Theories and Concepts of Public Administration

What Does a Public Administrator Do?

• While in daily basis the responsibilities of public administrators can vary depending on
the type of organization they work for, the common thread among public administrators
is most typically a deep commitment to serve their communities and contribute to their
overall improvement.

• The term “public service” is used frequently in the field of public administration, and it is
this desire to serve the public good that calls people to become a public administrator.

What are examples of public goods and public services?

• The types of public goods include security, education, knowledge, infrastructure,

environment and health
Civil Service

The Civil Service adheres to four overarching standards.

• Integrity: the obligations of public service must come before personal interests.
• Honesty: the Civil Service must be truthful and open.
• Objectivity: advice and decisions must be rigorous and evidence-based.
• Impartiality: the Civil Service must act according to the merits of the case, and equally
serve governments of all political parties.

• Public Administration has obtained a specialized position in the academic field.

• Many public servants are considered to be public administrators, including heads of city,
county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors,
Human Resources administrators, city managers, census managers, state directors, and
cabinet secretaries.
• Public administrators are public servants working in public departments and agencies, at
all levels of government.
• A number of activities can no longer be organized by the citizens privately or even by
village or city communities.
• The central government and the local governments have, therefore, to come forward to
provide the necessary infrastructural facilities for organizing production as well as for
facilitating community living.
• For example, roads and Railways have to be built to facilitate the transport of raw
material to the site of production as well as to facilitate the distribution of the
manufactured goods.
• These facilities are also required to meet the needs of the citizens in moving over long
 • distances required by modern day living.
• Similarly, communication facilities like the telephones; microwave transmissions,
satellite communication etc. have to be provided to meet the needs of the communities.
• All these require massive investments in human and material resources far beyond the
capacity of small village or even city communities.

• These investments have to be made by the central government and administered with
the help of the local governments and the local communities.
• Apart from the financial investments, a lot of organizational effort is required to meet
these needs of the citizens.
• Public Administration is an activity as old as human civilization. But as a social science
theorization on public administration is very recent. In 1887, Woodrow Wilson wrote
the book “The Study of Public
• Administration”, and laid the foundation of the science of Public
• Administration.
• After that, PA experienced rapid transformation in its scope, nature, and role.
• Public Administration as an activity as old as human civilization. But as a social science
theorization on public administration is very recent.
• Woodrow Wilson - “The Study of Public Administration”
• „Administration‟ - Latin word „ad and ministrare‟ which means „to serve‟ or „to look
after the people‟ or „to care for‟ or to manage
• the term administration means management of affairs - public or private.

Meaning of Public Administration

• The implementation of government policy,

• an academic discipline that studies the implementation of government policy and
prepares public servants for work in the public service.
• Unelected public servants (non political partisans') = public administrators.
• Local governments provide the most essential of public services, such as health and
safety, transportation, sanitation, environmental, and utilities.
• Local government is responsible for a range of vital services for people and businesses in
defined areas. Among them are well known functions such as social care, schools,
housing and planning and waste collection, but also lesser known ones such as licensing,
business support, registrar services and pest control.

Definitions of Public Administration

• Woodrow Wilson: “Public Adminstration is a detailed and systematic application of

law.”
• Leonard. D. White “Public Adminstration consists of all those operations having for their
purpose the fulfilment of public policy as declared by authority.” Both above definitions
are done from traditional viewpoint and related only to the functions and actions of
 Adminstration.
• According to Herbert Simon - “By Public Adminstration is meant the activities of the
executive branches of the national, state, & local governments.”
• William Willough - “Public Adminstration in broadest sense denotes the work involved
in the actual conduct of governmental affairs, and in narrowest senses denotes the
operations of the administrative branch only.”
• Luther Gullick - “Public Adminstration is that part of the science of administration which
has to do with government and thus, concerns itself primarily with the executive branch
where the work of the government is done.”
• Dwight Waldo -“Public Adminstration is the art and science of management as applied
to the affairs of the state.”
• Marshall E. Dimock - “Administration is concerned with ‘what’ and ‘How’ of the
government. The what is the subjectmatter, the technical knowledge of afield which
enables the administrator to perform his tasks. The ‘How’ is the technique of
management according to which co-operative programmes are carried to success.”
• According to H.A. Simon“In the broadest sense administration can be defined as the
activities of groups cooperating to accomplish common goals.”
• According to J.E. Berkley“Administration is a process involving human beings jointly
engaged in working towards common goals.”

• Luther Gluck “Administration has to do with getting things done; with the
accomplishment of defined objective.”

• J. Greenwood and D. Wilsonv “Public Administration is an activity, a set of institutions

and a subject of study.”
• Term “Administration” signifies the following four different perspectives taking under
different context it is used. They are:
1. As a Discipline,
2. As a profession,
3. As a process,
4. As a synonym for the word Executive or Government.

