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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

BE- Electronics & Communication

Course/Programme :
Engineering

Regulation : 2021
CEC345 – Optical Communication
Sub. Code & Name :
& Networks
Year/Sem : III Year/V Sem

Content Name : 2 Marks & QB

Unit- III Optical Sources and Detectors

Prepared By,

Mr. KRISHNA KUMAR M, AP/ECE

CEC345_OCN

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2 Marks
4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi Questions and Answers
UNIT - III - SOURCES AND DETECTORS

1. What is meant by hetero junction? What are its advantages?

In hetero junction, two different alloy layers are on each side of the active region.
Because of the sandwich structure of differently composed alloy layers, both the carriers and
optical field are confined in the central active layer. The band gap differences of adjacent layers
confine the charge carriers, while the differences in the indices of refraction of adjoining layers
confine the optical field to the central active layer.
This dual confinement leads to both high efficiency and high radiance.

2. What is meant by indirect band gap semiconductor material?

For indirect band gap materials, the conduction-band minimum & the valence band
maximum energy levels occur at different values of momentum. Here, band-to- band
recombination must involve a third particle to conserve momentum, since the photon momentum
is very small. Phonons serve this purpose.

3. Define direct band gap materials and indirect band gap materials.
In direct band gap materials direct transition is possible from valence band to conduction
band. Eg. GaAs, InP, InGaAs.
In indirect band gap materials direct transition is not possible from valence band to
Conduction band. Eg. Silicon, Germanium.

4. Why silicon is not used to fabricate LED or Laser diode?

Only in direct band gap semiconductor material the radiative recombination is sufficiently
high to produce an adequate level light. Silicon is an indirect band gap material. Hence silicon is
not used to fabricate LED or Laser diode.

5. What are the two types of confinement used in LEDs?

1. Optical confinement. 2. Carrier confinement.

6. Why is carrier confinement used in LED?

Carrier confinement is used to achieve a high level of radiative recombination in the active
region of the device, which yields high quantum efficiency.

7. Why is optical confinement important in LED?

Optical confinement is used to prevent absorption of the emitted radiation by the material
surrounding the pn junction.

8. What is radiance or brightness?

Radiance is a measure in watts of the optical power radiated into a unit solid angle per unit
area of the emitting surface.

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9. What are the two types of LED configurations?
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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

1. Surface emitter LEDs
2. Edge emitter LEDs
10. What are the advantages of LED?
1. Simpler fabrication
2. Less costly
3. More reliability
4. Less temperature dependence
5. Simpler drive circuitry
11. Compare and contrast between surface and edge emitting LEDs.

Sl.No Surface emitter LEDs Edge emitter LEDs

The plane of the active light emitting The active region has two guiding layers
1
region is perpendicular to the fiber axis which form a wave guide channel.
2 The emission pattern is less directional The emission pattern is more directional
3 Radiates more power into high NA fibers Radiates more power into low NA fibers
4 Less modulation bandwidth More modulation bandwidth
12. What is Lambertian pattern?
In surface emitter LED, the emission pattern is essentially isotropic with a 120° half-power
beam width. This isotropic pattern is called a Lambertian pattern. In this pattern the source is
equally bright when viewed from any direction, but the power diminishes as cos θ, where θ is the
angle between the viewing direction and the normal to the surface.
13. What are the characteristics needed for an LED to be used in fiber transmission?
1. High radiance output
2. Fast emission response time
3. High quantum efficiency
14. Define modulation bandwidth of an LED?
Modulation bandwidth of an LED is electrically defined as the point where the electrical
signal power has dropped to half its constant value resulting from the modulated portion of the
electrical signal.
15. Name the factors to determine frequency response of an LED.
1. Doping level in the active region
2. The injected carrier lifetime in the recombination region
3. Parasitic capacitance of the LED
16. What is active or recombination region?
When pn junction of the diode is forward biased, electrons and holes are injected into the p
and n regions, respectively. These minority carriers can recombine either radiatively (a photon is
emitted) or non-radiatively (recombination energy is dissipated in the form of heat). This pn
junction is known as the active or recombination region.

17. What are the three requirements of Laser action?

1. Absorption 2. Spontaneous emission 3. Stimulated emission.

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4931_Grace Define of
18. College lasing.
Engineering, Thoothukudi
Lasing is the condition at which light amplification becomes possible in the laser diode.
The condition for lasing is that a population inversion is achieved.

