1116 Electrical Technology

32.1. Working Principle of a Transformer

Atransformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus
by
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency means
in of which
lower the voltage in a circuit but with a correspond
ing decrease or increase in current. The physical
another circuit.
basis of a transformer is mutual induction between Laminated Core
two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. In
its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils
which are electrically separated but magnetically
linked through a path of low reluctance as shown Primary Sety
in Fig. 32.1. The two coils possess high mutual
inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in
the laminated core, most of which is linked with
the other coil in which it produces mutually-in Fig. 32.1
duced e.m.f. (according to Faraday's Laws of
coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and soElectromagnetic Induction e = Mdlldh lFa.
from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil,electric energy is transferred (entirely maona
in which electric energy is fed from the a
mains, is called primary winding and the other from which
winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that energy is drawn out, is called seco
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. it does so without a change of frequency
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

32.2.. Transformer Construction iron core

The simple elements of a transformer

consist of two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core. The primary seconday
two coils are insulated from each other and coil coi

the steel core. Other necessary parts are:

220/240
some suitable container for assembled core 110/120
volts
and windings ; a suitable medium for volts
insulating the core and its windings from
its container ; suitable bushings (either of
porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for seconday
insulating and bringing out the terminals coil

of windings 11010
from the vos
220/240
tank.oTa
In all
volts t
types ofore Principle of transformer
transformers,io snn laminations
the coreis constructed of transformer sheet steel minimunofu
to provide a continuous magnetic path with a sometinme
s
included. The steel used is of high silicon content,
hysteresis
Fig. 32.2 treated to produce a high permeability and alow
 olen Transformer 1117

operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is minimised by Normal Operation
usual
laminating the core,the laminations being insulated from each other by a Low High
voltage voltage
lightcoat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface. The |oil Tron Core
thicknessoflaminations varies from 0.35 mm for afrequency of 50 Hzto
for afrequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations (in the form of
0.5 mm
strips) are joined as shown in Fig. 32.2. It is seen that the joints in the
alternate layers are staggered in order to avoid the presence of narrow
gapsright through the cross-section of the core. Such staggered joints
'imbricated'
are saidto be TMagnetic Flu

Paper Insulation Constructionally, the transformers are of two

Laminated general types, distinguished from each other IGround
Core7
Leads
merely by the manner in which the primary Core-type transformer
and secondary coils are placed around the
laminated core. The two types are known as (i) core-type and (ü) shell
type. Another recent development is spiral-core or wound-core type, the
trade name being spirakore transformer.
LPrimary In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a
Winding considerable part of the core whereas in shell-type transformers, the core
Secondary Winding
Shel-Type transformer surrounds aconsiderable portion of the windings as shown schematically
in Fig. 32.3 (a) and (b) respectively.

V, S
V
p

(a) (b) Fig. 32.4

Fig. 32.3
transformners [Fig. 32.3 (a)], the primary and secondary
Inthe simplified diagram for the core type construction,
legs (or limbs) of the core, but in actual
nding are shown located on the opposite the primary and half the
As shown in Fig. 32.4, halflimb,
always interleaved to reduce leakage flux.
se are concentrically on each not primary on one
secondary winding have been placedthesideother.by side or
limb (or leg) and the secondary on Lamination
Coils

Butt Joint
Fig. 32.6
cut in the form of long
Fig. 32.5
transformers, the individuallaminations arecorei
In assembly of the complete for the twotypes of
Strips ofbothL's. core and shell-type
E's and T'sas shown in Fig. 32.5. The

transfor mers is shown in. Fig. 32.6 and Fig. 32.7.