• As a discipline it deals with the name of a branch of learning or intellectual discipline as

tought and studied in universities.
• As a vocation/profession it deals with the types of work or trade or profession or
occupation specially one that involves knowledge and training in a branch of advance
learning.
• As a process it deals with the sum total of activities undertaken to implement public
policy or policies to produce some services or goods.
• As a synonym for word executive or Government it deals with such other body of
persons in supreme charge of affairs for example Biden Administration.

Characteristics of Public Administration

1. It is part of executive branch of government.
2. It is related with the activities of the state.
3. It carries out the public policies.
4. It realise the aspirations of the people as formulated and expressed in the laws.
5. Waldo and other thinkers insist on the commitment and dedication to the well being of the
people. Otherwise Public Adminstration behaves in a mechanical, impersonal and inhuman
way.
6. Public Adminstration is politically neutral.

Three important perspectives about the scope of Public Adminstration.

1. Narrow perspective
2. Broad perspective or subject matter view.
3. Prevailing view.

Narrow perspective or posdcord perspective:

• Luther Gullick is the main exponent of this perspective.

• According to him the scope of public administration is narrow or limited.

• It insist that the Public Adminstration is concerned only with those aspects of
administration which are related with the executive branch and its seven types of
administrative functions.

Seven types of functions which shows the scope of Public Adminstration are as follows:

1. ‘P’ stands for planning

2. ‘O’ stands for organization
3. ‘S’ stands for staffing.
4. ‘D’ stands for Directing.
5. ‘Co.’ stands for Co-ordination.
6. ‘R’ stands for Reporting
7. ‘B’ stands for Budgeting

1. ‘P’ stands for Planning -

Planning is the first step of Public Adminstration. i.e. working out the broad outline of the
things that need to be done.
2. ‘O’ stands for organization -
It means establishment of the formal structure of authority through which the work is sub-
divided, arranged and co-ordinated for the defined objective.
3. ‘S’ stands for staffing -
It means the recruitment and training of the staff and maintenance of favourable conditions of
work for the staff.
4. ‘D’ stands for Directing -
It means the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general
orders and instructions, and thus guiding the enterprise.
5. ‘Co’ stands for Co-ordination -
It means interrelating the various parts of organization such as branches, divisions, sections of
the work and elimination of overlapping.
6. ‘R’ stands for Reporting -
It means informing the authority to whom the executive is responsible as to what is going on.
7. ‘B’ stands for Budgeting -
It means accounting, fiscal planning and control.
Broad perspective or subject - oriented perspective:
• Woodrow Wilson, L D While are main exponent of this perspective. They have taken a
very broad approach about the scope of Public Adminstration.
According to them
• (A) Public Adminstration covers all three branches of the government. Legislative,
Executive and Judicial and their interrelationship.
• B) Scope of Public Adminstration is like a cooperative group. It consist of all from class
one officer to class four employees.
• C) Public Adminstration is a part of the political process. It has an important role in the
formulation of public policy at all levels, from national to grassroot. It is closely
associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the
community. It has been influenced in recent years by the human relations approach.

Prevailing view :
Prevailing view divides the scope of Public Adminstration into two parts.-
1) Administrative theory
2) Applied administration

Adminstrative theory :

Includes the following aspects.

a) Organisational Theory -
The Structure, organization, functions and methods of all types of public authority engaged in
administration, whether national, regional or local and executive.
b) Behaviour -
The functions of adminstrative authorities and the various methods appropriate to different
types of functions. The various forms of control of administration.
c) Public Personal Adminstration -
The problems concerning personnel e.g. recruitment, training, promotion, retirement etc. and
the problems relating to planning, research, information and public relation services.

Applied administration

Includes the following aspects :-

a) Political functions -
It includes the executive - legislative relationship, administrative activities of the cabinet, the minister
and permanent official relationship.
b) Legislative function -
It includes delegated legislation and the preparatory work done by the officials in connection with the
drawing up of bills.
c) Financial functions -
It includes total financial administration from the preparation of the budget to its execution, accounting
and audit etc.
d) Defence - Functions relating to military adminstration.
Educational function - It includes functions relating to educational administration.
f) Social welfare administration -
It includes the activities of the departments concerned with food; housing, social security and
development activities.
g) Economic Adminstration -
It is concerned with the production and encouragement of industries and agriculture.
h) Foreign administration -
It includes the conduct of foreign affairs, diplomacy, international cooperation etc.
i) Local administration -
It concern with the activities of the local self-governing institutions.

Role and Importance of Public Administration

In todays modern state and in developing countries functions and role of Public Adminstration
is very important.
The role and importance of Public Adminstration are as follows.
1. It is the basis of government.
2. It is the instrument of change in the society.
3. It plays vital role in the life of the people.
4. It is an instrument for executing laws, policies, programmes of the state.
5. It is a stabilising force in the society as it provides continuity.
6. It is instrument of national integration in the developing countries which are facing classwars.

1. It is the basis of Government -

It is possible for a state to exist without a legislature or judiciary; but not even the most backward state
can do without administrative machinery.
The modern welfare state is expected to provide more and more services and amenities to the people.
Public Adminstration is the machinery used by the state to place itself in a position to make plans and
programmes that can be carried out.