19. What is spontaneous emission?

If a photon of energy hv12 impinges on the system, an electron in the ground state can
absorb the photon energy and go to the higher energy state. Since this is an unstable state, the
electron will shortly return to the ground state, thereby emitting a photon of energy hv 12. This
occurs without any external stimulation and is called spontaneous emission.

20. What is stimulated emission?

If a photon of energy hv12 impinges on the system while the electron is still in its excited
state, the electron is immediately stimulated to drop to the ground state and give off a photon of
energy hv12. This emitted photon is in phase with the incident photon and the resultant emission is
known as stimulated emission.

21. What is meant by ‘population inversion’?

In thermal equilibrium, the density of excited electrons is very small. Most photons
incident on the system will therefore be absorbed, so that stimulated emission is essentially
negligible. Stimulated emission will exceed absorption only if the population of the excited state is
greater than that of the ground state. This condition is known as population inversion.

22. Define modulation.

The process of imposing information on a light stream is called modulation. This can
be achieved by varying the laser drive current.

23. Define external quantum efficiency.

The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of the photons emitted from the
LED to the number of internally generated photons.

24. List the various modes of laser diode.

1. Longitudinal modes 2. Lateral modes 3. Transverse modes

25. Define lateral modes.

These modes lie in the plane of the pn junction. They depend on the sidewall preparation
and the width of the cavity. It determines the shape of the lateral profile of the laser beam.

26. Define longitudinal modes.

Longitudinal modes are associated with the length of the cavity and determine the
typical spectrum of the emitted radiation.

27. Define transverse modes.

Transverse modes are associated with the electromagnetic field and beam profile in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of the pn junction. They determine the laser characteristics as
the radiation pattern and the threshold current density.
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4931_Grace Define of
28. College coupling efficiency.
Engineering, Thoothukudi
It is defined as a measure of the amount of optical power emitted from source that can be
coupled into a fiber. Coupling efficiency, η = PF / PS
where PF - Power coupled into fiber and PS - Power emitted from light source.

29. Define internal quantum efficiency. (Nov 14)

The internal quantum efficiency is the fraction of the electron-hole pairs that recombine
radiatively. If the radiative recombination rate is Rr and the non-radiative recombination rate is
Rnr, then the internal quantum efficiency is the ratio of the radiative recombination rate to the total
recombination rate. ηint= Rr /(Rr+Rnr)

30. What is an intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor material?

Intrinsic semiconductors have no impurities.
Extrinsic semiconductors contain impurities like boron and phosphorus.

31. What is mass action law?

The product of two types of carriers remains constant at a given temperature.
pn = ni2
Where p - concentration of holes.
n -concentration of electrons.
ni- intrinsic concentration.

32. What is flylead or pigtail?

Flylead or pigtail is nothing but a short length of optical fiber (1m or less) already attached
to the sources by the suppliers in an optimum power coupling configuration. The flylead reduces
many power launching problems and make the coupling easier because it is just a coupling from
one fiber to the other.

33. Differentiate LEDs and Laser diodes. (Nov 2014)

S.No. LED Laser diode

1 The output obtained is incoherent The output obtained is coherent

2 Less expensive and less complex More expensive and more complex.

3 Long lifetime Short lifetime.

4 Output power less Output power more
5 Less temperature dependant More temperature dependant

34. Give different types of photo detectors.

• Photomultipliers
• Pyroelectric detectors
CEC345_OCN
• Semiconductor- based photoconductors, Phototransistors, Photodiodes

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4931_Grace What are

35. College the requirements
of Engineering, of a photodetector? (Nov 2014)
Thoothukudi
1. High response or sensitivity in the emission wavelength of the source
2. A minimum addition of noise to the system
3. A fast response speed
4. Sufficient bandwidth for desired data rate
5. Insensitive to temperature variations
6. Compatible with the fiber
7. Reasonable cost
8. A long operating life

36. What are the types of photodiodes?

• pin photodetector • Avalanche photodiode (APD)

37. What are the advantages of photodiodes?

1. Small size 2. Suitable material
3. High sensitivity 4. Fast response time

38. What is the significance of intrinsic layer in PIN diodes?

For longer wavelength operations where the light penetrates more deeply into the
semiconductor material a wider depletion layer is necessary. To achieve this, the intrinsic
material is added between the P and N type regions.

