TOPIC 1 MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY

Fertilization The science of genetics is the study of heredity,

- or conception, is the process by which sperm the genetic transmission of heritable characteristics from
and ovum—the male and female gametes, or biological parents to offspring.
sex cells—combine to create a single cell.
THE GENETIC CODE
Zygote Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
- One-celled organism resulting from fertilization. - The “stuff” of heredity. Chemical that carries
inherited instructions for the development of all
cellular forms of life.
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
Assisted reproductive technology (ART)
Genetic Code
- Methods used to achieve conception through
- Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule;
artificial means. It provides couples having
governs the formation of proteins that
difficulty conceiving naturally with a means to
determine the structure and functions of living
augment their fertility.
cells.
- Letters of the DNA alphabet:
Artificial Insemination
 T = Thymine
- The simplest form of ART in which sperm is
injected into a woman’s vagina, cervix, or uterus.  A = Adenine
 G = Guanine
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)  C = Cytosine
- another common method of artificial
insemination. A woman’s ova are surgically Chromosome
removed, fertilized in a laboratory dish, and - Coils of DNA that consist of genes.
implanted in the woman’s uterus.
- More recently, women have also been Genes
employing cryopreservation, or egg freezing, to - Small segments of DNA located in definite
extend their years of fertility. Eggs are harvested positions on particular chromosomes; functional
with the intention of conceiving a child at a later units of heredity.
date with the help of IVF.
Human Genome
MULTIPLE BIRTHS - Complete sequence of genes in the human body.
Dizygotic Twins
Hereditary Composition of the Zygote
- or fraternal twins, are the result of two separate
eggs being fertilized by two different sperm to  Body cells of women and men contain 23 pairs of
form two unique individuals. chromosomes, which carry the genes, the basic
units of inheritance.
Monozygotic Twins  Each sex cell (ovum and sperm) has only 23 single
- They result from the cleaving of one fertilized chromosomes because of a special kind of cell
egg and are generally genetically identical. division (meiosis).
 At fertilization, the 23 chromosomes from the
sperm join the 23 from the ovum so that the
zygote receives 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs.

Mutation
- Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes
that may produce harmful characteristics.
SEX DETERMINATION Dominant Inheritance
Autosomes - Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child
- In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not receives different alleles, only the dominant one
related to sexual expression. is expressed.

Sex Chromosome Recessive Inheritance

- Pair of chromosomes that determines sex. - Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives
 XX – normal female identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression
 XY – normal male of a non-dominant trait.

Polygenic Inheritance
- Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at
different sites on chromosomes affect a complex
trait.

Phenotype
- Observable characteristics of a person.

Genotype
- Genetic makeup of a person, containing both
expressed and unexpressed characteristics.
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION
Gregor Mendel Multifactorial Transmission
- During the 1860s an Austrian monk, laid the - Combination of genetic and environ mental
foundation for our understanding of patterns of factors to produce certain complex traits.
inheritance. By crossbreeding strains of peas, he
discovered two fundamental principles of Epigenesis
genetics. - Mechanism that turns genes on or off and
- First, traits could be either dominant or determines functions of body cells.
recessive. Dominant traits are always expressed,
whereas recessive traits are expressed only if GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
both copies of the gene are recessive. Second, Incomplete Dominance
traits are passed down independently of each - Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives
other. two different alleles, resulting in partial
expression of a trait.
Alleles
- Two or more alternative forms of a gene that Sex-Linked Inheritance
occupy the same position on paired - Pattern of inheritance in which certain
chromosomes and affect the same trait. characteristics carried on the X chromo some
- Alleles are alternate versions of the same gene. inherited from the mother are transmitted
Every person receives one maternal and one differently to her male and female offspring.
paternal allele for any given trait.
Some Birth Defects and Genetic Disorders
Homozygous Alpha Thalassemia
- Possessing two identical alleles for a trait. - Severe anemia that reduces ability of the blood
to carry oxygen; nearly all affected infants are
Heterozygous stillborn or die soon after birth.
- Possessing differing alleles for a trait. - At Risk: primarily families of Malaysian, African,
and Southeast Asian descent.
 - Treatment: Frequent blood transfusions - At Risk: 1 in 1,000
- Treatment: Surgery prevents further injury;
Beta Thalassemia (Cooley’s Anemia) shunt placed in brain drains excess fluid.
- Severe anemia resulting in weakness, fatigue,
and frequent illness; usually fatal in adolescence Phenylketonuria (PKU)
or young adulthood. - Metabolic disorder resulting in intellectual
- At Risk: Primarily families of Mediterranean disability
descent. - At Risk: 1 in 15,000 births
- Treatment: Frequent blood transfusions - Special diet can prevent intellectual disability