2. It is the instrument of change in the society -

Public Adminstration is regarded as an instrument of change and is expected to accelerate the process
of development.
3. It plays vital role in the life of the people -
Today every aspect of human life come within the range of Public Adminstration. Various departments
of government such as education, social welfare, food, agriculture, health, sanitation, transport,
communication etc. are run by the department of Public Adminstration.
Thus Public Adminstration is rendering various types of services to the people from birth to death of an
individual.

4. It is a stabilizing force in the society as it provides continuity

Public Adminstration is carried on by the civil servants who are the permanent executives. Political
executives i.e. ministers may come and go, systems of government or constitutions may under go
change but administation goes on for ever. Hence, Public Adminstration is a great stabilising force in
society. It is a preserver of the society and its culture.

5. It is instrument of national integration in the developing countries which are facing classwars –

Conclusion -
The success of governement is dependent on the ability of public administration. The future of civilized
government rests upon the ability, to develop a service and philosophy and a practice of adminstration
competent to discharge the Public functions of civilized society.

Wilson’s view on Public Administration

• Woodrow Wilson, former U.S. President, the father of American Public Administration.
• Wilson and his contribution to the subject of public administration is widely read and referred
to. He was one of the first political leaders who emphasized the need to increase the efficiency
of the Government.
• Wilson argued that administration is the most obvious part of the Government and the least
discussions happen around it
• As a discipline Public Administration consists of organizational theory and behavior, public
personnel administration, public financial administration, comparative and development
administration and public policy analysis.

There are three common approaches to appreciation of public administration:

1. Classical Public Administration Theory,
2. New Public Management Theory, and
3. Postmodern Public Administration Theory,

each of which offers a different perspective on how an administrator practices public administration.

Classical Public Administration Theory

• The classical theory projects public administration as a science. A classical theory defines how to
design and conduct the operations of any organization or system. A public administration can
also be considered as a system where we find the involvement of various officers with their
responsibilities.

Bureaucracy (Max Weber) theory of public administration

• The bureaucratic theory is a way of understanding organizations as systems that are primarily
characterized by hierarchical chains of command and control. The principle of hierarchy &
discipline, which requires that everyone follow orders from their superiors without question.

New Public Management theory

 • Focuses on democratic governance and re-imagining the accountability of public administrators
toward citizens.
• Administrators should be a broker between citizens and their government, focusing on citizen
engagement in political and administrative issues.

Postmodern Public Administration theory

• Postmodern Public Administration is linked to the capitalist model of the late 20th and
21st century

• The internal operations of almost all existing government organizations are referred to
as post-modern public administration. Public administration is a broad concept to
include all functions in the executive branch that have an impact on the general public.
Members of public administration come in different forms and quantities. When
understanding the theory of postmodern public administration, it is important to make
a differentiation between postmodern theory and the postmodern era as well as being
able to differentiate between post-modernity (period of time) and postmodernism
(theory/philosophy).

Public administration and Governance

• Administration‟ - Latin word „ad and ministrare‟ which means „to serve‟ or „to look after the
people‟ or „to care for‟ or to manage.
• Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice
• Public Administration as an academic, research and political discipline have evolved since the
turn of the 20th century and well into the perpetually changing globalised environment.

Meanings of Public Administration:

1. the implementation of government policy,
2. an academic discipline that studies the implementation of government policy and prepares public
servants for work in the public service.
• Unelected public servants (non political partisans') = public administrators.
• Governance and public administration are two key issues:
• The traditional use of “governance” and its dictionary entry define it as a synonym for
“government”
• Governance “refers primarily to government, and one of the pillars of government is public
administration.”
• Governance – “the act or process of governing or overseeing the control and direction of
something (such as a country or an organization)”, Merriam Webster Dictionary.
• Governance - “the way that organizations or countries are managed at the highest level, and the
systems for doing this”, Cambridge Dictionary.
• Governance; changes in the nature and role of the state following the public- sector reforms of
the 1980s and ’90s.
• Reforms; intensified by global changes; ncrease in transnational economic activity and the rise
of regional institutions.
Government vs Governance

• “government” and “governance”

• Government is closely related to politics.
• Politicians are described as “political”
• civil servants -as “non political”,
• the state as “public” and
• the civil society as “private”
• Governance is a broader term than government.
• Government - one of the institutions in governance
• When there is good governance, there is sustainable development.

