CHAPTER 4

BASICS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

4.1 Introduction
• In discussing about hydrostatics we were concerned with forces (pressure
forces) which are acting on an object for a liquid at rest and when we deal with
kinematics of fluid flow phenomena related with space time variation (velocity
and acceleration) with out considering the effect of force.
• However, in dealing with dynamics of fluid flow, all forces that affect the
phenomenon are considered.
• The dynamics of fluid motion deals with kinetics, which relates the kinematics
with the forces responsible for causing the motion.
 CONT.

by the use of laws of nature.

i) The principle of conservation of mass (the continuity relation ship)
ii) Newton’s laws of motion
iii) The 1st and second laws of thermodynamics
 Contd.
Gravity forces (Fg.) is due to the weight of the fluid. Its component in flow direction
results in acceleration.
Pressure force (Fp): It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional
area of the flowing fluid. Acts normal to the surface under consideration and produces
acceleration in the given direction.
Viscous forces (Fv): - Exists in real fluids. It is the shearing resistance generated when
there is relative motion between two layers of fluids. It acts opposite to the direction of
motion, and retards flow.
Surface tension (Fs): This force is important when the depth of flow is extremely
small.
Force due to compressibility (Fc): for incompressible fluids, this becomes significant
in problems of unsteady flow like water hammer. In most of flow problems, Fs and Fc
are neglected.
 Contd.
Force due to turbulence (Ft): the continuous momentum transfer between
layers in highly turbulent flow results in normal and shear stresses known as
Reynolds's stress.
If the changes for the change in forces are small the forces can be taken
negligible.
max = (Fg)x+(Fp)x+(Fv)x+(Ft)x
The presence of such a complex system of forces in real fluid flow problems
makes the analysis very complicated.
Therefore, mathematical analysis of problems is generally possible only if
certain simplifying assumptions are made.
 4.2 EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
• Consider a cylindrical element of stream tube having cross-sectional area dA
length ds unit weight  as shown in motion along a streamline.

Fig: 4.1 Pressure and gravity

forces on a cylindrical
element along a streamline
 Contd.
 The normal forces on the side faces are in equilibrium and as the fluid is
assumed non-viscous, there is no shear stress.
 The velocity varies along the streamline and there is acceleration.
 It is necessary to take into account force due to acceleration when considering
the longitudinal balance of force.
But in the ease of steady flow the velocity doesn’t vary at a point so that local
acceleration will be zero  v 
  0
 t 
but for velocity variation with position convective acceleration will be different from zero
 v 
V  0
 s 
 Contd.
The forces tending to accelerate the fluid mass are pressure force on the two
ends of the element, [ Fs  mas ] Summation of force in the arbitrary’s direction.
 dp 
PdA   p  ds  dA   dp dA
  ds 
dz
Weight in the direction of motion,  gdsdAcos   gdsdA   gdAdz
ds

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law of motion F=ma m=ρv

m= ρdsdA
dv v v
 dPdA  g dA dz  ds dAV as as   V
ds t s
dp
 gdz  Vdv  0 One-dimension Euler’s equation

 Contd.
The above equation can be applied for both compressible and incompressible flow.
dp V
 dz  dv  0
 g

For the case of an incompressible fluid  may be treated as constant, the integration gives
dp dV
    dz   V g  Cons tan t
2
P v
Z   cons tan t
 2g
 4.3 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID
 Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid is the
same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point.
The division of this energy between potential, pressure and kinetic energy may vary, but
the total remains constant.
P V2
Z  Cons tan t [Bernoulli’s Equation]
In symbols  2g

 Under special conditions the assumption underlying Bernoulli’s equations can be ignored.
1. When streamlines originate from a reservoir,
2. For unsteady flow with gradually changing conditions (E.g. Emptying a reservoir) the
equation may be applied without appreciable error,
3. It may be used for real fluids, by modifying the result experimentally.
 Contd.
The Bernoulli equation is the basis for the solution of a wide range of hydraulics problems.
For two points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation may be expressed in the form of:
2 2
P1 v1 P2 v2
y1    y2  
 2g  2g
p v2
 The Bernoulli’s equation expressed by   Z  2 g is determined for an incompressible ideal fluid
without taking in to account the effects of some other forces as viscous, etc.
In case of real fluid these forces should be introduced so that the equation needs some modification.
A real fluid does possess viscosity and consequently it offers resistance to flow.
In order to overcome this viscous resistance and other resistances due to surface roughness and
turbulence, some part of the total energy of the flow is lost.
[Energy is neither created nor destroyed but may be changed to heat energy increasing temp of the
fluid]
=

