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HL IB Biology Your notes

Cell Respiration
Contents
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration: Skills
Oxidation & Reduction (HL)
Glycolysis (HL)
Anaerobic Respiration (HL)
The Link Reaction & The Krebs Cycle (HL)
Oxidative Phosphorylation (HL)
Respiratory Substrates (HL)

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Your notes
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Living organisms require energy to perform and maintain life processes such as movement, nutrition
and excretion
This energy is released by the process of cell respiration
Energy released during the reactions of respiration is transferred to the molecule adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
The energy is transferred in a series of small steps
Heat is lost at each step, which is used to regulate body temperature in endotherms
ATP is a small and soluble molecule that provides a short-term store of chemical energy that cells can
use to do work
Its solubility and size enables it to move easily in cells and living organisms by facilitated diffusion
It is vital in linking energy requiring and energy yielding reactions
ATP is described as a universal energy currency
Universal: It is used in all organisms
Currency: Like money, it can be used for different purposes (reactions) and is reused countless
times
The use of ATP as an ‘energy-currency’ is beneficial for many reasons:
The hydrolysis of ATP can be carried out quickly and easily wherever energy is required within the
cell by the action of just one enzyme, ATPase
A useful (not too small, not too large) quantity of energy is released from the hydrolysis of one ATP
molecule - this is beneficial as it reduces waste but also gives the cell control over what processes
occur
ATP is relatively stable at cellular pH levels

Structure of ATP
ATP is a phosphorylated nucleotide
It is made up of:
Ribose sugar
Adenine base
Three phosphate groups
ATP diagram

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Your notes

Structure of ATP contains ribose sugar, an adenine base and three phosphate groups
Features of ATP Table

Feature Benefit
This is enough energy to drive important
Releases a small but sufficient quantity of
metabolic reactions while keeping energy
energy
wastage low
It doesn't break down unless a catalyst
Exists as a stable molecule
(ATPase) is present so energy won't be wasted
The breakdown of ATP is a reversible reaction,
ATP can be reformed from ADP and Pi. This
Can be recycled
means the same molecule can be reused
elsewhere in the cell for different reactions

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Allows cells to respond to a sudden increase

Hydrolysis is quick and easy
in energy demand
Your notes
Can transport energy to different areas of the
Soluble and moves easily within cells
cell
This can make metabolites more reactive and
Forms phosphorylated intermediates lower the activation energy required for a
reaction

Examiner Tip
Be careful not to use the terms energy and ATP interchangeably. Energy is the capacity or power to do
work while ATP is a molecule which carries energy to places in the cell that need it in order to do work.

Life Processes Reliant On ATP

Some of the life processes that are reliant on ATP as a source of energy include:
In anabolic reactions to synthesise larger molecules (macromolecules) from smaller ones
To move molecules across the cell membrane against their concentration gradient during active
transport
Enabling movement of the entire cell
The move cell components, such as chromosomes, within the cell
ATP is readily converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate ion (Pi), during which
energy is released
Since ATP is a very reactive molecule, it is not stored in living organisms
Molecules such as glucose and fatty acids are used as short-term stores of energy, while glycogen,
starch and triglycerides act as long-term storage molecules of energy

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Interconversions Between ATP & ADP

ATP is a very reactive molecule and is readily converted to ADP and phosphate when releasing its Your notes
energy
ADP and phosphate can then be re-converted to ATP during respiration
Organisms require a constant supply of ATP because much of the energy is lost to the surroundings as
heat
ATP Cycle Diagram

The constant cycling of ATP and ADP + Pi within a cell

Hydrolysis of ATP
When ATP is hydrolysed (broken down), ADP and phosphate are produced
As ADP forms, free energy is released that can be used for processes within a cell e.g. DNA synthesis
Removal of one phosphate group from ATP releases approximately 30.5 kJ mol -1 of energy,
forming ADP
Removal of a second phosphate group from ADP also releases approximately 30.5 kJ mol-1 of
energy, forming AMP
Removal of the third and final phosphate group from AMP releases 14.2 kJ mol-1 of energy, forming
adenosine
Hydrolysis of ATP Diagram