Government Governance
Superstructure Functionality
decisions Processes
rules Goals
roles Performance
Implementation Coordination
Outputs Outcomes

• Governance refers to a particular level of governance associated with a type of organization -

including public governance, global governance, non-profit governance, corporate governance,
and project governance.
• Governance can also define normative or practical agendas. Normative concepts of fair
governance or good governance are common among political, public sector, voluntary, and
private sector organizations.
• Public Administration is a part of the administration and a contemporary concept of governance.
• The quality of a country’s public administration and governance is a key factor in its economic
performance and the wellbeing of its citizens.
• Governance entails a larger scope and has a wider meaning.
• Through the term "governance" has been used to refer mostly to "government.
• Governance involves the institutionalization of a system through which citizens articulate their
interests, exercise their rights, and mediate their differences in pursuit of the collective good.
• UNDP describes it as the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage
a nation's affairs.
Key Dimensions and Specific Areas of Action
 Basic Elements of Key Dimensions Specific Areas of
Good Governance Action
1. Accountability means making Establishing criteria to measure Public Sector Management
public officials answerable for performance of public officials. Public Financial
government behavior and Institutionalizing mechanisms to Management Public
responsive to the entity from ensure that standards are met. Enterprise Management
which they derive authority Public Service Reform

2. Participants refers to
Undertaking development for and Participation of beneficiaries and
enhancing people’s access to
and influence on public policy by the people. affected groups.
processes Interface between government
and the private sector
Decentralization of public and
service delivery functions
(empowerment of Local
Governments).
Cooperation with non
government organization.

What is the importance of governance in public administration?

• Good governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad
consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in
decision-making over the allocation of development resources.

Two main forms of governance?

• direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have direct participation in the decision making of
the government.
• representative democracy, in which citizens exercise their power through elected
representatives.
Key Actors in Governance

1. State/ Public sector,

2. civil society,
3. Businesses/private sector

Adrian Leftwich identifies three strands to good governance:

1. systemic,
2. political and
3. administrative.

• The World Bank defines governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the way the
 economic and social resources of a country are managed.
• UNDP described governance as the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority
inherent in the management of a country’s affairs at all levels amid a wide variety of
mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens articulate their interests,
exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences.
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - describes governance as the use of
political authority and exercise of control in a country in relation to the management of its
resources aiming at sustainable development through the creation of a conducive environment
leading to a proper functioning of the state for the benefit of the population.

• In governance, citizens are rightly concerned with a government’s responsiveness to their needs
and protection of their rights.
• The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes supports and
sustains human development - especially for the poorest and most marginal.
• Good governance - participatory, transparent and accountable, effective and equitable;
promotes the rule of law; ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on
broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard
in decision-making over the allocation of development resources.
Governance:
1. economic,
2. political and
3. administrative.

• Encompassing all three, good governance defines the processes and structures that guide
political and socio-economic relationships.
• Governance encompasses the state, but it transcends the state by including the private sector
and civil society organizations.
• The state is defined to include political and public sector institutions.
• Some say that the private sector is part of civil society.
• Civil society, lying between the individual and the state, comprises individuals and groups
(organized or unorganized) interacting socially, politically and economically - regulated by formal
and informal rules and laws.

THE EIGHT CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

• Good governance results in organizational effectiveness.
• Good governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad
consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in
decision-making over the allocation of development resources.
1. Participation
2. Rule of law
3. Transparency
4. Responsiveness
5. Consensus oriented
6. Equity and inclusiveness
7. Effectiveness and efficiency
8. Accountability
Why Governance Matters?
• Good governance creates a strong future for an organization by continuously steering towards a
vision and making sure that day-to- day management is always lined up with the organization’s
goals. At its core, governance is about leadership.
• Poor governance can put organizations at risk of commercial failure, financial and legal
problems for directors/trustees or allow an organization to lose sight of its purpose and its
responsibilities to its owners and people who benefit from its success.

Differences between public and private administration

• Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice

Meanings of Public Administration

• the implementation of government policy,
• an academic discipline that studies the implementation of government policy and prepares
public servants for work in the public service.
Definition of Public administration
• Public Administration is a field of study that is concerned with the systematic application of
public policies and programmes formulated by the state.
• It relates to the administrative functions carried out by the government.
• It focuses on providing services to the general public, to ensure a good and safe life to people.
• Public administration is a non-political public bureaucracy that operates within a legal
framework.
Definition of Private Administration
• Private Administration is defined as management and organisation of private business
enterprises.
• It is an administrative function carried out by the private individuals or a group, to earn a profit.
• It is a business activity which is non-political in nature.

• In general, the concept of administration, whether public or private, is universal.

• If we understand administration to mean cooperation in the conduct of business, then the
presence of administration is essential, whether in the private sector or in the public sector.
Differences in definition
• Public administration - when the word administration is used for government activities and
organizations. (All government offices)
• Private administration refers to the activities of a private organization. (All privately owned
company or organizations)
Differences in Goals and Objectives
• The purpose of public administration is to perform its functions keeping in view the interest or
welfare of the people.
• The main goal of the public administration is to implement public policy introduced by the
government.
• The private administration as a whole is not engaged in public interest.
• In Private Administration, administration is employed according to the needs and interests of
the management of a private or non-government organization.
• The main goal of the private administration is to fulfill the personal aspirations of the owner of
 that particular organization.

Differences in the legal framework

• Another fundamental difference between public administration and private administration is
that public administration is governed by a statutory law, which is also created by a particular
political authority.
• Although the administration of a private organization is governed by law, there is no obligation
to do so within the limits of the law.
• In the case of private administration, the director may change the law if necessary.

