strict supervision ❑ Bridges
is very important. ❑ Slabs in buildings
❑ For concrete pre-stressing, high tensile reinforcement ❑ Water Tank
bars are needed which costs greater that generally ❑ Concrete Pile
used steel reinforcement bars. ❑ Thin Shell Structures
❑ Highly skilled labor is needed for pre-stressed ❑ Offshore Platform
concrete construction. ❑ Nuclear Power Plant
❑ Repair and Rehabilitations

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Prestressed Concrete: Common Application Prestressed Concrete: Common Application
 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
What is a Composite Construction?
Definition (1): Composite
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS: construction occurs when
two (2) different materials
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION are bonded so securely that
they function as a single
structural unit.

This interaction is known as

Prepared by: Ar. Raysnil R. Lumpay
composite action.
Designed for UM-CAFAE Bachelor of Science in Architecture Program

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
In other words;
Concrete is strong in compression, while
Benefits of Composite Construction steel excels in tension. By combining these
materials, their strengths can be utilized for
• Speed of Construction a highly efficient and lightweight design.
• Performance
The reduced self-weight of composite
• Value elements also reduces the forces in
supporting elements, including the
foundations.
 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Materials Types of Composite Materials
❑ Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
Scope of Composite Beams ❑ Composite Wood (Plywood)
Composite ❑ Reinforced Plastics (Fibre-Reinforced Polymer or
Composite Slabs Fiberglass)
Construction ❑ Ceramic Matrix Composites (Composite Ceramic and
Methods: Composite Columns Metal Matrices)
❑ Metal Matrix Composites
❑ Advance Composite Materials
Composite Connections

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Types of Composite Materials Types of Composite Materials

Reinforced Concrete Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete combines Reinforcing schemes are
traditional cement concrete designed to resist tensile
with steel reinforcement (bars) stresses in specific areas of
to take advantage of concrete's concrete that could lead to
compressive strength and steel's undesirable cracking or
tensile strength simultaneously. structural failure.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Types of Composite Materials Types of Composite Materials

Masonry Masonry
Masonry refers to bricks or stones bonded together It is generally considered a highly durable form of
with cement to form walls or buildings. Common construction.
materials used in masonry construction include
brick, marble, granite, limestone, cast stone,
concrete block, glass block, and adobe.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Types of Composite Materials Types of Composite Materials

Composite Wood Reinforced Plastics

Composite wood refers to a Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP),
range of wood products made also known as fiber-reinforced
by binding or fixing strands, polymer, is a composite
particles, fibers, veneers, or material made of a polymer
boards of wood together using matrix reinforced with fibers.
adhesives or other methods to
form a composite material.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Types of Composite Materials Types of Composite Materials

Reinforced Plastics Ceramic Matrix Composites

The fibers are typically glass (in Ceramic matrix composites consist of ceramic fibers
fiberglass), carbon (in carbon embedded in a ceramic matrix.
fiber-reinforced polymer),
aramid, or basalt. In some Both the matrix and fibers can be made from various
cases, other fibers such as ceramic materials, with carbon and carbon fibers
paper, wood, or asbestos have also being considered as ceramic materials in this
been used, though these are context.
rare.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Types of Types of Composite Materials
Composite
Materials Metal Matrix Composites
A metal matrix composite
(MMC) is a composite
material consisting of at
least two components, one
of which must be a metal.
The other material can be
a different metal, ceramic,
or organic compound.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Types of Composite Materials Composite Beams

Metal Matrix Composites A composite beam is

structurally similar to a T-
When the composite beam, with the top flange
contains at least three made of concrete in
materials, it is referred to
as a hybrid composite. An
compression and the steel
MMC is complementary to section in tension. Shear
a cermet, which typically connectors transfer forces
combines metal with between the two materials.
ceramic.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Composite Beams Composite Beams
The principle of composite action increases the strength A structural member made of
and stiffness of the system, allowing for a smaller steel two or more dissimilar materials
section to be used. joined together to act as a unit is
known as a composite structure.
An example in civil engineering is
the steel-concrete composite
beam, where a steel wide flange
shape (I or W shape) is attached
to a concrete floor slab.
T-Beams for DAMS T-Beams for BRIDGES
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Wood-Concrete
Steel-Wood Composite Beam
Composite Beam

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Plastic-Concrete Composite Slab
Composite Beam Composite slabs consist of reinforced concrete cast on top of
profiled steel decking, which serves as formwork during
construction and as external reinforcement once completed.