4.4 THE ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE

A liquid in motion may possess three forms of energy.
1. Potential energy /elevation /positional energy/ because of its elevation above datum level.
 If a weight w of liquid is at a height of z above datum Potential energy = Wz
 Potential energy per unit weight = z (meters) = Potential head
2. Pressure energy: When a fluid flows in a continuous stream under pressure it can do
work. If the area of cross – section of the stream of fluid is a, then force due to pressure p on
cross- section is Pa.
 If a weight w of liquid passes the cross section.
 Volume passing in cross section = W/ρg
 Distance moved by liquid = W
ga

• Pressure energy per unit weight = P

= pressure head.
g
 3. KINETIC ENERGY
If a mass of fluid (m) moves at some velocity (v),
→ Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 = ½ W/g v2
v2
→ Kinetic energy pr unit weight = 2 g = kinetic head
P v2
→Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head = Z    2 g
→The increase in temperature of the fluid causes an increase in the internal energy.
→The increase in internal energy and the heat transfer from the fluid represent a loss of useful
energy.
→The total loss per unit mass of fluid is (u2-u1-q).
u2  u1  q
→ Energy loss per unit weight in overcoming resistance l h  (head loss)
g
→The total energy of flow decreases in the flow direction, and consequently the energy line
has a down ward slope.
 Contd.

Fig.4.2 Energy & hydraulic grade lines

 4.3.1 ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR
 The analysis of flow problems is usually based on the one-dimensional approach.
 The entire flow is considered to be taking through stream tube with average velocity V at
center of each cross-section.
 The velocity distribution at any x-section in real fluid flow is non uniform, on account of
the boundary resistance and consequently the kinetic energy per unit weight given by V2/2g
doesn’t represent the kinetic energy across the section.
 In order to compensate for the discrepancy a coefficient known as energy correction factor
denoted by  is used.
 The multiplication of  with V2/2g yields the kinetic energy actually passing a section.
 Contd.
For the figure given,

Fig.4.3 Velocity distribution in a pipe flow

 The kinetic energy per unit time passing through on elemental area dA is ½ (dAu)u2
 u - velocity at that point
 Total kinetic energy passing the section

 1
2
u 3dA And the actual kinetic energy passed on average velocity V passing the section is
A equal to  1 V 3 A
2
 Contd.
3
From the two equation 1 u
     dA
A v

 Kinetic energy correction factor  is a measure of viscous resistance generated in a given

flow, the effect of which is reflected uniform nature of velocity distribution.
 For a given pipe, it can be shown that its magnitude is a function of the type of flow and its
turbulent characteristics.

Laminar flow is purely a viscous flow; the value of  is maximum and equals 2.0.