Differences in Public Accountability

• Public accountability is the backbone of public administration.

• The government is accountable to the people for errors in public administration.
• The failure or success of the government depends on the failure or success of the public
administration.
• Public administration is directly accountable to the government and indirectly accountable to
people.
• Private administration is not accountable to the people. Their main goal is to maximize profit.
Differences in Approach
• The bureaucratic approach is used for running public administration, but private administration
has an egalitarian approach.
Public Administration Vs Private Administration

1) The Purpose:
–Private: to increase their profits through customers.

–Public: to serve the public interest, and everyone is served regardless their social status.

2.Ownership:

–Private: owned by individuals.

–Public: owned by government, sometimes part of government.
3.Financial Management:
–Private: selling their products. The money will return to the owners’
pockets (Revenues).

–Public: receiving money (financial resources) from the government budget appropriations, although
agency may receive profits from people (e.g. fees, charges).

• Public Administration refers to the administration which functions in the governmental

surroundings.
• The private administration refers to the administration which functions in the non-
governmental surroundings such as the business enterprises.
• Public Administration is „Governmental Administration‟ and private administration is known as
„business administration‟.
• It is necessary to deal with the questions such as is public Administration similar to, or different
from private administration?

• Let us first understand the differences and see what the authors and subject matter experts
have to say about it.
Differences
• Public Administration is different from private administration in terms of the working
environment i.e the institutional settings in which it functions.
• Paul H. Appleby, an important American theorist of public administration in democracies, was
the prominent supporter of this view.
Appleby :
• A-The first is the political character
• B-The second is the breadth of scope, impact and consideration
• C-The public accountability‟.
• John Gaus of Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration regarded government activities
as “different from that of private organizations almost in kind as well as in scope”.
• Josia Stamp went a step further and identified four aspects of differences of which the only one
similar to that of Appleby‟s is that of public accountability or public responsibility as Stamp
identifies it.
• The other three are:
• 1.Principle of uniformity
• 2.Principle of external financial control
• 3. Principle of service motive
• Herbert Simonhad explained the very practical differences based on popular beliefs and
imagination and therefore might seem more appealing. He said “Public Administration is
bureaucratic while private administration is business like. Public administration is political while
private administration is apolitical. And finally; the aspect most of us would swear by that public
administration is characterized by red tape while the private administration is free of it.
• Peter Ferdinand Drucker, an Austrian-American management consultant, educator, and author,
whose writings contributed to the philosophical and practical foundations of the modern
business corporation.
• Drucker : While the public administration functions on service intuition the private
administration follows the business intuition.
• In comparison to private administration, public administration enjoys high degree of status and
prestige. It is because of the supreme power lies on the governmental machinery. Public
 Administration rendering more service to the public than private organization.
• Public Administration is subjected to political orientation and direction as under the policies the
bureaucrats implement the policy whereas the private administration does not have any
political direction. The ends the private administration follows are of its own decision and
choice. Their objectives do not depend upon the political decision makers. But the administrator
under public administration follows the orders of the executive authorities with little option of
his own.
• The principal feature of public Administration is service oriented and profit motive. Its objective
is to rendered service to the public and stimulate community welfare.
• The Private administration is characterized by profit motive.
• Its main objective is to maximize profit.
• Ludwig Von Mises “Business management or profit management is management directed by the
profit motive. The objective of business management is to make a profit. The objectives of
Public administration cannot be measured in money terms and cannot checked by accountancy
method. ”
Principle of Uniformity
• The principles of Public administration is based on the principle of uniformity.
• According to this principle there is no concept like favour and disfavor. All are equal under the
banner of public administration.
• The private administration need not to worry about the uniformity in treatment. The public
administration believes in the principle of „First come, first serve motto‟.
Establishing Public Relation
• The Public and Private Administration also differs on the ground of establishing their public
relation.
• It is the public organization who gives more importance to the people rather than the business
or private organization. But the business or private organizations gives more importance on
business which is more profit motive in nature.
The matters of Efficiencies and effectiveness
• In the matters of efficiency, the private organizations are much superior then the public.
• In private organization efficiency is measured in terms of resources they use. In this organization
the performance of the employees are important which matters the input- output relationship.
• Efficiency of the employees is calculated as „profit earning‟ in the organizations. But if one takes
profit as the indicator in the public organization, it will be a narrow view of the role of this
sector.
• Effectiveness refers to the successful achievement of specific goals.
Different in the principle of organization

• The principle of organization is significant to both public and private administration.

• Huxley said „The state lives in a glass house, we see what it tries to do, and all its failures, partial
or total, are made the most of. But. But private organization is sheltered under opaque bricks
and mortar. ‟
The nature of Monopoly
• The Public Administration is generally monopolistic by its nature.
• It does not give enough scope to the private parties to compete with it.
• The governmental organizations are not allowed to run by the individual or a group of
individuals but run by the government itself.
 • This is not in case of private administration.
• Glenn Stahl “The services performed by the state are generally of a monopolistic or semi-
monopolistic character, a fact which springs from the very urgency of the functions undertaken.
Because of this fact it is much more difficult to gauge the efficiency of the conduct of public
business than of ordinary private business, which is subject to competition and forced to
balance its books from year to year.”