Cystic Fibrosis Polycystic Kidney Disease

- Overproduction of mucus, which collects in the - Infantile form: enlarged kidneys, leading to
lung and digestive tract; children do not grow respiratory problems and congestive heart
normally; short life span; the most common failure.
inherited lethal defect among White people Adult form: kidney pain, kidney stones, and
- At Risk: 1 in 2,000 White births hypertension resulting in chronic kidney failure.
- Treatment: Physical therapy to loosen mucus; - At Risk: 1 in 1,000
antibiotics for lung infections; enzymes to - Treatment: Kidney transplants
improve digestion; lung transplant
Sickle-Cell Anemia
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - Deformed red blood cells that clog blood vessels,
- Fatal disease usually found in males, marked by depriving the body of oxygen; symptoms include
muscle weakness and minor intellectual severe pain, stunted growth, infections, leg
disability; respiratory failure and death usually ulcers, gallstones, pneumonia, and stroke.
occur in young adulthood. - At Risk: 1 in 500 African Americans
- At Risk: 1 in 3,000 to 5,000 male births - Treatment: Painkillers, transfusions for anemia
- Treatment: No treatment and to prevent stroke, antibiotics for infections.

Hemophilia Tay-Sachs Disease

- Excessive bleeding, usually affecting males; in its - Degenerative disease of the brain and nerve
most severe form, can lead to crippling arthritis cells, resulting in death before age 5.
in adulthood. - At Risk: Primarily found in Eastern European
- At Risk: 1 in 10,000 families with a history of Jewish families
hemophilia - Treatment: No treatment
- Treatment: Frequent transfusions of blood with
clotting factors. Chromosomal Abnormalities
- typically occur because of errors in cell division,
Anencephaly resulting in an extra or missing chromosome.
- Absence of brain tissues; infants are stillborn or
die soon after birth. Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
- At Risk: 1 in 1,000 XYY
- Treatment: No treatment - Male; tall stature; tendency toward low IQ,
especially verbal
Spina Bifida - Incidence: 1 in 1,000 male births
- Incompletely closed spinal canal, muscle - Treatment: No special treatment
weakness or paralysis, and loss of bladder and
bowel control; often accompanied by XXX (triple X)
hydrocephalus, an accumulation of spinal fluid in - Female; normal appearance, menstrual irregu
the brain, and intellectual disability larities, learning disorders, intellectual disability
 - Incidence: 1 in 1,000 female births
- Treatment: Special education

XXY (Klinefelter)
- Male; sterility, underdeveloped secondary sex
characteristics, small testes, learning disorders
- Incidence: 1 in 1,000 male births
- Treatment: Hormone therapy, special education

XO (Turner)
- Female; short stature, webbed neck, impaired
spatial abilities, no menstruation, infertility,
underdeveloped sex organs
- Incidence: 1 in 1,500 to 2,500 female births
Cephalocaudal Principle
- Treatment: Hormone therapy, special education
- Principle that development proceeds in a head-
Fragile X to-tail direction; that is, that up per parts of the
- Minor-to-severe intellectual disability more body develop before lower parts of the trunk.
severe in males; delayed speech and motor
development, hyperactivity; the most common Proximodistal Principle
inherited form of intellectual disability - Principle that development proceeds from
- Incidence: 1 in 1,200 male births; 1 in 2,000 within to without; that is, that parts of the body
female births near the center develop before the extremities.
- Treatment: Educational and behavioral
therapies when needed Germinal Stage

- First 2 weeks of prenatal development,

Down Syndrome characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst
- Chromosomal disorder characterized by formation, and implantation in the wall of the
moderate-to-severe intellectual disability and by uterus.
such physical signs as a down ward-sloping skin
fold at the inner corners of the eyes. Also called
trisomy-21.

Genetic Counseling
- Clinical service that advises prospective parents
of their probable risk of having children with
hereditary defects.
TOPIC 2
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Gestation
- Period of development between conception and
birth.
- The normal range of gestation is between 37 and
41 weeks.