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Your notes

The hydrolysis of ATP

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ATP synthesis
On average humans use more than 50 kg of ATP in a day but only have a maximum of ~ 200g of ATP in
Your notes
their body at any given time
Organisms cannot build up large stores of ATP and it rarely passes through the cell surface membrane
This means the cells must make ATP as and when they need it
ATP is formed when ADP is combined with an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group
This is an energy-requiring reaction
Water is released as a waste product (therefore ATP synthesis is a condensation reaction)
Synthesis of ATP Diagram

Energy-requiring synthesis of ATP from ADP and Phosphate

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Note that you are not required to know the exact quantity of energy in kilojoules that are involved with
the interconversions between ATP and ADP, but you should appreciate that it is sufficient for
performing tasks within the cell.

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Cell Respiration
Your notes
Cell Respiration
Cell respiration as a system for producing ATP
Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP
Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that happens in every cell
Its purpose is to release energy in usable forms from chemical energy stored in food e.g. glucose
Respiration is a catabolic process
Glucose is the main respiratory fuel used in cells
Lipids and proteins can also be used but they must undergo several changes before they can
enter the respiratory pathway
Glucose can enter glycolysis directly which makes it easier to oxidise than lipids and proteins
Since proteins are primarily structural molecules, they will only be used as a respiratory fuel in
conditions where glucose and lipids are not available
Organic food substances contain a lot of chemical energy
This energy cannot be released in one, uncontrolled step in cells, which would cause cell damage and
tissue death
Enzymes control the release of energy through a series of chemical reactions called a pathway
This ends in the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
To make ATP, a phosphate group is linked to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
This process requires energy which comes from the breakdown of organic molecules
The energy that is released is used for
Fuelling anabolic processes
Muscle contraction
Fuelling active transport
Moving molecules around the cell
Generating heat to maintain body temperature in warm-blooded animals

Examiner Tip
Respiration is often confused with gas exchange, but remember that respiration is a chemical
process while gas exchange involves the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen at the alveoli or cells

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Comparing Anaerobic & Aerobic Cell Respiration

Differences between anaerobic and aerobic respiration in humans Your notes
Respiration involves the transfer of chemical potential energy from nutrient molecules (such as
carbohydrates, fats and proteins) into a usable energy form (through the synthesis of ATP) that can be
used for work within an organism
It is a vital process that takes place in the cells of all living organisms
There are two forms of respiration depending on the oxygen availability of the cell:
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the process of breaking down a respiratory substrate in order to produce ATP
using oxygen
The substrate is completely oxidised, thereby releasing a large amount of energy
Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen and also breaks down a respiratory
substrate but produces less ATP for the cell
The main respiratory substrate involved in respiration is glucose

Aerobic respiration
Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose
The presence of oxygen allows glucose to be broken down fully into carbon dioxide and water
This yields far more energy (approx. 36 ATP molecules) than anaerobic respiration (2 ATP molecules) per
molecule of glucose
CO2 is a waste product and has to be excreted
Except in plants where it is used for photosynthesis
Water is a by-product and contributes to the organism's water needs
Some animals that live in deserts drink very little but survive on this water
Most of the reactions of aerobic respiration, in eukaryotes, take place in the mitochondria

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Aerobic respiration releases energy during the reaction between glucose and oxygen
Anaerobic respiration Your notes
In cells, there is a much lower energy yield from respiration in anaerobic conditions than in aerobic
conditions
The reactions of anaerobic respiration will occur in the cytoplasm of cells and does not involve the
mitochondria
There can be different ways in which oxygen becomes unavailable
When oxygen supply can't keep up with demand in heavily respiring cells
But a short supply of ATP is still required e.g. vigorous exercise requiring a lot of muscle
contraction
In conditions where oxygen cannot reach the organisms e.g. in waterlogged soil
In anaerobic respiration, glucose is only partially oxidised meaning only a small part of its chemical
energy is released and transferred to ATP
The only ATP-producing reaction that continues is the first stage of respiration (around 2 ATP
molecules per molecule of glucose)
As there is no oxygen, none of the remaining reactions (of aerobic respiration) can take place
This means that around 36 ATP molecules are not produced anaerobically that would otherwise
have been produced in the presence of oxygen
2 ATP molecules are better than zero ATP molecules, so anaerobic respiration can give a short
discharge of energy when oxygen runs out
Different types of organisms produce different products when respiring anaerobically
Plants and yeasts produce ethanol and CO2
Animals produce lactate