The matter of Public Responsibility

• Public responsibility is one of the important pillar of Public Administration.
• Public is the main source of administration.
• Public scrutiny, accountability and transparency are the important characteristics of Public
Administration.
• It has also faces the criticism from the public, the press and from the political parties. While
Private administration does not have any great responsibility towards the public.
• P.H. Appleby “Government administration differs from all other administrative works to a
degree not even faintly realized outside, by virtue of its public nature, the way in which it is
subject to public scrutiny and public outcry. An administrator coming into government is struck
at once and continually thereafter, by the press and public interest in every detail of his life,
personality and conduct…..every government executive lives and moves and has his being in the
presence of public dynamite. ”

Extensive Financial control

• Public Administration is exposed to very extensive financial control. The legislature passes the
financial bill and the executive authorities spend the money.
Different psychological attitude
• There is a great difference in the psychological attitude between the private and public
administration.
• According to Simon:
• 1.Public administration is bureaucratic, whereas private administration business like.
• 2.Public administration is political whereas private administration is non-political.
• 3.Public administration is characterized by red-tape, whereas private administration is free from
it.
Similarities
• There are many similarities between the ways in which a public and a private administration
functions.
• Huxley Fayol said that all kinds of administration function on some general principle irrespective
of them being public or private. The planning, organizing, commanding and controlling are
similar for all administrations.
• The managerial aspects of planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling are the same for
public and private administration.
• The accounting aspects like maintenance of accounts, filing, statistics and stocking are the same.
• Both of them have a hierarchical chain of command or reporting as the organizational structure.
• Both get influenced, adopt and reform their own practices in the light of best practices of the
other.
(i) Common skill and technique
(ii) Profound influence upon each other
(iii) Similarity in the principle of administrative set up
(iv) Sufficient scope for the research and improvement
(v) Co-ordination and Public relation.
(vi) Mutual exchange and rotation

• By observing the above differences and similarities D. Waldo said “The generalization which
distinguished public administration from private administration by special care for equality of
treatment, Legal authorization of, and responsibility of action, public justification or justifiability
of decision, financial probity and meticulousness, and so forth are of very limited applicability. In
fact, public and private administration are the two species of the same genus, but they have
special values and techniques of their own which give to each its distinctive character. ”
• From the light of the discussion on differences between public and private administration, it can
be concluded that there are a lot of fundamental differences between public and private
administration, but it is true that there are some similarities also.
• Many emphasize the differences between public and private administrations, while others
emphasize the similarities between the two. The Public Private Partnership (PPP) is very
important today. Many things in public administration today can be achieved with the help of
private administration. That’s why Recently, the line between private and public concepts has
not been clear.
• Judging by the necessity of the administrative system as a whole, it can be said that it is not
possible to have any real purpose in verifying the differences between the two or the errors of
both. What is needed is a joint effort of both private and public administration.
• The goals and objectives of the government administration cannot be achieved without the help
of non-governmental organizations or private administration. It is possible to build a healthy and
strong administrative system through the skills, cooperation and coordination of both and this
environment is beneficial for both government and non-government organizations.
• Administration‟ - Latin word „ad and ministrare‟ which means „to serve‟ or „to look after the
people‟ or „to care for‟ or to manage.

Decentralisation and Local Governance

• “Decentralisation is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the
central government to intermediate and local governments or quasi‐independent government
organizations and/or the private sector. “, Word Bank.
• Decentraization “the act or process of decentralizi ng an organization or government (= moving
control from a single place to several smaller ones)”, Cambrdige Dictionary.
• “Decentralisation refers to tire systematic effort to delegate to the lowest levels all authority
except that which can only be exercised at central points.” — Louis A. Allen
• “Decentralisation means the division of a group of functions and activities into relatively
autonomous units with overall authority and responsibility for their operation delegate to time
of cacti unit.’—Earl. P. Strong

• The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development defines decentralisation as

measures that transfer a range of powers, responsibilities and resources from central
government to subnational governments, defined as legal entities elected by universal suffrage
and having some degree of autonomy (OECD, 2019).

• 1970s, efforts at decentralisation began, and in the 1980s, public administration reforms
 focused on ‘downsizing’ the public sector, primarily through job reduction, retrenchment and
other attempts to control salary costs.
• From the 1990s - ‘New Public Management’ reforms
• Decentralization—the transfer of authority, responsibility and resources over public function
from the central government to local governments or other local entities—is one of the most
significant public sector reforms pursued by countries around the world.
• Decentralization of the government occurs when there is a transfer of authority, responsibility
and resources from the central government to local governments or other local entities—is one
of the most significant public sector reforms pursued by countries around the world.