 1118 Electrical Technology
As said above, in order to avoid high reluctance at thejoints wherethe
each other, the alternate layers are stacked differently to eliminate these joints as
Fig. 32.7.
laminatshioownsn are)in
Fig 326

Butt Joint
Fig. 32.7

32.3. Core-type Transformers

The coils used are form-wound and
are of the cylindrical type. The general
form of these coils may be circular or oval Coil Coil Coil
or rectangular. In small size core-type Coil Coil
transformers, a simple rectangular core is
used with cylindricalcoils which are either 2-leg core 3-leg core 4-leg core
circular or rectangular in form. But for
Single-Phase Transformer Cores
large-size core-type transformers, round
or circular cylindrical coils are used which aress
L.V. wound as to fit over a cruciform core section
H.V. shown in Fig. 32.8(a). The circular cylindrical ok
L.V. Insulation are used in most of the core-type transfomes
H.V. Insulation because of their mechanical strength. Such
-L.V. Winding cylindrical coils are wound in helical layers wihte
H.V. Winding different layers insulated from each other by papet
cloth, micarta board or cooling ucts. Fig. 32.80
shows the general arrangement of these coils wià
respect to the core. Insulating cylinders of fuller
bbaboardare used to separate the cylindrical windings
from the core and from each other. Since the low:
Laminated Core
(Cruciform Section) voltage (L) winding is easiest to insulate, itisplacd
nearest to the core (Fig. 32.8).
Fig. 32.8 (a)
Core -H.V. Winding
-L.V.Winding
Insulating
Cylinder

H.V. L.V. L.V.H.V.

LV. H.V.
(b) (c)se
Fig. 32.8
 Transformer 1119

laminations and
Becauseof)
insulation, the net or effective core area is reduced, due allowance for
(Ex. 32.6). It is found that, in general, the reduction in core sectional area due to the
tobe made
has
which surface
eofpaper,
presence
oxide etc.is of the order of 10% approximately.
pointedi out.above, rectangular cores with rectangular cylindrical coils can
be used for small-size
As transformerssas shown in Fig. 32.9 (a) but for large-sized transformers, it becomes wasteful to
core-type
rectangularrcylindrical coils and Iso circular cylindrical coils are preferred. For such purposes, Square
USe
may beIsed as shown
in Fig. 32.9 (b) where circles represent the tubular former carrying the coils.
cores
Obviously.aconsiderable amount of usefulspace is still wasted. Acommon improvement on square core
employ cruciform core as in Fig. 32.9 (c) which demands, at least, two sizes of core strips. For very
isto transformers, further core-stepping is done as in Fig. 32.9 (d) where at least three sizes of core plates
large reduced length of the mean
eSsary. Core-stepping not only gives high space factor but also results in although more steps
ondthe consequent /R loss. Three stepped core is the one most commonly used
Fig. 32.9, it can be shown
he 1sed for very large transtormers as in Fig. 32.9 (e). From the geometry of
d where d is the
htmaximum gross core section for Fig. 32.9 (b) is 0.5 d and for Fig. 32,9 (c) it is 0.616
diameterofthe cylindrical coil.
0.16d 0.16d 0.1d,0.14d 0.14d 0.074d,r-0.09d
10.36dh
-0.12d
k-0.53d -0.42d
tz
0.93d
0.71d 0.85d 0.9d

-0.71d R-0.93d
oihei isss1-0.85d 0.9d
(c) (d) (e)
(a) (b)
Fig. 32.9

32.4. Shell-type Transformers

wound in the
In these case also, the coils are form-would but are multi-layer disc type usually
Torm of pancakes. The different layers of such multi-layer discs are insulated from each other by
paper. The complete winding consists of stacked discs with insulation space between the coils-the
paces forming horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. A shell-type transformer may have a simple
etangular form as shown in Fig. 32.10 or it may have distributed form as shown in Fig. 32.11.
Core Core

LIV
HV

HV
L

(a) (6)
Fig. 32,10
Avery commonly-used shell-type transformer is the one known as Berry Transtormer-so called
after the name of its designer and is cylindrical in form. The transfornmer core consists of laminations
arranged in groups which radiate out from the centre as shownin section in Fig. 32.12.
 1120 Electrical Technology
It may be pointed out that cores and coils of transformers must be
bracing in order to prevent movement and possible insulation damage. Goodd provided with igd
the objectionable noise -ahumming sound-during operation. bracing reduces medtu,
The spiral-core transformer employs the newest development in core
coonstruction. cow'i
sembled of acontinuous strip or ribbon of transformer steel wound inthe formnof a The
cylinder. Such construction allows the core flux to follow the grain of theiron. circular
Cold-rwiolthed stesel
silicon content enables the designer to use considerably higher operating flux densities of
kg. The use of higher flux density reduces the weight per kVA. Hence, the
are() arelatively more rigid core (i) lesser weight andsize per kVA ratingadvant ages ironof SuchlowcosertItorsvc
(ii)|lower
operating flux densities and (iv) lower cost of manufacture. los es
a hia
Cylindrical
Winding MaCoreghtó