Anaerobic respiration in humans (and other animal cells) will partially oxidise glucose to form lactic acid
Comparison of Aerobic & Anaerobic Respiration in Humans Table

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Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Your notes

Oxidation of glucose Complete Incomplete

Oxygen required Yes No

Relative ATP yield High (∼36 molecules) Low (2 molecules)

Products CO2 and H2O Lactate

Cytoplasm and
Location of reactions Cytoplasm
mitochondria

Examiner Tip
You should be able to write simple word equations for both types of respiration, with glucose as the
substrate. Remember that ATP is produced during both aerobic and anaerobic respiration

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Cell Respiration: Skills

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The Rate of Cell Respiration
Variables affecting the rate of cell respiration
The rate of cell respiration may vary depending on the following:
How metabolically active the cell is
e.g. muscle cells will have a higher rate of cell respiration than adipose cells because of their
higher energy needs
Size of the organism
e.g. smaller organisms will have a higher surface area : volume ratio than larger organisms, so
they will have a higher rate of respiration to compensate for higher heat loss
The oxygen supply
When oxygen availability is low, cells will respire anaerobically
Supply of respiratory substrates
e.g. glucose availability is of particular importance, since it is the main respiratory substrate
The lower the supply of these substrates, the lower the rate of respiration will be
Temperature
The rate of respiration will increase up to the optimum temperature of the enzymes catalysing
the reactions, whereafter the rate will drop as the enzymes denature
pH
Carbon dioxide released during respiration will decrease the pH of cells and tissues, which
may also denature enzymes involved with respiration
Determining the rate of respiration
Respirometers are used to measure and investigate the rate of oxygen consumption during
respiration in organisms
The experiments usually require live organisms such as seeds or invertebrates
Use of animals should be minimised when seeds can provide excellent data
There are many different designs of respirometers, though they all have certain features in common
A sealed container containing live organisms and air
An alkaline solution (e.g. potassium hydroxide) to absorb CO2
A capillary tube connected to the container and set against a graduated scale (a manometer)
The organisms respire aerobically and absorb oxygen from the air
The CO2 they release is absorbed by the alkali
This reduces the air pressure inside the sealed chamber
The manometer fluid (shown in red below) moves towards the organisms because of the pressure
drop inside the chamber
The respirometer must be kept in very temperature-controlled conditions because slight fluctuations
in temperature can affect the air pressure
A thermostatically controlled water bath is the best way to maintain a constant temperature
Repeat readings should be carried out for each set of experimental conditions, in order to identify and
eliminate anomalies

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Repeat readings give a reliable mean

Analysis
Your notes
Respirometers can be used in experiments to investigate how different factors affect the rate of
respiration of organisms over time
E.g. temperature – using a series of water baths
Use of technology to measure rate of respiration
Technological devices can automate and make the measurement of respiration rate easier
Not to be confused with breathing rate
Oxygen sensors and CO2 monitors can measure oxygen and CO2 concentration in real-time
Without the need to expose the subject to hazards such as strong alkalis
Dataloggers can record data over a period of time for analysis later
Respirometer Diagram

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Your notes

The typical set-up of a respirometer

The equation for calculating a change in gas volume
The volume of oxygen consumed (mm3 min-1) during respiration can be worked out using the radius of
the lumen of the capillary tube r (mm) and the distance moved by the manometer fluid h (mm) in a
minute using the formula:
πr 2 h

The volume of oxygen consumed can then be used to determine the average rate of respiration per unit
time

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Worked example
Your notes
A respirometer was set up with germinating mung beans in the experimental tube. After a period of
equilibration, the liquid in the capillary was measured to move by 2.3 cm in 25 minutes. The capillary
tube had an internal diameter of 0.30 mm. Calculate the average rate of respiration of the mung
beans, measured as the rate oxygen uptake, in mm3 min-1Use the value of pi (π) = 3.141.
Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the cross-sectional area of the capillary tube
Diameter = 0.30mm, so radius = 0.30 ÷ 2 = 0.15 mm
Cross sectional area = πr2 = 3.141 ✕ 0.152 = 0.0707 mm2
Step 2: Calculate the volume of oxygen that had been taken up
The liquid moved 2.3 cm, which is 23mm
Volume of liquid moved in 25 minutes =
πr2h , where h = 23 mm