• The local government “is the lowest level of elected territorial organization within a state” that
has the dual function of providing local public services and implementing national welfare
policies (Atienza 2006).
Three types of decentralization within the public sector:
(i) Political decentralization
(ii) Fiscal decentralization
(iii) Administrative decentralization
Decentralisation, a multidimensional concept

Administrative decentralisation

• The most radical form of administrative decentralisation is devolution, with local government
having full responsibility for hiring/firing of staff and assigning authority/responsibility for
carrying out tasks.
• De‐concentration is the transfer of authority and responsibility from one level of the central
government to another, with the local unit accountable to the central government ministry or
agency which has been decentralised.
• Delegation, is the redistribution of authority and responsibility to local units of government or
agencies that are not always necessarily branches, or local offices of the delegating authority,
with the bulk of accountability still vertically directed upwards towards the delegating central
unit.

• De‐concentrationis often considered as a controlled form of decentralisatio n and is used most

 frequently in unitary states.
• Delegation is a more extensive form of decentralisation. Through delegation, central
governments transfer responsibility for decision‐making and administration of public functions
to semi‐autonomous organisations not wholly controlled by the central government, but
ultimately accountable to it.
• Devolution is often considered the most radical form of decentralisation. When governments
devolve functions, they transfer authority for decision‐making, finance, and management to
quasi‐autonomous units of local government with corporate status.

Traditional definition of decentralisation

• Dennis Rondinelli (1981; 1999), defined decentralization as the “the transfer of authority and
responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-
independent government organizations or the private sector.”
• or
• “transfer of [authority and] responsibility for planning, management, resource-raising and -
allocation and other functions from the central government and its agencies to (a) field units of
central government ministries or agencies, (b) subordinate units or levels of government, (c)
semi-autonomous public authorities or corporations, (d) areawide, regional or functional
authorities, or (e) nongovernmental private or voluntary organizations.”

• Decentralization is one of the broadest movements and most contentious policy issues in
development.
• 80% - 100% of countries in the world experimenting with decentralization (World Bank).
• At the center of reform throughout Latin America, Asia and Africa; also EU, UK & US.
• Scope of authority and resources devolved: Local governments spend 10 - 50% of total revenues
(Campbell, 2003)

• In some countries, decentralisation can be seen as a counter-reaction to previous strong

centralisation and even authoritarianism (Hooghe et al., 2016).
• In other countries, decentralisation has been a method to reform the public sector, for example,
in order to improve the efficiency of public services and thereby curbing the growth of
government spending.
• Decentralisation of authority is also often expected result in more accountable and transparent
public governance, lower corruption, higher political participation and policy innovation (OECD,
2019).
• Decentralization is very dynamic component among other features of governance
arrangements, and it diminishes the autonomy of the state (Bardhan 2002; Faguet et al. 2014).
• Decentralization is being applied in various regions for diverse purposes like to impose or
restore political and economic control, to strengthen the democratic system, to minimize
conflict or controversies, to expand the public facilities, or to aggravate regional dissimilarities
(Ahmad et al. 2005; Streeten 1999). For their distance with the local level, the central
government might not have satisfactory acquaintance with the remote localities; thus,
decentralization is introduced in many states (Wahhab 2006).
• Decentralization of government bodies makes central government more responsive to local
needs and deliver inaccessible residents voice in public concerns. Faguet (2014) argues that
decentralization incline reform the bureaucratic, top-down management system to a self-
 autonomies participatory system. Thus, decentralization fortifies democratic practice, enhance
community involvement, and consequently improve government effectiveness.
• Accordingly, decentralization empowers citizens to ensure their interests articulated in the
government strategy and amenities.
• Furthermore, devolution of the administrative system by decentralization promotes equality,
ensures cost-effectiveness, improves accountability, reduces corruption, and establishes
effective governance. Bardhan (2002) argues that decentralization not the only purpose of the
delegation of authority, it also substantially ensures governance at the local level. By delegating
power and resources to lower levels of government, decentralization minimizes social tensions
and community resentment.
Theoretical arguments for…
Decentralization can… Arguments for
(i) improve information re: local wants and needs
(ii) increase citizen voice and participation
(iii) improve government accountability > responsiveness> closer to people
(iv) deepen democracy
(v) strengthen individual liberties
(vi) improve economic performance
(vii) increase policy stability
(viii) reduce bureaucracy
(ix) decrease public spending
(x) decrease political tensions and the risk of civil war

Arguments against
(i) decrease efficiency in public goods production
(ii) decrease the quality of policy-making
(iii) increase graft and corruption
(iv) facilitate elite c
(v) inc
Theory provides a strong rationale
• Bring government “closer to the people” …> better public goods, more effective government
• Smaller scale facilitates information, participation and accountability
• Deepens democracy and lowers costs
• Local homogeneity vs. national heterogeneity
• Counteract centrifugal forces that cause political tensions/violence [Spain, UK]
Policy Implications (i)
• Good decentralization should improve technical efficiency in education and health.
(1) Better quality and quantity or services
(2) Better outcomes (e.g. literacy, infant mortality).