RE-ENTRANT DECKING TRAPEZOIDAL DECKING

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Slab Composite Slab
The decking can be either re-entrant
or trapezoidal. When the trapezoidal
decking exceeds 200 mm in depth, it
is referred to as deep decking. RE-ENTRANT DECKING
Additional reinforcing bars may be
placed in the decking troughs,
especially in deep decking, or in
shallow decking when heavy loads
and high fire resistance requirements
are involved. TRAPEZOIDAL DECKING

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Composite Columns Composite Columns
Composite columns are The interactive and integral
made by combining behavior of the concrete
structural steel and and steel elements makes
concrete to take advantage composite columns stiff,
of the beneficial properties ductile, cost-effective, and
of both materials. structurally efficient, making
them ideal for use in
building and bridge
construction.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Columns Circular Concrete-Filled Tubes
Composite columns are made up of a steel profile, typically Concrete-filled tubes (CFTs) are
designed to avoid local buckling, with concrete infill cast composite members with a steel
between the flanges. tube filled with concrete,
enhancing both materials'
strengths.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Circular Concrete-Filled Tubes Concrete-Filled
The concrete is confined by the Rectangular
steel, creating triaxial compression Tubes
that improves its strength and strain
capacity. The steel tube delays
buckling, and CFTs are easy to
construct, offering strong resistance
to compression, bending, and shear.
They are ideal for bridge piers and
building columns.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Concrete-Filled Tubes Concrete-Filled Tubes
Composite H sections can Concrete-filled hollow section
be fully or partially columns are more material-
efficient than equivalent H
encased (web infill only) or
sections and do not require
used as concrete-filled
formwork. The concrete infill
hollow sections. In the UK, boosts compression
composite columns resistance, prevents local steel
requiring formwork are buckling, and improves fire
considered less cost- resistance, potentially allowing
effective. the column to be unprotected
or lightly protected.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Concrete-Filled Tubes Composite Connections
Both rectangular and circular hollow sections are viable, with Shear Connectors
rectangular sections offering the advantage of flat surfaces
for beam-to-column connections using Flowdrill or Hollo-bolt. Shear connectors are
essential for composite
construction, providing
longitudinal shear
resistance to ensure the
beam and concrete slab
act as a single unit.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Connections Composite Connections
Shear Connectors Shear Connectors
They facilitate interaction
between the materials,
resist lateral shear forces
and displacement, and
prevent the concrete slab
from displacing upward
from the beam.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Composite Connections Composite Connections
Shear Connectors Shear Studs
Shear studs are steel pins or
grommets welded to the top flange
of a steel support beam after the
metal deck is placed. The welding
process attaches the shear stud
directly to the beam through the
deck.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Connections Composite Connections
Shear Studs Shear Bolt/Pin
The primary function of shear studs is to A pin can be a simple metal rod
create a structural connection between inserted into a drilled channel
the poured concrete slab and the steel between two moving parts, holding
beam, allowing shear forces to be
distributed across the structure. Without
them in place as long as it remains
shear studs, a slip plane would form intact.
between the concrete slab, metal deck,
and steel framework, compromising the
structure's integrity.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Composite Connections Composite Connections
Shear Bolt/Pin Oscillating Perfobondstrip
It can also be used through a hub The curved design of an oscillating
and axle, with the pin's diameter, perfobond strip improves force
alloy, and tempering chosen to transfer between steel and concrete
more effectively than a continuous
ensure it shears only when a strip. It has a higher load capacity
specific threshold of force or shock than headed studs or welded T-
is reached. sections and is ideal for lightweight
or high-strength normal weight
concrete.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Connections Composite Connections
Oscillating Perfobondstrip Continuous Perfobondstrip
The continuous perfobond strip is
However, a key challenge with this similar to the oscillating version but
connector is the difficulty in welding offers lower resistance across all
it to the steel beam. types and grades of concrete. Due
to its lower performance, it is less
commonly used, despite being
easier to weld.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Composite Connections Composite Connections
Welded T-Section/T-Rib Connectors Welded T-Section/T-Rib Connectors
Welded T-Section connectors Welded T-Section connectors
perform well compared to headed perform well compared to headed
studs and provide the same load studs and provide the same load
resistance as oscillating perfobond resistance as oscillating perfobond
strips. strips.
Their load capacity increases when Their load capacity increases when
lightweight or high-strength lightweight or high-strength
concrete is used. concrete is used.
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
Composite Connections
Waveform Strips CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS:
The objective of the curved form is
to enhance force transfer between
the steel and surrounding concrete CABLE STRUCTURE
compared to straight connectors.