Gestational Age
- Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the
first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual
cycle.
Embryonic Stage deficiencies in vitamins or minerals, such as
vitamin A and zinc, which increase the risk of
- Second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), death for both child and mother. Vitamin D
characterized by rapid growth and development deficiency can also cause weak or soft bones.
of major body systems and organs.
Physical Activity and Work
Spontaneous Abortion
- women are advised not to harvest crops during
- Natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo the first 7 months of pregnancy, when the
that cannot survive outside the womb; also developing fetus is thought to be weak, but to
called miscarriage. resume manual labor during the last 2 months to
encourage a speedy delivery.
Fetal Stage
- The American College of Obstetricians and
- Final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), Gynecologists (2021) recommends that women
characterized by increased differentiation of in low-risk pregnancies get at least 150 minutes
body parts and greatly enlarged body size. of moderate to intense aerobic exercise a week,
making sure to drink plenty of water and to avoid
Ultrasound
becoming overheated.
- Prenatal medical procedure using high frequency
sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and Drug Intake
its movements, so as to determine whether a - Medical drugs
pregnancy is progressing normally. - Opioids
 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS -
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: MATERNAL FACTORS Combination of mental, motor, and
Teratogen developmental abnormalities affecting
- Environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or the offspring of some women who drink
radiation, that can interfere with normal heavily during pregnancy.
prenatal development and cause developmental - Nicotine
abnormalities. - Caffeine
Nutrition and Maternal Weight - Marijuana
- Cocaine
- Pregnant women typically need 300 to 500 - Methamphetamine
additional calories a day, including extra protein.
- The current recommendations suggest that
underweight women should gain 28-40 pounds,
normal-weight women 25-35 pounds,
overweight women 15-25 pounds, and obese
women 11-20 pounds.
- Women who gain the recommended weight are
less likely to have birth complications or have
babies with dangerously low or high birth
weights. Insufficient weight can lead to growth
retardation, premature birth, labor and delivery
distress, or death. Overweight women risk
having a large baby that requires induced labor
or cesarean section.

Malnutrition

- Calories deficit in expectant mothers can lead to

fetal growth restriction, low birth weight, higher
mortality risk, and stunted children. Additionally,
mothers may suffer from micronutrient
TOPIC 3 controlled physical responses to uterine
contractions and reduce fear and pain.
THE BIRTH PROCESS Doula
Parturition - An experienced mentor who furnishes emotional
- The act or process of giving birth. support and information for a woman during
labor.
Three Stages of Giving Birth
Dilation of Cervix The Newborn Baby
- is the longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for Neonatal Period
a woman having her first child.
- First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from
- contractions occur every 2 to 5 minutes. This
intrauterine dependency to independent
stage lasts until the cervix is fully open (10
existence.
centimeters, or about 4 inches) so the baby can
descend into the birth canal.
Neonate
- Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old.
Descent and Emergence of the Baby
- typically lasts up to an hour or two. BODY SYSTEMS
- At the end of this stage, the baby is born but is Anoxia
still attached to the placenta in the mother’s - Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage.
body by the umbilical cord, which must be cut
and clamped. Neonatal Jaundice
- Condition, in many newborn babies, caused by
Expulsion of Placenta immaturity of liver and evidenced by yellowish
- During this stage, the placenta and the appearance; can cause brain damage if not
remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled treated promptly.
from the mother.
MEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
ELECTRONIC FETAL MONITORING Apgar Scale
Electronic Fetal Monitoring - Standard measurement of a newborn’s
- Mechanical monitoring of fetal heart beat during condition; it assesses appearance, pulse,
labor and delivery. grimace, activity, and respiration.

VAGINAL VERSUS CESAREAN DELIVERY

Cesarean Delivery Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
- Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the (NBAS)
uterus. - Neurological and behavioral test to measure
neonate’s responses to the environment.
MEDICATED VERSUS NONMEDICATED DELIVERY
Natural Childbirth Neonatal Screening for Medical Conditions
- Method of childbirth that seeks to pre vent pain - Children who inherit the enzyme dis order
by eliminating the mother’s fear through phenylketonuria (PKU) will develop permanent
education about the physiology of reproduction intellectual disability unless they are fed a special
and training in breathing and relaxation during diet beginning in the first 3 to 6 weeks of life.
delivery.

Prepared Childbirth
- Method of childbirth that uses instruction,
breathing exercises, and social support to induce
 interact with environmental factors like nutrition and
living conditions. For example, Japanese American
children are taller and weigh more than children in Japan,
possibly due to dietary differences. Today, children in
developed countries grow taller and mature sexually
earlier than a century ago due to better nutrition,
improved sanitation, medical care, and decreased child
labor.

STATES OF AROUSAL
State of Arousal
- An infant’s physiological and behavioral status at
a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of
wakefulness, sleep, and activity.

Nutrition
Breast or Bottle?
TOPIC 5 - Feeding a baby is an emotional as well as a
EARLY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT physical act. Warm contact with the mother’s
Cephalocaudal Principle body fosters emotional linkage between mother
- Principle that development proceeds in a head- and baby. Such bonding can take place through
to-tail direction. either breast-feeding or bottle feeding and
through many other caregiving activities, most of
Proximodistal Principle which can be per formed by fathers as well as
- Principle that development proceeds from mothers.
within to without.