= 0.0707 ✕ 23 = 1.625 mm3

Step 3: Calculate the average rate of oxygen consumption per minute
Rate per minute = 1.625 ÷ 25
= 0.065 mm3 min-1

Examiner Tip
There are several ways you can manage variables and increase the reliability of results in respirometer
experiments:
Use a controlled water bath to keep the temperature constant
Have a control tube with an equal volume of inert material to the volume of the organisms to
compensate for changes in atmospheric pressure
Repeat the experiment multiple times for reliability and calculate a mean

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Oxidation & Reduction (HL)

Your notes
Oxidation & Reduction in Cell Respiration
Oxidation and reduction are commonly known as redox reactions
These reactions occur at the same time and involve the transfer of electrons between molecules
Oxidation is the loss of electrons
Reduction is the gain of electrons
Redox reactions also involve hydrogen, oxygen and energy transfer
Oxidation is also the loss of hydrogen, gain of oxygen and releases energy to the surroundings
(exergonic)
Reduction is also the gain of hydrogen, loss of oxygen and absorbs energy from the surroundings
(endergonic)
Molecules that have a strong tendency to lose/donate their electrons, are known as reducing agents
Molecules that that have a strong tendency to gain electrons, are known as oxidising agents
Oxidation and reduction reactions feature in cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Comparison of Oxidation and Reduction Table

Oxidation Reduction

Loss of electrons Gain of electrons

Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen

Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen

Exergonic (releases energy) Endergonic (absorbs energy)

Oxidation and reduction in cell respiration

Respiration involves a group of molecules called electron carriers which accept or donate their
electrons
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is the primary electron carrier involved in respiration
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is another electron carrier used in respiration
NAD and FAD are both coenzymes which serve as links between redox reactions
Both NAD and FAD serve as oxidising agents:

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NAD+ and FAD gain electrons and also gain one or more hydrogen ions (from molecules involved in
respiration), switching to a slightly different form called reduced NAD (NADH) and reduced FAD
(FADH2) Your notes
NAD+ + 2e- + 2H+ --> NADH + H+
FAD + 2e- + 2H+ --> FADH2
These electron carriers are used to transport the electrons they have gained to other reactions in
respiration
When they lose these electrons they return to their original form releasing their electrons in the process
NADH --> NAD+ + 2e- + 2H+
FADH2 --> FAD + 2e- + 2H+
This is an example of a redox reaction

Examiner Tip
To help you remember which way around loss and gain of electrons is from redox reactions, think
OILRIG:
Oxidation Is Loss
Reduction Is Gain
NAD is a collective term for the different forms NAD takes; NAD exists in an oxidised and a reduced
form:
NAD+ is the oxidised form and acts as an oxidising agent
NADH is the reduced form and acts a reducing agent

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Glycolysis (HL)
Your notes
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first stage of respiration
It takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell and involves:
Trapping glucose in the cell by phosphorylating the molecule
Splitting the glucose molecule in two
It results in the production of
Two pyruvate (3 carbon/3C) molecules
Net gain two ATP (Four ATP are produced in total but two are used during the reactions of
glycolysis)
Two reduced NAD
Steps of glycolysis
Phosphorylation: glucose (6C) is activated by phosphorylation from two ATP to form fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate (6C)
This makes the 6C molecule less stable and therefore more reactive
Glucose + 2ATP → Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Lysis
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (6C) splits into two molecules of triose phosphate (3C)
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate → 2 Triose phosphate
Oxidation:
Hydrogen is removed from each molecule of triose phosphate by dehydrogenase enzyme and
transferred to coenzyme NAD to form two reduced NAD
Triose phosphate is oxidised to for another 3C molecule glycerate-3-phosphate
2 Triose phosphate →2 Glycerate-3-phosphate
4H + 2NAD → 2NADH + 2H+
ATP formation
Phosphates are transferred from the intermediate substrate molecules to form four ATP through
substrate-linked phosphorylation
4Pi + 4ADP → 4ATP
Two molecules of pyruvate are produced as the end product of glycolysis which can be used in the
next stage of respiration
Each step in the pathway is catalysed by a different enzyme

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Your notes

Glycolysis, the formation of two pyruvate molecules from one glucose sugar molecule

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
It may seem strange that ATP is used and also produced during glycolysis. At the start ATP is used to
make glucose more reactive (it is usually very stable) and to lower the activation energy of the
reaction.