Prepared by: Ar. Noel T. Amor, Jr.

Designed for UM-CAFAE Bachelor of Science in Architecture Program

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

What is a Cable? Structural Cables
Definition (1): A cable is a flexible structural component which
A cable structure is often used in engineering structures as a
offers zero resistance to shear and bending. Generally, cables
support and to transmit load from one point to another when
are subjected to tensile forces.
used to support roofs, bridges, and other structural members.

The cable also form the main load carrying element in the
structure.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Loading Mechanism Loading Mechanism
The high tensile strength of steel, combined with the efficiency In order to understand the mechanism by means of which a
of simple tension, makes the steel cable the ideal structural cable supports a vertical load, one may first consider a cable
element to span large distances. suspended between two fixed points, located at the same level
and carrying a single load at the mid span.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Cable Sag Cable Sag
The triangular shape acquired by the cable is characterized by The undivided pull of the sagging cable on each support may
the SAG, the vertical distance between the supports and the be split two components:
lowest point in the cable. Without the sag, the cable cannot
❑ A downward force equal to half the load
carry the load since the tensile forces in it would be horizontal,
❑ A horizontal inward pull or thrust.
and horizontal forces cannot balance the vertical load.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Cable Systems
If the cables is subjected to the external load, it will deform in a
way depending upon the magnitude and location of the
applied external forces. The deformation acquired by the cable
is called the funicular shape of the cable.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Geometric Funicular Forms:
Funicular shape
Funicular shape

F F
F F

Any change of loading or support conditions changes the form

of the funicular curve.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Geometric Funicular Forms: Geometric Funicular Forms:
Funicular shape Funicular shape

F F
F F F F F

If two equal loads are set on the cable in symmetrical positions, the As the number of loads increases, the funicular polygon
cable adapts itself by acquiring a new configuration. approaches a geometrical curve – the PARABOLA.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Geometric Funicular Forms: Classification of Cable Structures
Funicular shape

F F F F
F
If the equal loads are distributed evenly along the length of the cable,
Suspension-type Cable Structures Cable-stayed Type Structures
rather than horizontally, the funicular curve differs from a parabola,
though it has the same general configuration – it is a CATENARY.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Suspension-type Cable Structures ❑ Suspension-type Cable Structures
The basic structural component of a suspension-type system includes
stiffening girders/trusses, the main suspension cables, main towers,
and the anchorages for the cables at each end of the structure. The
main load-carrying member is the main cable, which is a tension
members, and is made of high-strength steel.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Forces on Suspension-type Cable Structures ❑ Suspension-type Cable Structures

❑ These are the cables which run freely through the towers
transferring loads through the anchorages at each end.

❑ It must have two towers to work effectively.

❑ It can only support straight bridge.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Advantages of Suspension-type Cable Structures ❑ Disadvantages of Suspension-type Cable Structures

❑ Strong and can span long distances such as across the rivers. ❑ Soft ground tissues
❑ Cost-effective ❑ Too Flexible
❑ Can be built up high ❑ Cannot support high traffic
❑ Has Flexibility
❑ Simple Construction

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges
Based on Largest.org Based on Largest.org

10. Nanjing Fourth Yangtze Bridge 9. Dongting Lake Bridge Hangrui

Location: Jiangsu, China Location: Hunan, China

Date Opened: 2012 Date Opened: 2018
Length: 1,418 meters (4,652 feet) Length: 1,480 meters (4,854 feet)
Water Body Crossed: Yangtze River Water Body Crossed: Dongting Lake
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges
Based on Largest.org Based on Largest.org

8. Runyang Bridge 7. Yi Sun-sin Bridge

Location: Jiangsu, China Location: South Jeolla Province, South

Date Opened: 2005 Korea

Length: 1,490 meters (4,888 feet) Date Opened: 2012

Length: 1,545 meters (5,069 feet)
Water Body Crossed: Yangtze River
Water Body Crossed: Gwangyang Bay

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges
Based on Largest.org Based on Largest.org