Patterns of Growth
Children grow faster during the first three years,
with the average baby boy's birth weight doubling to 16
pounds at 5 months and nearly tripled to 23 pounds by 1
year. This rapid growth rate tapers off during the second
and third years, with boys typically gaining about 5
pounds by their second birthday and 3½ pounds by their
third. Girls follow a similar pattern, with the average girl
weighing 30½ pounds and being slightly shorter at 3
years.

As a baby grows, body shape and proportions change,

with a 3-year-old typically being slender compared to a
1-year-old. Teething usually begins around age 3 or 4
months, with the first tooth arriving between 5 and 9
months. Genetic influences, such as dietary differences,
Building The Brain
Central Nervous System
- Brain and spinal cord.

Lateralization
- Tendency of each of the brain’s hemi spheres to
have specialized functions.

Brain Cells
- The brain is composed of neurons and glial cells.
Early Sensory Capacities
Neurons - Touch and Pain
- or nerve cells, send and receive information. - Smell and Taste
- Hearing
Integration - Sight
- Process by which neurons coordinate the
activities of muscle groups.
Milestones of Motor Development
Differentiation Systems of Action
- Process by which cells acquire specialized - increasingly complex combinations of motor
structures and functions. skills, which permit a wider or more precise
range of movement and more control of the
Cell Death environment.
- In brain development, normal elimination of
excess brain cells to achieve more efficient Denver Developmental Screening Test
functioning. - Screening test given to children 1 month to 6
years old to determine whether they are
Myelination developing normally.
- Process of coating neural pathways with a fatty
substance called myelin, which enables faster Gross Motor Skills
communication between cells. - Physical skills that involve the large muscles.

Reflex Behaviors Fine Motor Skills

- Physical skills that involve the small muscles and
- Automatic, involuntary, innate responses to
eye–hand coordination.
stimulation.

Plasticity
- Range of modifiability of performance.
- Modifiability, or “molding,” of the brain through
experience.
Motor Development and Perception Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions
Depth Perception - The third substage (about 4 to 8 months)
- Ability to perceive objects and surfaces three- coincides with a new interest in manipulating
dimensionally. objects and learning about their properties.
Babies also intentionally repeat an action not
Haptic Perception merely for its own sake, as in the second
- Ability to acquire information about properties substage, but to get rewarding results beyond
of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by the infant’s own body.
handling them.  Circular Reactions
 Piaget’s term for processes by
Theories of Motor Development which an infant learns to
Visual Cliff reproduce desired occurrences
- Apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth originally discovered by chance.
and used to assess depth perception in infants.
Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemes
Ecological Theory of Perception - By the time infants reach the fourth substage
- Theory developed by Eleanor and James Gibson, (about 8 to 12 months), coordination of
which describes developing motor and secondary schemes, they have built upon the
perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a few schemes they were born with. Their
functional system that guides behavior in varying behavior is more intentional and purposeful, and
contexts. they can anticipate events. They have learned to
generalize from past experiences to solve new
PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH problems.
Intelligent Behavior
- Behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions
circumstances and conditions of life. - In the fifth substage (about 12 to 18 months),
babies begin to experiment to see what will
IQ (Intelligence Quotient) Tests happen. They now vary a behavior to see what
- Psychometric tests that seek to mea sure might happen in tertiary circular reactions.
intelligence by comparing a test taker’s
performance with standardized norms. Substage 6: Mental Combinations
- The sixth substage (about 18 months to 2 years)
Substages of The Sensorimotor Stage is a transition to the preoperational stage of
Substage 1: Use of Reflexes early childhood.
- In the first substage (birth to about 1 month),  Representational Ability
neonates practice their reflexes.  Piaget’s term for capacity to
store mental images or symbols
Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions of objects and events.
- In the second substage (about 1 to 4 months),
babies learn to purposely repeat a pleasurable
bodily sensation first achieved by chance. These
activities focus on the body rather than the
external environment. Piaget called this a
primary circular reaction. Also, they begin to turn
toward sounds, showing the ability to coordinate
different kinds of sensory information (vision
and hearing).
 Foundations of Psychosocial Development
Object Concept Personality
Object Permanence - The relatively consistent blend of emotions,
- Piaget’s term for the understanding that a temperament, thought, and behavior that makes
person or object still exists when out of sight. a person unique.
Imitation
- Imitating objects or actions. Emotions
- Subjective reactions to experience that are
Deferred Imitation associated with physiological and behavioral
- Piaget’s term for reproduction of an observed changes.
behavior after the passage of time by calling up
a stored symbol of it.