39. Define photocarriers.

When an incident photon has energy greater than or equal to the band gap energy of the
semiconductor material, the photon can give up its energy and excite an electro from the valence
band to the conduction band. This process generates mobile electron-hole pairs. These electrons
and holes are called photocarriers.

40. Define photocurrent.

The high electric field present in the depletion region causes the carriersto separate and be
collected across the reverse-biased junction. This gives rise to a current flow in an external circuit,
with one electron flowing for every carrierpair generated. This current flow is known as
photocurrent.

41. Define responsivity.

The responsivity characterizes the performance of a photodiode. This parameter is very
useful, since it specifies the photocurrent generated per unit optical power. The responsivity is
related to the quantum efficiency by
R=IP/Pin = (ηq / hv)

For Avalanche photodiode, the responsivity is given by

RAPD= (ηq / hv)M = Ro M
Where Ro is the unity gain responsivity.
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4931_Grace Define oflong

42. College wavelength
Engineering, cut off related to photodiode.
Thoothukudi
The upper wavelength cutoff (λc) is determined by the band gap energy Eg of the material.
If Eg is expressed in units of electron volts (eV), then λc is given in units of micrometers (μm) by
λc(μm) = hc/ Eg= 1.24 /Eg(eV)

43. Define quantum efficiency of a detector.

It is defined as the ratio of number of electron – hole pairs generated to the number of
incident photons. η = No.of electron-hole pairs generated /No. of incident photons

44. Define impact ionization.

In order for carrier multiplication to take place, the photo generated carriers must traverse a
region where a very high electric field is present. In this high-field region, a photo generated
electron or hole can gain enough energy to ionize bound electrons in the valence band upon
colliding with them. This carrier multiplication mechanism is known as impact ionization.

45. Define avalanche effect.

In the high electric field region, a photo generated electron or hole can gain enough energy
to ionize bound electrons in the valence band upon colliding with them. Due to this carrier
multiplication mechanism known as impact ionization, new carriers are generated. The newly
created carriers are also accelerated by the high electric field, thus gaining enough energy to cause
further impact ionization. This phenomenon is called avalanche effect.

46. What is p+ π p n+ reach- through structure?

The reach –through avalanche photodiode (RAPD) is composed of a high resistivity p-type
material deposited as an epitaxial layer on a p+ substrate. P-type diffusion is then made in the high
resistivity material, followed by the construction of an n+ layer. The configuration is called p+ π p
n+ reach- through structure.

47. Define ionization rate.

The average number of electron hole pairs created by a carrier per unit distance travelled is
called ionization rate.

48. What are the conditions for a high signal- to- noise ratio in a Photodetector?
• The photodetector must have high quantum efficiency to generate a large signal power
• The photodetector and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible.

49. Define sensitivity or minimum detectable optical power of a photodetector.

The sensitivity of a photodetector in an optical fiber communication system is described in
terms of the minimum detectable optical power. This is the optical power necessary to produce a
photocurrent of the same magnitude as the root mean square (rms) of the total noise current or a
signal-to-noise ratio of 1.

50. Give the advantages of pin photodiodes.

• Very low reverse bias is necessary • High quantum efficiency
CEC345_OCN • Large bandwidth • Low noise level
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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

51. Define multiplication M.

The multiplication M for all carriers generated in the photodiode is defined by

M= IM/IP
IM→ average value of the total multiplied output current
IP→ primary unmultiplied photocurrent

52. Define response time and list the factors that influence the response
time of a photo diode.
Detector response time is defined as the time taken for the photodetector to
respond to an optical input pulse. This response time depends on three factors
1. The transit time of the photo carriers in the depletion region
2. The diffusion time of the photo carriers generated outside the depletion
region
3. The RC time constant of the photodiode and its associated circuit

53. What are the drawbacks of Avalanche photo diode? (Nov 14)
a) fabrication difficulties due to more complex structure
b) increased cost
c) the random nature of the gain mechanism
d) high bias voltage requirement
e) the variation of gain with temperature

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4931_Grace College of Engineering, Thoothukudi