6. Osman Gazi Bridge 5. Great Belt Bridge

Location: Kocaeli Province, Turkey Location: Region Zealand, Denmark

Date Opened: 2016 Date Opened: 1998
Length: 1,550 meters (5,090 feet) Length: 1,624 meters (5,328 feet)
Water Body Crossed: Gulf of İzmit Water Body Crossed: Great Belt
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges
Based on Largest.org Based on Largest.org

4. Xihoumen Bridge 3. Nansha Bridge (East span)

Location: Zhejiang, China Location: Guangdong, China

Date Opened: 2009 Date Opened: 2019
Length: 1,650 meters (5,410 feet) Length: 1,688 meters (5,538 feet)
Water Body Crossed: Hangzhou Bay Water Body Crossed: Pearl River

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges
Based on Largest.org Based on Largest.org

2. Yangsigang Yangtze River Bridge 1. Akashi Kaikyō Bridge

Location: Hubei, China Location: Honshu, Japan

Date Opened: 2019 Date Opened: 1998
Length: 1,700 meters (5,577 feet) Length: 1,991 meters (6,532 feet)
Water Body Crossed: Yangtze River Water Body Crossed: Akashi Strait
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
World’s Longest Suspension-type Bridges Classification of Cable Structures
1915 Çanakkale Bridge ❑ Cable-stayed Type Structures
The cable-stayed type is a structural system with continuous girder
Location: Northwestern Türkiye
supported by inclined stayed-cables from the towers. It is a structure
Date Opened: 2022
with several points in each span between the towers supported
Length: 2,023 meters (6,637 feet)
upward in a slanting direction with cables, and consists of main
Tower Height: 318 meters towers, cables, and girders.
Water Body Crossed: Dardanelles
Strait

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Cable-stayed Type Structures ❑ Forces on Suspension-type Cable Structures
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Cable-stayed Type Structures Types of Cable-stayed Structures: Based on the arrangement of cables

❑ These are the cables which runs directly from roadway to the ❑ Radial: cables connect evenly throughout the

single towers on which the load acts. deck, but all converge on the top of the pier.

❑ It can only have single tower to work efficiently.

❑ Harp: cables are parallel, and evenly spaced
❑ It can support curved bridge.
along the deck and the pier.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
Types of Cable-stayed Structures: Based on the arrangement of cables Types of Cable-stayed
Structures:
❑ Fan: a combination of radial and harp types. Based on the shape of the pylon

❑ Star-shaped: cables are connected to two

opposite points on the pier.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Advantages of Cable-stayed Type Structures ❑ Advantages of Cable-stayed Type Structures

❑ Good for medium span structure. ❑ Cable-stayed bridge takes less time to complete that suspension
❑ Greater stiffness than suspension bridge. type cable structure.
❑ Can be constructed by cantilevering out from the tower. ❑ The cable-stayed bridge supports itself.
❑ Horizontal forces are balanced so large ground anchorage are not
required.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Disadvantages of Cable-stayed Type Structures ❑ Construction of Cable-stayed Type Structures

❑ Cable-stayed bridge has a maximum length to consider.

❑ The design option can become unstable in specific environment.
❑ It can be challenging to inspect or repair
❑ It is a design that can sometimes be susceptible to rust and
corrosion.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Construction of Cable-stayed Type Structures ❑ Construction of Cable-stayed Type Structures

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Classification of Cable Structures Classification of Cable Structures
❑ Construction of Cable-stayed Type Structures ❑ Construction of Cable-stayed Type Structures
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
World’s Longest Cable-stayed Bridge Comparison of Suspension-type Cable and
Cable-stayed type Structures
Russky Bridge
Suspenstion-type Cable-stayed Type
Location: Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia
Date Opened: 2012
Main Span: 1104m (3,622feet)
❑ Normally limited to two ❑ It can be built with any
Length: 3100m (10,200feet)
Tower Height: 320.9m (1,052.8feet)
(2) towers. number of tower.
Water Body Crossed: Eastern Bosphorus
strait

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Comparison of Suspension-type Cable and Comparison of Suspension-type Cable and
Cable-stayed type Structures Cable-stayed type Structures
Suspenstion-type Cable-stayed Type Suspenstion-type Cable-stayed Type

❑ Construction time is ❑ Construction time is

❑ Suspension bridge ❑ Cable-stayed bridges
longer for suspension- less for cable-stayed
requires more cable. requires less cable.
type structure. structure.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE
Comparison of Suspension-type Cable and
Cable-stayed type Structures Cable Materials
Suspenstion-type Cable-stayed Type ❑ A cable may be composed of one or more structural ropes,
structural strands, locked coil strands or parallel wire
❑ Possess less stiffness ❑ Possess higher strands.
and displays larger stiffness and displays ❑ A strand is an assembly of wires formed helically around
deflections. smaller deflections. center wire in a more symmetrical layers.

CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Cable Materials Cable Materials

❑ A strand can be used either as an individual load-carrying ❑ A rope is composed of a plurality of strand helically laid
member, where radius or curvature is not a major around the core. In contrast to the strand, a rope provides
requirement, or as a component in the manufacture of increased curvature capability and is used where curvature
structural rope. of the cable becomes an important consideration.
CABLE STRUCTURE CABLE STRUCTURE

Types of Cable Materials Cable Materials

❑ Cables are made of high-strength steel, usually encased in
a plastic or steel covering that is filled with a grout, a fine-
grained form of concrete, for protection against corrosion.

CABLE STRUCTURE
Types of Cable
Materials CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS:
TENSILE STRUCTURE

Prepared by: Ar. Noel T. Amor, Jr.

Designed for UM-CAFAE Bachelor of Science in Architecture Program
TENSILE STRUCTURE TENSILE STRUCTURE
What is a Tensile Structure?
Definition (1): A tensile structure is a construction of elements
Tensile Membrane Structure
carrying only tension and no compression or bending. The A tensile membrane structure is most often used as a roof, as
term tensile should not be confused with tensegrity, which is a they can economically and attractively span large distances.
structural form with both tension and compression elements.
Tensile structures are the most common type of thin-shell
structures.

TENSILE STRUCTURE TENSILE STRUCTURE

What are the advantages of Tensile Structures? What are the advantages of Tensile Structures?
Tensile membrane structures provide virtually

1 2 3 4 5 2 1 unlimited designs of distinctive elegant forms

that can be realized because of the unique

FLEXIBLE OUTSTANDING EXCELLENT LIGHTWEIGHT LOW COST

FLEXIBLE flexible characteristics of membrane resulting in
DESIGN TRANSLUCENCY DURABILITY NATURE MAINTENANCE BENEFITS DESIGN
AESTHETICS AESTHETICS an iconic and unique structure or feature for any
building owner, city or even region.
TENSILE STRUCTURE TENSILE STRUCTURE
What are the advantages of Tensile Structures? What are the advantages of Tensile Structures?

With several different membranes in the market

2
In daylight, fabric membrane translucency offers soft
diffused naturally lit spaces reducing the interior
3 place such as PTFE fiberglass, ETFE film, PVC, and
lighting costs while at night, artificial lighting creates ePTFE, the durability and longevity of tensile
OUTSTANDING EXCELLENT
TRANSLUCENCY an ambient exterior luminescence. DURABILITY membrane structures have been proven.

TENSILE STRUCTURE TENSILE STRUCTURE

What are the advantages of Tensile Structures? What are the advantages of Tensile Structures?

The lightweight nature of membrane is a cost- Tensile membrane systems are somewhat
4 effective solution that requires less structural
5 unique in that they require minimal maintenance

steel to support the roof compared to when compared to an equivalent sized

LIGHTWEIGHT LOW
NATURE conventional building materials, enabling long MAINTENANCE conventional building.

spans of column-free space.

TENSILE STRUCTURE
What are the advantages of Tensile Structures?
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS:
Most tensile membrane structures have high sun
6 reflectivity and low absorption of sunlight, thus MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
resulting in less energy used within a building
COST BENEFITS
and ultimately reducing electrical energy costs.