Information-Processing Approach
Habituation
- Type of learning in which familiarity with a
stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response.

Dishabituation
- Increase in responsiveness after presentation of
Crying
a new stimulus.
- Newborns plainly show when they are unhappy.
- They let out piercing cries, flail their arms and
Language Development
legs, and stiffen their bodies.
language
- Communication system based on words and
Smiling and Laughing
grammar.
- The earliest faint smiles occur spontaneously
soon after birth, apparently as a result of
subcortical nervous system activity.
 Social Smiling
 Beginning in the 2nd month,
newborn infants gaze at their
parents and smile at them,
signaling positive participation
in the relationship.
 Anticipatory Smiling
 Infant smiles at an object and
then gazes at an adult while still
smiling.

Self-Conscious Emotions
- Emotions, such as embarrassment, empathy,
and envy, that depend on self-awareness.
 Self-Awareness
 Realization that one’s existence
and functioning are separate
from those of other people and
things.
  Self-Evaluative Emotions Four Attachment Styles
 Emotions, such as pride, shame, 1. Secure Attachment
and guilt, that depend on both - Pattern in which an infant is quickly and
self-aware ness and knowledge effectively able to obtain comfort from an
of socially accepted standards of attachment figure in the face of distress.
behavior.
2. Avoidant Attachment
Temperament - Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when
- Characteristic disposition, or style of separated from the primary care giver and
approaching and reacting to situations. avoids contact on their return.
 “Easy” Children
 Children with a generally happy 3. Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment
temperament, regular biological - Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious
rhythms, and a readiness to before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely
accept new. upset during their absence, and both seeks and
 “Difficult” Children resists.
 Children with irritable
temperament, irregular 4. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment
biological rhythms, and intense - Pattern in which an infant, after separation from
emotional responses. the primary caregiver, shows contradictory,
repetitious, or misdirected behaviors on their
 “Slow-To-Warm-Up” Children return.
 Children whose temperament is
generally mild but who are Stranger Anxiety
hesitant about accepting new - Wariness of strange people and places, shown by
experiences. some infants during the second half of the 1st
year.
Separation Anxiety
TOPIC 6 - Distress shown by someone, typically an infant,
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN INFANCY
when a familiar caregiver leaves.
Basic Sense of Trust Versus Mistrust
- Erikson’s first stage in psychosocial
MUTUAL REGULATION
development, in which infants develop a sense Mutual Regulation
of the reliability of people and objects.
- Process by which infant and caregiver
communicate emotional states to each other
DEVELOPING ATTACHMENTS and respond appropriately.
Attachment
- Reciprocal, enduring tie between two people—
Interactional Synchrony
especially between infant and caregiver—each - The synchronized coordination of behavior and
of whom contributes to the quality of the affect between a caregiver and an infant.
relationship.
Still-Face Paradigm
Strange Situation
- Experimental methodology in which a parent
- Laboratory technique used to study infant first interacts typically with their child, then
attachment. keeps their face still and expressionless, and
then ends with a return to typical behavior; used
to demonstrate interactional synchrony.
 Motor Skills
SOCIAL REFERENCING Gross Motor Skills
Social Referencing - Physical skills that involve the large muscles.
- Understanding an ambiguous situation by
seeking another person’s perception of it. Fine Motor Skills
THE EMERGING SENSE OF SELF - Physical skills that involve the small muscles and
Self-Concept eye–hand coordination.
- Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental
picture of one’s abilities and traits. Systems of Action
- Increasingly complex combinations of motor
DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMY skills, which permit a wider or more precise
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt range of movement and more control of the
- Erikson’s second stage in psychosocial environment.
development, in which children achieve a
balance between self-determination and control Handedness
by others. - Preference for using a particular hand.

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN

EARLY CHILDHOOD
Bodily Growth and Change
At about 3, children normally begin to lose their
babyish roundness and take on the slender, athletic
appearance of childhood. As abdominal muscles
develop, the toddler potbelly tightens. The trunk, arms,
and legs grow longer. The head is still relatively large, but
the other parts of the body continue to catch up as body
proportions steadily become more adult like. Both boys
and girls typically grow about 2 to 3 inches a year during
early childhood and gain approximately 4 to 6 pounds
annually.

Sleep Patterns and Problems

Night Terror
- Abrupt awakening from a deep sleep in a state of
agitation, generally occurs in young children.

Sleeptalking
- Talking while asleep.

Nightmare
- A bad dream, sometimes brought on by staying
up too late, eating a heavy meal close to
bedtime, or overexcitement.

Enuresis
- Repeated urination in clothing or in bed.