But in case of fully developed turbulent flow in pipes,  is independent of Reynolds number
and may be considered to have almost constant value (1.01 to 1.15) depending on surface
roughness and Reynolds number.
 4.5 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
 It is often important to determine the force produced on a solid body by fluid flowing
steadily over it.
 For example, the force on a pipe bend caused by the fluid flowing through it; the force
exerted by jet of fluid striking against a solid surface; thrust on a propeller.
 All these forces are hydrodynamic forces and they are associated with a change in the
momentum of the fluid.
 The magnitude of such a force is determined by Newton’s second law of motion, by
modifying the law to suit particularly to the steady flow of a fluid called the steady flow
momentum equation.
 Only the forces acting at the boundaries of this space concern us, and use of momentum
equation doesn’t require the knowledge of the flow pattern in detail.
 Moreover, the fluid may be compressible or incompressible and the flow with or without
friction.
 Contd.
• Consider a stream tube shown below with the following assumptions
 The c/s of stream tube is sufficiently small so that the velocity may be considered uniformly
distributed
 The flow is steady i.e. the stream tube remains stationary with respect to the fixed
coordinate axis.
Newton’s second law
F=m*a
dv
F=m
dt
F * dt = m * dv
 Momentum principle expresses that the
Fig. 4.17 Stream tube rate of change of momentum is equal to
the net force acting on the fluid mass.
 Contd.
 Momentum of fluid entering section 1 –1 in a time t in the x –direction
=  * dQ * t * V1(x)
 Momentum leaving section 2- 2 in time t
=  * dQ * t * V2 (x)
P dQ t [v2 ( x)  v1 ( x)]
 From momentum principle dFx =
t
dFx = dQ [V2 (x) – V1 (x)]
dFx = net force exerted on the fluid in the x –direction.
• The total force in the x –direction is given by
 𝐹𝑥 = ‫𝑣𝑄𝑑𝜌 𝐴׬ = 𝑥𝐹𝑑 𝐴׬‬2 𝑥 − ‫𝑣𝑄𝑑𝜌 𝐴׬‬1 𝑥

= න 𝜌(𝑣2 𝑑𝐴2 )𝑣2 (𝑥) − න 𝜌(𝑣1 𝑑𝐴1 )𝑣1 (𝑥)

𝐴 𝐴
 Contd.
• Assuming the fluid is incompressible

• Fx = V2 A2 (V2 (x) - PV1A1 V1 (x)

• Fx =  Q [V2(x) – V1(x)]

• Similar equations for y and z directions may be written

• Fy = Q [V2(y) – V1(y)]

• Fz = Q [V2(z) – V1(z)]

• Applications of momentum equations

 1) THE FORCE CAUSED BY A JET STRIKING A SURFACE

A. Impact on a flat surface

i) Stationary plate: Fig. 4.18 A jet hitting a
vertical plate
• A = area of jet
• v1 = velocity of jet

•  = mass density
• Fx = Q(v2 (x) – v1(x))
• = Q (0 – v1)  momentum normal to the plate is destroyed.
• Fx = -AV2 (force in the jet)
• Force exerted on plate = AV2 (Equal and opposite to the force exerted on the jet = Fx)
 ii) Moving Plate
• Initial velocity of jet v1x = V1
• Final velocity of jet = velocity of = v2x = U = velocity of plate

Fig. 4.19 A jet hitting a moving

vertical plate

The velocity with which jet strikes the plate = V – U

Mass of fluid striking plate/sec = A (V – U)
Force on plate = A (V – U) (V – U)
= A (V – U) 2
 2. Force exerted on a reducing pipe bends

i. Bend in a horizontal plane.

Fig. 4.24 Force on a horizontal

reducing bend

Let Fx and Fy be the components of the force exerted on the fluid by the pipe bend.
Then momentum equation in the x–direction can be written as:
P1A1 - P2A2cos - Fx = Q(V2cos - V1)
Fx = Q (V1 -V2cos) - P1A1 + P2A2cos
Momentum equation in the y–direction can be written as:
Fy - P2 A2sin = pQ (V2sin - V1) (V1 = 0)
Fy = P2A2sin + pQ (V2sin)
 ii. Bend in a vertical plane.
A reducing bend with deviation in the vertical plane is shown in Fig. below.
Due to the hydrostatic and dynamic pressures a force is exerted by the fluid on the bend
which has to be resisted by a thrust block or other suitable means.
This force could be evaluated by plotting the stream lines and thus determining the pressure
distribution.
However, by a simple application of the momentum equation, and quite independently of any
energy losses associated with turbulent eddying (real fluid), we obtain.

Fig. 4.25 Force on a vertical

reducing bend
 Contd.
• For the x direction:
P1 A1 - P2A2cos - Fx = pQ(v2cos - v1)
• And for the z direction
Fz - W – P2A2 sin  = pQv2 sin
• Where W is the weight of fluid between the reference sections.
• From these equations, Fx and Fz may be determined and hence the resultant force, R:

• 𝑅= 𝑅𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2

• It is to be noted that the momentum equation gives no information concerning the location of
the resultant, which necessitates an analysis involving forces and moments.