You may see 4H (four hydrogens) also written as 2H+ + 2e-

You do not need to know the intermediate compounds of glycolysis but do take note that each step in
the pathway is catalysed by a different enzyme.

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Anaerobic Respiration (HL)

Your notes
Anaerobic Cell Respiration: Lactate Production
Anaerobic pathways
Sometimes cells experience conditions with little or no oxygen, which prevents respiratory substrates
such as glucose from being completely oxidised
This prevents most of the reactions that produce ATP from occurring
However, there is still a way for cells to produce some ATP in low oxygen conditions through
anaerobic respiration
Some cells are able to oxidise the reduced NAD produced during glycolysis so it can be used for
further hydrogen transport
This means that glycolysis can continue and small amounts of ATP are still produced
There is a net yield of about two ATP molecules per glucose molecule
Different cells use different pathways to achieve this
Yeast and microorganisms convert pyruvate to ethanol
Other microorganisms and mammalian muscle cells convert pyruvate to lactate

Converting pyruvate to lactate

In this pathway reduced NAD transfers its hydrogens to pyruvate to form lactate
This allows NAD to be reoxidised in the absence of oxygen and pyruvate formation can continue
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by enzyme lactate dehydrogenase
Pyruvate is the hydrogen acceptor
The final product lactate can be further metabolised
Lactate Fermentation Diagram

The pathway of lactate fermentation

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Metabolisation of lactate
After lactate is produced two things can happen: Your notes
1. It can be oxidised back to pyruvate which is then channelled into the Krebs cycle for ATP
production
2. It can be converted into glycogen for storage in the liver
The oxidation of lactate back to pyruvate needs extra oxygen
This extra oxygen is referred to as an oxygen debt
It explains why animals breathe deeper and faster after exercise

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Anaerobic Cell Respiration: Yeast

Alcoholic fermentation occurring in yeast cells have been useful to humans for thousands of years Your notes
Carbon dioxide causes bread dough to rise in bread making
Ethanol is the main ingredient in alcoholic beverages, such as beer and wine
Bakers can make use of anaerobic cell respiration in yeasts to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in
baking
Yeasts are single-celled fungi that live in areas where sugars are present e.g. on fruit or on leaves
They can respire aerobically or anaerobically
Flour contains starch, and when mixed with water and yeast can form a bread dough
The dough is kneaded to mix everything together
The dough is then left in a warm place to encourage the yeast to respire
Yeast cells grow rapidly in number while oxygen is still present in the dough
The yeast hydrolyses the starch into maltose and glucose and respires the sugars, aerobically at
first
The dough soon becomes anaerobic (all the oxygen within it is used up aerobically by the yeast)
Anaerobic respiration takes over and CO2 bubbles begin to form in the dough
These bubbles allow the dough to rise (swell up)
Baking the dough kills the yeast and the bubbles form the fluffy texture of the finished bread
Ethanol, the other product of anaerobic respiration of yeast, is produced but evaporates during the
final baking stage
Role of Yeast in Bread Making Diagram

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Your notes

The role of anaerobic respiration of yeast in bread making to cause bread dough to rise
In the alcoholic fermentation pathway reduced NAD transfers its hydrogens to ethanal to form ethanol
In the first step of the pathway pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal producing CO2
Then ethanal is reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase
Ethanal is the hydrogen acceptor
Ethanol cannot be further metabolised; it is a waste product
Alcohol Fermentation Diagram

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Your notes

The pathway of alcoholic fermentation

Examiner Tip
Remember that carbon dioxide is also produced as a product of alcoholic fermentation, which is not
the case when pyruvate is converted to lactate in animal cells.
It is easy to confuse the words ethanal and ethanol so be clear in your mind which one you are referring
to in exam answers.