UNIT III

PART- B

1. Draw the structure of edge emitting and surface emitting LEDs. Explain (
April 05,Nov 05,Dec 06)
2. Discuss the LASER diode structures and radiation patterns ( April 2005 )
3. With neat diagram explain the construction and working of high radiance
surface emitting LED. ( June
2007)
4. Discuss about Modulation of Laser diodes. Why thermo electric cooler are used
in Laser diodes ? (June 2007
)
5. Draw the two basic LED configurations and discuss the principle.(Nov
04,June 06,April 09)
6. a. Discuss the principle of optical feedback and LASER oscillation.
b. Derive the threshold condition for LASER oscillations ( Nov 2004 )
7. a. What is meant by heterojunction ? Give example.
b. Derive the internal quantum efficiency of a LED ( Apr 2006 )
8. Discuss the LASER diode principle, modes and threshold conditions. ( Jun 2007 )
9. a. Derive the threshold condition for lasing.
b. Explain in detail the fabry perot resonator cavity Laser diode.
10. a. Explain the various lensing schemes. (Nov 2004,Dec 05,07,April 09)
b. Explain the various splicing techniques.
11. Compare LED with Laser Diode (Nov 2010,2011)
12. Discuss about modulation of LED & Quantum LASER (Nov 2010)
13. With neat diagram explain the working of surface emitting LED (Nov 2011may 2012)
14. Explain the structure of silicon ADP
15. Define SNR of photodetector.what condition should be met achieve a high SNR
(Nov 2011)
16. Explain any two injection laser structure with neat diagram (May 2012)
17. Draw and explain the structure of Fabry-Perot resonator cavity for a laser diode.
Derive laser diode rate equations. (16 marks) (Nov
2012)
18. Draw the structure and electric fields in the APD and explain its working (Nov
2012)
19. What are the three factors that decides the response time of photodiodes? Explain
them in detail with necessary sketches (Nov
2012)
20.(i) Explain the working of n hetero structure LED. (Nov2013)
(ii) Define internal quantum efficiency of a LED. Deduce the expression for the
same. 21.(i) What do you understand by optical eave confinement and current
confinement in
LASER diode? Explain with suitable structures.
(ii) Briefly explain the different noise sources of a photo detector. (Nov 2013)
22. With diagram, explain surface and edge emitters of LED structures (May 2014)
23. Draw and compare the construction and characteristics of PIN and Avalanche
photo diode.

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 Click on Subject/Paper under Semester to enter.
Random Process and Electromagnetic
Professional English Linear Algebra -
Professional English - - II - HS3252 Fields - EC3452
MA3355
I - HS3152
C Programming and Networks and
Statistics and
Data Structures - Security - EC3401
Matrices and Calculus Numerical Methods -
CS3353
- MA3151 MA3251
1st Semester

3rd Semester

Linear Integrated

4th Semester
2nd Semester

Signals and Systems - Circuits - EC3451

Engineering Physics - Engineering Graphics
- GE3251 EC3354
PH3151 Digital Signal
Processing - EC3492
Physics for Electronic Devices and
Engineering Chemistry Electronics Engg - Circuits - EC3353
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Systems - EC3491
Control Systems -
Basic Electrical & EC3351
Problem Solving and Instru Engg - BE3254 Environmental
Python Programming - Sciences and
GE3151 Digital Systems Design Sustainability -
Circuit Analysis - - EC3352 GE3451
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Wireless
Communication -
EC3501 Embedded Systems
and IOT Design -
ET3491
VLSI and Chip Design
5th Semester

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7th Semester

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Basic Electrical and Electrical Engineering and Principles of Digital
Instrumentation Engineering Instrumentation Signal Processing
Electronic Devices Linear Integrated Circuits Signals and Systems
Electronic Circuits I Electronic Circuits II Digital Communication
Transmission Lines and Wave Control System Engineering Microprocessors and
Guides Microcontrollers
Computer Architecture Computer Networks Operating Systems
RF and Microwave Engineering Medical Electronics VLSI Design
Optical Communication and Embedded and Real Time Cryptography and
Networks Systems Network Security
Probability and Random Transforms and Partial Physics for Electronics
Processes Differential Equations Engineering
Engineering Physics Engineering Chemistry Engineering Graphics
Problem Solving and Python Object Oriented Programming Environmental Science
Programming and Data Structures and Engineering
Principles of Management Technical English Total Quality
Management
Professional Ethics in Engineering Mathematics I Engineering Mathematics
Engineering II