(a)
(b)
Fig. 32.11 Fig. 32.12
Transformers are generally housed in tightly-fitted sheet-metal ; tanks filled with special insulating a
This oil has been highly developed and its function is two-fold. By circulation, it not only keeps the cad
reasonably cool, but also provides the transformer with additional insulation not obtainable whent
transformer is left in the air.
In cases where a smooth tank surface does not provide sufficient cooling area, the sides of the
tnik
corrugated or provided with radiators mounted on the sides. Good transformer oil should be absolutely
from alkalies, sulphur and particularly from moisture. The presence of even
extremely small percentage of moisture in the oil is highly detrimental from the insulation viewp
because it lowers the dielectricstrength of the oil considerably. The importance of avoiding
in the transformer oil is clear from the fact that even an
addition of as8 parts
the insulating quality of the oil to a value generally recognized belowofstandard.
water in 1,000,000k
Hence, thetanks
are sealed air-tight in smaller units. In the case of large-sized transformers where completeairigth
construction is impossible, chambers known as breathers are provided to permit the oilinsidethetu
to expand and contract as its temperature increases or decreases. The atmospheric moisture
entrapped in these breathers and is not allowed to pass on to the oil. Another thing toavoidinthea
is sledging which is simply the decomposition of oil with long and continued use. SledginggiscaIs
principally by exposure to oxygen during heating and results in the formation of large depositsoflid
and heavy matter that
eventually clogs the cooling ducts in the
No other feature in the transformer.
insulating materials, because construction
the life on theof unit
a
transformer
almost solely depends
is given moreonattention
the quality, care
anddurabiliy
handling of these materials. All the insulating materials are selected on the bbasis oftheirihighqualo
and ability to preserve high
quality even after manyyears of
normal use.
Instead of natural mineral oil, now-a-days synthetic insulating fluids known ass ASKARELS((tradenane)
used. They are non-inflammable and, under the influence of an electric arc, do not decomposeto)prou
inflammable gases. Onestability
such fluidas a dielectric and even asafter long service shows extensively
dbecnus
it possesses remarkable
sledging, oxidation, acid or
commercially known PYROCLOR 0s being no deterioration usedthrougt
moisture formation. Unlike
mineral oil, it shows no rapid burning.
 weolon Transformer 1121

Allthe transformer leads are broughtout of theircases through suitable bushings. There are many
designs of these, their size and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. For moderate voltages,
porcelainbushings are used to insulate the leads as they come outthrough the tank. In general, theylook
nst likethe insulators used on the transmission lines. n high voltage installations, oil-filled or capacitor
type bushings are employed.
The choice of core or shell-type construction is usually determined by cost, because similar character
iics can be obtained with both types. For very high-voltage transformers or for multiwinding design, shell
ne constructionis preferred by many manufacturers. In this type, usually the mean length of coil turn is
onger than in acomparable core-type design. Both core and shell forms are used and the selection is
accided by many factors such as voltage rating, kVA rating, weight, insulation stress, heat distribution etc.
Another means of classifying the transformers is according to the type of cooling employed. The
following types are in common use :
(a) oil-filled self-cooled (6) oil-filled water-cooled (c) air-blast type
Small and medium size distribution transformers-so called because of their use on distribution
systems as distinguished from line transmission-are of type (a). The assembled windings and cores
of such transformers are mounted in a welded,oil-tight steel tank provided with steel cover. After
puting the core at its proper place, the tank is filled with purified, high quality insulating oil. The oil
serves to convey the heat from the core and the windings to the case from where it is radiated out to
the surroundings. For small size, the tanks are usually smooth-surfaced, but for larger sizes, the cases
are frequently corrugated or fluted to get greater heat radiation area without increasing the cubical
capacity of the tank. Stilllarger sizes are provided with radiators or pipes.
Construction of very large self-cooled transformers is expensive, a more economical form of
construction for such large transformers is provided in the oil-immersed, water-cooled type. As
before, the windings and the core are immersed in the oil, but there is mounted near the surface of oil,
acooling coil through which cold water is kept circulating. The heat is carried away by this water. The
largest transformers such as those used with high-voltage transmission lines, are constructed in this
manner.
Oil-filled transformers are built for outdoor duty and as these require no housing other than their
own, a great saving is thereby effected. These transformers require only periodic inspection.
air-blast. The
For voltages below 25,000 V, transformers can be built for cooling by means of an
transformer is not immersed in oil, but is housed in a thin sheet-metal box open at both ends through
which air is blown from the bottom to the top by means of a fan or blower.