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The Link Reaction & The Krebs Cycle (HL)

Your notes
The Link Reaction
Entering the link reaction
The end product of glycolysis is pyruvate (3C)
Pyruvate contains a substantial amount of chemical energy that can be further utilised in respiration to
produce more ATP
When oxygen is available pyruvate will enter the mitochondrial matrix and aerobic respiration will
continue
Once in the matrix pyruvate takes part in the link reaction

The link reaction

The link reaction takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
It is referred to as the link reaction because it links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle
The steps are:
Oxidative decarboxylation reaction in which:
Carbon dioxide is removed to produce a 2C molecule
This 2C molecule is then oxidised (loss of hydrogen and 2 high energy electrons) to produce
an acetyl compound and thereby reducing NAD to NADH
Combination of the acetyl compound with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
It produces:
Acetyl CoA
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Reduced NAD (NADH)
pyruvate + NAD + CoA → acetyl CoA + carbon dioxide + reduced NAD
Acetyl coenzyme A is supplied to the Krebs cycle where aerobic respiration continues
Link Reaction Diagram

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Your notes

The link reaction occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. It dehydrogenates and decarboxylates the three-
carbon pyruvate to produce the two-carbon acetyl CoA that can enter the Krebs Cycle.

Examiner Tip
Remember that there are two pyruvate molecules produced per glucose molecule so you need to
multiply everything by 2 when thinking about what happens to a single glucose molecule in aerobic
respiration.

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The Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle (sometimes called the citric acid cycle) consists of a series of enzyme-controlled Your notes
reactions
The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
Two carbon (2C) Acetyl CoA enters the circular pathway from the link reaction
A four carbon compound (4C) called oxaloacetate accepts the 2C acetyl fragment from acetyl CoA to
form a six carbon compound (6C) called citrate
Coenzyme A is released in this reaction to be reused in the link reaction
Citrate (6C) is then converted back to oxaloacetate (4C) through a series of oxidation-reduction
(redox) reactions
The Krebs Cycle Diagram

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The Krebs Cycle uses acetyl CoA from the link reaction to produce reduced carbon dioxide, reduced
NAD, reduced FAD and ATP
Your notes
The reactions involved in the Krebs cycle
Oxaloacetate (4C) is regenerated in the Krebs cycle through a series of redox reactions
Decarboxylation of citrate (6C)
Releasing two CO2 as waste gas
Oxidation (dehydrogenation) of citrate (6C) releases hydrogen atoms
Reduction of coenzymes NAD and FAD (by the released H atoms)
3 NAD+ and 1 FAD → 3NADH + H+ and 1 FADH2
Substrate-level phosphorylation
A phosphate is transferred from one of the intermediates to ADP, forming one ATP
As the link reaction produces two molecules of acetyl CoA (one per each pyruvate), the Krebs cycle
occurs twice
Per glucose molecule, the Krebs cycle produces:
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH + H+ (reduced NAD)
2 FADH2 (reduced FAD)

Examiner Tip
The Krebs cycle is often referred to as cyclical or circular. This is because the 4C oxaloacetate is
regenerated throughout the reaction so that it can start all over again by adding another acetyl CoA.
You are required to name only the intermediates citrate (6C) and oxaloacetate (4C) in the Krebs cycle.

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Oxidative Phosphorylation (HL)

Your notes
Electron Transport Chain: Flow of Electrons
Protons and electrons are important in the electron transport chain as they play a role in the synthesis
of ATP
Electrons are given to the electron transport chain (from reduced NAD and reduced FAD)
Protons (from reduced NAD and reduced FAD) are released when the electrons are lost
The carrier proteins pump these protons across the cristae into the intermembrane space,
creating a proton gradient (more hydrogen ions in the matrix)
Returning the protons down the gradient, back into the mitochondrial matrix, releases the energy
required for ATP synthesis