Prepared by: Ar. Joyce Marie S. Cagampang

Designed for UM-CAFAE Bachelor of Science in Architecture Program

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

History of Membrane Structures Design of Membrane Structures
1950s - new materials, techniques, and proiceees were developed by novel From the honored craft of tent making, the
construction forms construction industry now utilizes highly
contemporary techniques for design and
Long Span Bridge Technology - inspired a new generation of architects and
construction
engineers who pursued a geometrical vision
Computers - predominates the
One of the streams of this phenomena of lightweight structures is membrane
engineering design and graphic imaging
structures.
Fred Severud, Frei Otto, and Walter Bird - notable pioneers who have passed their
Complex surfaces resolved swiftly using
pioneering zeal to establish main stream design companies and so the new
powerful programs and new generation
becomes the norm
hardware
Membrane structures - new color on the architects pallete, highly aesthetic forms Design skills are refined through the first
and are a dominant feature in building landscape even if the overall construction challenging decades of work in the field
share is small
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Design of Membrane Structures STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Nowadays competent and experienced The surface is held under a constantly
design teams approach the most complex applied prestress force presenting a film
works in confidence and the proliferation of thickness division between inside and
built structures increases exponentially outside environments.
Materials development has rapidly
The opposite side of the equation is a paralleled design technology
fabrication and construction industry improvement to make available truly
which ahs experienced dramatic engineered fabrics designed for a specific
development in the specialized processes purpose.
involved in assembling structures into the
High strength durable synthetic materials
finished project work. are marketed for selection by designers in
accordance with specific requirements
and building regulations.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

History of Fabric Architecture What are Membrane Structures?
Exploited by nomadic tribes almost from the dawn
These are buildings made from materials
of civilization, the use of fabric to provide mankind
under tension.
with shelter from the natural elements of sun, rain,
wind and snow is an architectural design strategy A cable net supporting a fabric or sheet
whose origins are lost in antiquity. material or could be made entirely from
fabric most often used for roofing ,
The discovery of high-performance polymers,
relatively new form of construction.
methods for their incorporation into advanced
composites and the development of a Employes a thin, flexible surface material
computerized methodology for the analysis of their such as coated fabrics, as their main
nonlinear, time dependent viscoelastic behaviour. structural and cladding element.
These elements have finally come together over the The membrane is usually stressed
past twenty years to lend credibility to the concept between its support system and its
of permanent fabric architecture. anchorages.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
What are Membrane Structures? What are Membrane Structures?
Typical membrane structures are Foundation requirements are
tension structures supported by frames, comparatively low; simple footings for
cables or masts and those which are the mast or masts and solid anchorages
supported by (internal) air pressure - for cable connections at perimeter
”air supported structures.”
points.
The fanciful shapes and festive colours
of membrane structures make them a As shelters for performance stages, they
perfect choice for many recreational can provide a proscenium-like setting
facilities. without the heavy structure required with
They provide wide, clear span areas other materials.
without large supporting members.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
What are Membrane Structures?
Their ability to provide vast clear span
space assures clear sight lines for the
audience with minimum of supporting
posts. These attributes enable a designer
to use his imagination to the fullest.
The versatility of tensioned membrane
structures makes them useful is a wide
range of applications; outdoor dining
areas, eye-catching entrance gateways,
walkway coverings, shelter for building
courtyards, atria roofs for commercial
and recreational building, even weather
protection for transportation terminals.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
What is a Tensioned Membrane Structures? What is a Tensioned Membrane Structures?
A special structure that obtains its In a tensioned membrane structure,
strength from a combination of its the fabric provides a structural
geometric shape - “structural form” - membrane. The combination of the
and the properties of the material membrane and steel cable or arch
from which it is manufactured. elements achieves stability so that
the smooth curvilinear forms remain
With a ‘tent’ the fabric is simply a
stable even under high wind load.
covering for a structural frame, only
incidentally contributing to the tent’s
structural integrity.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

What is a Tensioned Membrane Structures? Definition of a
When the requirements call for large Tensioned Membrane Structures?
scale exhibition buildings, membrane
structures can be an exposition A membrane structure is a flexible
designer’s best resource. They allow a surface (skin, fabric) which is only
design freedom not possible with other capable of transmitting tensile stress.
building materials; shapes which cannot It relies on double curvature to
be achieved any other way become
achieve its stability in prestress and
possible. Tensioned membrane
structures are uniquely suited to the
under wind or other external loads.
needs of expositions and fairs for
exciting, attractive pavilions, exhibition
halls and entertainment theatres.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Definition of a Definition of a
Tensioned Membrane Structures? Tensioned Membrane Structures?
Membranes can be sub-divided into two Non prestressed membranes such
major groups: as tents, sails and air (or other medium)
filled structures, which are originally slack
Non prestressed membranes in the unloaded condition an assume
shapes of either single or double
Prestressed membranes curvature when loaded

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Definition of a Definition of a Tensioned Membrane Structures?
Tensioned Membrane Structures?
Prestressed membranes such as
tension membranes or air-supported
structures. Tension membrane structures
assume double negative (anticlastic)
curvature. Air supported structures
assume a double positive (synclastic)
curvature.