32.5. Elementary Theory of an ldeal Transformer

there is no
An ideal transformer is one which has nolosses i.e. its windings have no ohmic resistance, consists
magnetic leakage and hence which has no>Rand core losses. In other words, an ideal transformer
is impossible
of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core. It may, however, be noted that it a trans
lo realize such a transformer in practice, yet for convenience, we will start with such
Jormer and step by step approach an actualtransformer.
V4

90°
E E, 0
90°
E

Primary Secondary
(b)
(a)
Fig. 32.13
 1122 Electrical Technology
Consider an ideal transformer |Fig. 32. 13 (a)] whose secondary is
nected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V,. This potential difference open and whose
the primary. Sincethe primary coil is purely inductive and there is causes an
alternating
(secondary bperiimngary is
no output o
primary draws the magnetising current 1, only. The
merely to magnetise the core, it is small in magnitüde and lags V, byfunction
90° of
produces an alternating flux Í which is, at all This this cureopnen
times, proportional to the current (assuming
permeability of themagnetic circuit tobe Primary coil
Step-up transformer alternating
constant) and, hence, is in phase with it. This Secondary coil
changing flux is linked both with the primary
and the secondary windings. Therefore, it If the
produces self-induced e.m.f. in the primary. has 3pr\oiops
maryandcoe
This self-induced e.m.f. E, is, atevery in
stant, equal to and in opposition to V,. Itis
secondar
30, the voly tacgaoil hes
also known as counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. stepped up 10
times.
of the primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the sec Step-down transformer
ondary an induced e.m.f. E, which is Primary coil Secondary coil
known as mutually induced e.m.f. This If the
e.m.f. is antiphase with V, and its magni has 30priloops
mary col
and
tude is proportional to the rate of change the secondary col
of flux and the nunmber of secondary turns. has 3, the voltag
is stepped down t0
The instantaneous values of applied times.
voltage, induced e.m.fs, flux and
magnetising current are shown by sinu Step-up transformer
soidal waves in Fig. 32.13 (b). Fig. 32.13
(c) shows the vectorial representation of the effective values of the above quantities.
32.6. E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer Cycle
Let N, = No. of turns in primary
N, = No. of turns in secondary m

=Maximum flux in core in webers

= B,, XA
f =Frequency of a.c. input in Hz
Asshown in Fig. 32.14, flux increases from its zero value to Time,
maximum value D,, in one quarter of the cycle i.e. in 1/4fsecond. T=/
Average rate of change of flux = Pm Fig. 32.14
1/4f
= 4fO,, Wb/s or volt
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts.
Average e.m.f/turn = 4f0, volt multiplyingtheanee
Ifflux varies sinusoidally,theni.M.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by
value with form factor.
r.m.s. value
Form factor = =1.11
average value
rm.s, value of e. m.f/urn = 1.11 x4f., =4.44f,, volt
Now, r.m.s,value of the inducede.m.f. in the whole of primary winding
= (induced e.m.f/turn)x No. of primary turns
E, = 4.44 fN, O,, = 4.44 fN B,A
 oolont Transformer 1123
Similarly, r.M.s. valuee of the e.m.f. inducedin secondary is,
E, = 4.44fN, ,, =4.44 fN, B,A .ü)
Itisseen
from (i) and() that B/N, =E/N,=4,44f, It means that e.m.f/turn is the same in both
primaryandisecondary windings.
the Inanideal transformer on no-load, V, = E and E, = V, where V, is the terminal voltage
Fig.32.15).