Transfer of Energy to the Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is made up of a series of redox reactions that occur via membrane
proteins (also known as electron carriers) embedded into the inner mitochondrial membrane
The chain is used to transport electrons and move protons (hydrogen ions) across the membrane
Electron carriers are positioned close together which allows the electrons to pass from carrier to
carrier
The cristae of the mitochondria are impermeable to protons so the electron carriers are needed to
pump them across the membrane to establish a proton (or electrochemical) concentration
gradient that can be used to power oxidative phosphorylation
Energy is transferred when a pair of electrons is passed to the first carrier in the chain
This converts reduced NAD back to NAD
The reduced NAD comes from glycolysis, the link reaction and the Krebs cycle
+
H (protons) are created when electrons are removed from hydrogen atoms
These protons play a role in generating ATP in the electron transport chain
As electrons, that are received from reduced NAD (and FAD), are transported along the electron
carriers, energy is released in a controlled manner
This energy is used to form ATP by adding Pi to ADP
3 ATP molecules are produced for every molecule of reduced NAD
This contributes to the total yield of 32 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose oxidised during
aerobic respiration
Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in the chain and forms water

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Chemiosmosis in Cell Respiration

Movement of electrons through the electron transport chain causes a proton or electrochemical Your notes
gradient
Positively charged protons accumulate in the intermembrane space
The movement of protons back into the matrix is then used to power ATP synthesis
Protons that have built up in the intermembrane space can only pass through the phospholipid bilayer
by facilitated diffusion through a membrane-embedded protein called ATP synthase
ATP synthase acts a lot like a water wheel; it is turned by the flow of the protons moving through it,
down their electrochemical gradient.
As ATP synthase turns, it catalyses phosphorylation of ADP, generating ATP
This process, in which energy from a proton gradient is used to make ATP, is called chemiosmosis.
Chemiosmosis Diagram

Oxidative Phosphorylation, involving the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, generates a large
amount of ATP

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Oxygen as the Final Electron Acceptor

The final link in the electron transport chain is oxygen and is referred to as the final or terminal electron Your notes
acceptor
This is the last acceptor of the electrons and allows for the continued flow of electrons along the
chain
Oxygen is reduced by the electrons, and when combined with protons from the mitochondrial
matrix, it forms water
If oxygen is not present to accept electrons:
Reduced NAD and reduced FAD will not be oxidised to regenerate NAD+ and FAD, so there will be
no further hydrogen transport
The electron transport chain will stop, and ATP will no longer be produced by chemiosmosis
Without enough ATP, cells can’t carry out the reactions they need to function
The electron transport chain is hugely efficient at generating energy in the cell but relies on an
abundance of oxygen

Oxygen is the final electron acceptor and combines with protons to form metabolic water

Examiner Tip
Examiners often ask why oxygen is so important for aerobic respiration, so remember the following:
Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor.
Without oxygen, the electron transport chain cannot continue as the electrons have nowhere to
go.
Without oxygen accepting the electrons (and hydrogens) the reduced coenzymes NADH and
FADH2 cannot be oxidised to regenerate NAD and FAD, so they can’t be used in further hydrogen
transport.

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Respiratory Substrates (HL)

Your notes
Respiratory Substrates: Lipids & Carbohydrates
Lipids are an excellent source of energy
When oxidised during respiration, they transfer more than twice the amount of energy per gram
as carbohydrates
This is because lipids have less oxygen atoms per molecule than carbohydrates, which makes the
hydrogen and carbon atoms in lipid molecules more oxidisable
Lipids are also very good at their role as an energy storage molecule
This is mainly due to the fact that they are insoluble and will not cause a decrease in the water
potential of a cell
A decrease in the water potential will cause water from nearby cells to move into the cell by
osmosis
Fat stores will allow animals to survive unfavourable conditions, while plants may store oil reserves
in seeds and fruits
Lipids can also be used as a source of metabolic water for desert animals
This is because oxidation of lipids will produce much more water than the same amount of
carbohydrates
Glycolysis and anaerobic respiration can only occur if carbohydrate is the substrate
In order to enter respiratory pathways, lipids must first be broken down into fatty acids
The fatty acids are then further broken down into 2C acetyl groups
These can then combine with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A which can enter the
Krebs cycle
Comparing Lipids and Carbohydrates Table

Function Lipids Carbohydrates

Higher energy content per
Energy storage Lower energy content per gram
gram

Oxidation produces higher Oxidation produces lower

Source of metabolic water
volume of metabolic water volume of metabolic water
Insoluble thereby not
Soluble thereby affecting the
Solubility in cells affecting the osmotic
osmotic properties of cells
properties of cells
Hydrolysed less easily so
Hydrolysed more easily with
Ability to be broken down energy is transferred more
energy transferred more quickly
slowly

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