Air-supported structures Tension Membrane Structures

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Styles and Shapes of a Styles and Shapes of a
Tensioned Membrane Structures? Tensioned Membrane Structures?
Conical Tension Structure Hypar or Anticlastic Structure
• Highly effective for covering large areas, a conical • As one of the most common of all tensioned
tension structure is easily identified by its tent-like membrane structures due to its aesthetically
shape. pleasing look, hypar (hyperbolic paraboloid)
• Conical designs can feature either single or shapes are notable for their excellence with
multiple masts. The masts can go to the ground or shape retention and water runoff.
can utilize a ‘flying’ mast where cables are used in • Rely on two opposing curvatures, also known
tension, supporting the mast in the air to allow for as anticlastic, for their stability, and often
an unobstructed space below. resemble the shape of a saddle featuring two
• Cones are especially effective in areas that need to high points and two low points,
comply with high rain or snow load regulations. • This type of structure is ideal for shade over
seating areas or high-traffic walkways.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Styles and Shapes of a Styles and Shapes of a
Tensioned Membrane Structures? Tensioned Membrane Structures?
Parallel Arch or Barrel Vault Structure Cable Net & Membrane Structure
• These symmetrical curved parallel arch designs form • For long-span tensile membrane roofing
an incredibly functional tensioned membrane canopy applications typically found in stadiums or
that can span long distances such as a sports arena or large spaces, 3D cable net or cable grid
smaller areas such as an entryway. structures are an efficient solution for
• Also known as a barrel vault design, these parallel arch lightweight tensile architecture.
structures come with a wide variety of support systems • Using pre-tensioned structural cables where
from traditional arch designs to frame supported or the cables are carrying the primary load of a
cantilever options. structure, these types of structures are an
• Cost-effective way to incorporate tensile membrane effective way to help support and reinforce the
on a project due to the repetitive nature of the design PTFE or PVC membrane all while achieving a
and efficiencies of materials. dramatic and uniquely signature design.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
MATERIALS MATERIALS
• Several membrane materials are available for
Properties of the Materials
permanent structures; coated, woven synthetic
fabrics are by far the most widely used.
⚬ High Inherent Strength
• Due to their fabrics from natural fibers hlow
⚬ Resistance to Environmental
durability (2-3 years), ave been almost
Pollution
completely replaced by the more durable and
⚬ Service Life
dimensionally stable synthetic or mineral fibers.
⚬ Fire Safety
• Preferred fibers for woven fabrics are polyester
⚬ Thermal Properties of Membranes
or glass fiber.
⚬ Acoustics
• Coatings applied to fabric are PVC, Teflon or
⚬ Lighting
Silicon is applied to glass fiber fabric. Each class
⚬ Color Fastness
of material has its particular attributes in terms
⚬ Special Shading Materials
of durability, thermal and optical performance
and cost.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

MATERIALS MATERIALS
Properties of the Materials Properties of the Materials
⚬ High Inherent Strength ⚬ Fire Safety
￭ Tensile strength is as high as the strength of ￭ PVC-coted polyester and Teflon-coated
high-tensile steel fiberglass are fire-safe and meet the
￭ The membrane material is 5 to 6 times lighter requirements
⚬ Resistance to Environmental Pollution ⚬ Thermal Properties of Membranes
￭ Modern Fabrics have natural dirt-shedding ￭ Uninsulated Membrane Structures
capabilities or are specially treated to achieve • energy efficient in warmer climates but
a high level of cleanability due to their lower thermal mass are
⚬ Service Life relatively ineffective in cold climates
￭ Good quality PVC-coated fabric has minimum ￭ Thermal insulation may be increased in
service life of 10-15 years which secondary liners can be added in
￭ Teflon-coated fiberglass has an anticipated the case of tension membrane and air-
minimum life of 25 years supported structures
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
MATERIALS MATERIALS
Properties of the Materials Properties of the Materials
⚬ Thermal Properties of Membranes ⚬ Acoustics
￭ Higher Thermal Insulation ￭ Air-supported structures
• can be achieved by the use of multi- • address the effect of reverberation time
layered membranes created by the concave surfaces
• Stratification and venting can be used • acoustical treatment such as liners or
to advantage suspended panels with Noise Reduction
￭ Understanding the properties of individual Coefficients as low as 0.61 is provided by the
materials, the effect of form and shape industry
are important to the fabric structure ⚬ Lighting
design ￭ High degree of translucency
• one of the attractions of choosing a membrane
• Light penetrating the membrane provides a
unique natural environment