32.7 Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

From equations(7) and(), we get
=

E N,
This constant K is known as voltage transformation
ratio.
V E, E,
IfN,> N, i.e. K> 1, then transformer is calledstep-up
transformer.
(i) If N, <N, i.e. K< 1, then transformer is known as
step-down transformer.
Again, for an ideal transformer, input VA =output VA. Fig. 32.15
1
V, I, = V, 1, or 41 V K
Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.otansa
Example 32.1. The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000-volts, 50-Hz single-phase
Iransformer is 1.2 Wb/m. If thee.m.f per turn is 8 volt, determine
() primary and secondary turns (iü) area of the core.
(Electrical Engg.-I, Nagpur Univ. 1991)
Solution. (i) E = Nxe.m.f. induced/turn
N, = 250/8 = 32; N,= 3000/8 = 375
(ü) We may use E, = -4.44 fN, B, A 0.03m.
3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 375 × 1.2 xA; A =
transformer has a
Example 32.2. The core of a100-kVA, I1000/550 V, 50-Hz, l-ph, core type and (ü) the e.m.f.
oaS-section of 20cm x 20 cm. Find (i) the number of H. V. and L.V. turns per phase
Assume astacking factor of 0.9.
am y the maximum core density is not toexceed 1.3 Tesla.
by 10% on no-load ?
What will happen f its primary voltage is increased(Elect. Machines, A.M.I.E. Sec. B, 1991)
m
A=(0.2x0.2) x 0.9 =0.036
Solution. (i) l i aB = 1.3 T,
11,000 = 4.44 x 50× N, X 1.3x 0.036, N,
= 1 060
53
550 = 4.44 x 50 x N, x 1.3 x 0.036;N, =
53ed
N, =KN, = (550/11,000) x 1060 =
550/53 = 10,4 V
e.m.f/turn = 11,000/1060 = 10,4 V or
is increased by 10%, magnetising current will
Koeping supply
than 10%.constant,
Irequency
crease by much more However,if primary voltage flux density willincrease only marginally and
due to saturation,
owil the eddy current andIhysteresis losses.
400 primary and 1000 secondary turns, The
Example 32.3. area
et cross-Ssectional 60 cm. Ifthehasprimary
of thecore istransformer
Asingle-phase winding be connected to aS0-H supply
at 520 V. calculate ()the peak value of flux density in the core (ii) the voltage induced in the

secondary winding. (Elect. Engg-1, Pune Uniy. 1989)