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

MATERIALS MATERIALS
Properties of the Materials Properties of the Materials
⚬ Lighting ⚬ Color Fastness
• The light quality which will be influenced ￭ Materials are available in a range of color fast
by the fabric selection is color pigmentations
• The light will be balanced, shadowless, ￭ However, consideration should be given to the effect on
and diffuse transmitted light and additional heat load into the space
￭ At night, the fabric surface provides the below when darker color fabrics are used
opportunity to obtain diffuse radiant ⚬ Special Shading Materials
lighting effects internally while at the same ￭ Allow controlled transmission of sun, dew, rain, and
time a gentle glow penetrates the protection from frost and hail.
membrane creating a landmark ￭ With recent concerns of skin cancer, it is important to be
able to predict shade patterns at different times of the day
throughout the year. This includes the effects of
overlapping panels with curved edges as illustrated below.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS COSTS
The cost of membrane structures vary
dependent upon materials selection,
scale of project, complexity and
degree of symmetry and construction
Shape Determination and
Structural Analysis Cutting Patterns requirements. To obtain the most cost
effective solution it is essential that
architectural, structural and
• Structural analysis of membrane structures • An accurate scale model may be constructed and
involves non-linear static as well as dynamic cutting patterns obtained from it. Alternatively, mechanical disciplines co-ordinate
analysis. computer programs are available to undertake the their design in consultation with
• Without these computer programs it would not patterning of certain materials. specialist fabricators and materials
be possible to achieve the degree of precision • The complexity in the overall design process from
suppliers from the outset.
required for the design and fabrication of a concept to cutting pattern has led to the
fabric structure. The use of models to help development and fabrication of several standard
establish initial shapes is still a useful tool. types and shapes for membrane structures.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The environmental ’footprint’ of membrane
structures is intrinsically low, because in
If one defines sustainable as ”meeting the needs
practical terms the self-weight of the membrane
of the present, while ensuring that future
is negligible. Hence, the ratio of applied load to
generations have the same opportunities”; then
self-weight, an inherent measure of the
PVC is a sustainable product.
efficiency of material usage, is many times
larger than for conventional buildings. It is intrinsically recyclable, energy and
resource -efficient to manufacture, and being
By far the majority of membrane structures are derived from the most basic of basic of
fabricated from PVC coated polyester. Despite hydrocarbons and salt, is a low consumer of
well publicized claims to the contrary, the CSIRO nonrenewable resources.
concluded in a detailed study that in an
environmental context, PVC performs as well or
better than alternative materials.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION FEATURES

Given its expected life of fifteen and twenty-

five years, proven by field usage, PVC coated ❑ Membranes can span ❑ Stability can be fully ❑ It is important for all
❑ The membrane must ❑ Roof structures are
polyester scoreshighly in a life cycle analysis. It large distances
without supporting
be kept tensioned built with spans warranted even under
extreme wind loads.
membrane structures
that point loading be
biaxially to obtain exceeding 150m.
is safe to handle, fabricate, and in a building structures used in stability and a long ❑ They can be designed ❑ Structures built on avoided.
conventional buildings, service life. Certain to bear the same this principle have ❑ Surface slopes must
context, has too little mass available to yet these membrane classes of materials loads as their withstood cyclones be steep enough to
structures must have higher creep conventional with wind velocities of eliminate ponding
contribute to the fuel load of a fi re. It has always be tensioned properties than others counterparts. 200km/hour. under heavy rain or
not in one direction snow buildup.
excellent UV and heat absorption but in two to achieve
and in these cases
provision for re-
characteristics. their essential stability.
❑ Flat planar surfaces
tensioning at a later
date may be required.
should be avoided.

EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
"The Harbour" of the Swiss National Exhibition
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Aarau Bus
Terminal
 EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Abuja National Stadium Abuja Velodrome

EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Hajj Terminal (Saudi Arabia)

Tokyo Dome (Japan)
 EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Millenium Dome (UK)

END.

Content Contributors: Ar. Noel T. Amor, Jr., Ar. Joyce Marie S. Cagampang, Ar. Ken Benjamin T. Camao, Ar. Raysnil R. Lumpay