 1124 Electrical Technology
Solution. K = N,N, = 1000/400 = 2.5
(i) E,/E, = K E, = KE,= 2.5 x520)=
(ii)airinb E, = 4.44 fN, B,A 1300 V
or 520 = 4.44 x 50 >x 400 x B, x(60 x10
:.
Example 32.4. A25-kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50
ary winding. The primary is connected to 3000-V, 50-Hz supply. Find the turns on the s
Wh B=0916
secondary currents, the secondary e.m.f. and the maximum flur in the core.
and no-load primary current. (Elect. & Electronic Neglect prinar
Engg.,
ful -load leakage
Solution. K = NJN, = 50/500 = 1/10 Madrast Unin.)
Now, full-load 1= 25,000/3000 =8.33 A. IFL.
e.m.f. per turn on primary side = 3000/500 =6V
I,=I,/K=10x8.33 =8331
secondary e.m.f. = 6x50 = 300 V (or E, = KE, =3000 x 1/10 =300
Also, E, = 4.44 fN, D,; 3000 =4.44 x50 x<500 x m.
Example 32.5. The core of athree phase, 50 Hz, 1l000/550 Vdeltalstar, 300 KVA,=2nN
transformer operates with aflux of 0.05Wb. Find
() number of H. V.and L. V.turns per phase. (ii) e.mf. per turn
(iüü) full load H. V.and L. Vphase-currents. (Bharathithasan Univ. April
Solution. Maximum value of flux has been given as 0.05 Wb.
(ii) e.m.f. per turn = 4.44 J m
= 4.44 X50 x 0.05= 11.1 volts
(i) Calculations for number of turns on two sides:
Voltage per phase on delta-connected primary winding = 11000 volts
Voltage per phaseon star-connected secondary winding= 550/1.732 =317.5 volts
T, = number of turns on primary, per phase
= voltage per phase/e.m.f. per turn
= 11000/11.1= 991
T, = number of turns on secondary, per phase
= voltage per phasele.m.f. per turn
= 317.5/11.1 =28.6
higherof
Note : to next
) Generally, Low-voltage-turns are calculated first, the figure is rounded off turns-ratio.
integer. In this case, it will be 30. Then, number of turns on primary side is calculated by
In this case,
T =T,(V/V,) = 30 x11000/3 17.5 =1040 an
clement
This, however, reduces the flux and results into less saturation. This, in fact,overcome
is
aspect in Design-calculations for transformers. (Explanation is added here only to
whether a fraction is acceptable as a number ofL.V. turns).
(iü) Full Joad H.V. and L.V. phase currents:
Output per phase = (300/3)= 100kVA
H.V. phase-current = 100 x 1000 9,1 Amp
1,000
L.V. phase-current = (100x
1000/317.5) = 315 Amp and1200
Example 32.6. Asingle phase transformer has 500 turns in the
secondary. The cross-sectional area of the core is 80 sq. cm. If the primary windingiscon
primary
a 50 Hz supply at 500 V, calculate (i) Peak flux-density, and (ii) Voltage inducedinthe 1 Novembey

(Bharathiar University
 Transformer 1125

Fromthe e.m.f.equationfor transformer,

Sation. 500= 4.44 x 50 x 0, X500
0,=/222 Wb
Pakfluxdensity, B, = /(80 x 10)=0.563 wb/m
iin secondary is obtained from transformation ratio or turns ratio
Voltageinduced
=
N,
N,
V, = 500 x 1200/500= 1200-volts
transformer has 250 turns on the primary and 40turns on
Euanple32.7. A25 kVA, single-phase connected to 1500- volt, 50 Hz mains. Calculate
secondary wiinding. The primary is
e
Primar andSSecondary currents on full-load, (ii) Secondary e.mf. (iü) mnaximum flux in the core.
(Bharathiar Univ. April1998)
Solution. () If V, =Secondary voltage rating, =secondary e.m.f.
40
1500 250 -g1ving V, =240 volts
) Primary curent = 2500O/1500 = 16.67 amp
Secondary current = 25000/240 = 104.2 amp
() Ifo_is the maximum core-flux in Wb,
1500 = 4.44 x 50 x . X 250, giving ., = 0.027 Wb or 27 mWb
Example 32.8. A single-phase, 50 Hz. core-type transformer has square cores of 20 cm side.
Pemissible maximum flux-density is 1Wb/m. Calculate the number of turns per Limb on the High
nd Low-voltage sides for a 3000/220 V ratio. (Manonmaniam Sundaranar Univ. April 1998)
Solution. E.M.F. equation gives the number of turns required on the two sides. We shall first
Calculate the L.V.-turns, round the figure off to the next higher even number, so that given maximum
ut density is not exceeded. With the corrected number of L.V. turns, calculate H.V.-turns by
tetsiormation ratio. Further, there are two Limbs. Each Limb accommodates half-L.V. and halfH.V.
nding from the view-point of reducing leakage reactance.
Starting with calculation for L.V. turns, T
4.44x 50× [(20× 20× 10)x 1]x T,=220
T, = 220/8.88 = 24.77
Select T, = 26
T/T, = V,/V,
T, = 26x 3000/220 =354, selecting the nearest even integer.
Numiber of H.V. turns on each Limb= 177
Number of L.V. turns on each Limb =13
328.
Transtormer with Losses but no Magnetic Leakage
will consider two cases (i) when such atransformer is on no load and )when it is loaded.
329.
Tr
In the ansformer on No-load
nd above discussion, we assumed an ideal transformer i.e. one in which there were no core losses
copper losses. But t practical conditions require that certain modifications be made in the toregoing