• Good decentralization will increase allocative efficiency in education. In health too, if D includes
conditional transfers and retained central authority in areas with large externalities.
Local Governance
• Improving local governance is a vital tool to guarantee peace, boost economic development,
maximize administrative efficiency, and ensure social inclusion and environmental sustainability
• Local governance comprises a set of institutions, mechanisms and processes through which
citizens and their groups can articulate their interests and needs, mediate their differences, and
exercise their rights and obligations at the local level.

• Local governance emphasises the need to look beyond the narrow perspective of legal
frameworks and local government entities. It seeks to include the multiplicity of formal and
informal relationships between different actors in development (e.g. local government, the
private sector, associations, de‐concentrated agencies, CSOs) that shape and influence the
output and effectiveness of political and administrative systems at a sub‐national level. There is
a large degree of synergy and coherence between supporting national governance processes
and local governance, as many of the aspects are in fact the same. Therefore, it is necessary to
work with governance principles at local levels to strengthen local governance processes.
The significant characteristics of Local government are as follows :
1) Engaged in solving the problems of the local people, in a village, town or city.
2) Created by the laws of State Legislatures.
3) Required to function as per the provisions of the law.
4) Enjoys autonomy and has independence in decision making as the State governments do not interfere
in the local government’s day-to- day administration.
5) Affairs are managed by the representatives elected by the people in the area.
Difference between decentralisation and local governance?
• The main differences between decentralisation and local governance are in the actual actors
participating in the process and the mode of interaction between governments, the private
sector and civil society.
• Decentralisation pertains to public sector institutional and organisational reforms and processes
and the support thereof, whereas local governance pertains more to supporting the creation of
an enabling environment where multi‐stakeholder processes ‐ including public and private
sector, as well as civil society – interact to foster effective local‐development processes.

• Local economic development is a transformation process of the way economic and political
decisions are made at the local level, with the end objective of improving the living conditions of
the local society in an inclusive manner.
• It takes place through organized negotiation processes between local actors from civil society,
the public sector and the private sector that seek to address the different challenges faced by
the territory.
• The main aim of LED is to offer local government, the private sector, the non‐profit sectors, and
the local community the opportunity to work together to improve the local economy.
• It aims to enhance competitiveness and thus to encourage sustainable growth that is inclusive.
• Local governments play an important role in democracy. Their effective functioning delivers
good governance at the local level.
• 1.Proximity : They are close to the people.
• 2.Training School of democracy : Imparts training in democratic citizenship - Makes people
aware of the importance of having power and their responsibilities in the exercise of power
helps the people learn.
• 3. Decentralization of Power : Assigning certain functions and responsibilities, along with
necessary powers and resources, is known as democratic decentralization. Local governments
facilitate such decentralization of power.
• 4. Generates civic sense : Living in an area for generations develops in the people a sense of
affinity towards it.
 • It helps them identify the local problems.

e-Governance
• E-governance has become an integral part of public administration reforms around the world.
What is e-Government?
• The use by the Government of web-based Internet applications and other information
technologies, combined with processes that implement these technologies, to:
• enhance the access to and delivery of Government information and services to the public, other
agencies, and other government entities, or
• bring about improvements in Government operations that may include effectiveness, efficiency,
service quality, or transformation"
• e-government refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies that have
the ability to transform relations with citizens, business, and other arms of government.
• “e-governance: the use of the internet by governments to make it possible for people to use
government services and be involved in making decisions:”, Cambridge Dictionary
• E-Governance is managing, controlling and reporting of processes, using electronic systems such
as computers, internet, etc. within a private as well as public organization
• E-governance, expands to electronic governance, is the integration of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in all the processes, with the aim of enhancing government
ability to address the needs of the general public.
• The basic purpose of e-governance is to simplify processes for all, i.e. government, citizens,
businesses, etc. at National, State and local levels.
• It is the use of electronic means, to promote good governance.
• It represent the implementation of information technology in the government processes and
functions so as to cause simple, moral, accountable and transparent governance.
• It entails the access and delivery of government services, dissemination of information,
communication in a quick and efficient manner.
•
Benefits of E-governance
• Reduced corruption
• High transparency
• Increased convenience
• Growth in GDP
• Direct participation of constituents
• Reduction in overall cost.
• Expanded reach of government

• Through e-governance, the government plans to raise the coverage and quality of information
and services provided to the general public, by the use of ICT in an easy, economical and
effective manner.
• E-governance is the use of Information Technology for delivering relevant government
information and services efficiently and transparently to citizens, businesses, and other arms of
government for wider participation in a representative democracy.
Purpose of e-Governance:
• The basic purpose of e-governance is the simplify processes for everyone, e.i. government,
citizens, businesses, at all levels, central and local levels.
 • To promote good governance. It connotes the implementation of information technology in the
government processes and functions so as the cause simple, moral, accountable and
transparent governance.
• To provide access to government services, dissemination of information, communication in a
quick and efficient manner.
The objectives of e governance are as follows-
• One of the basic objectives of e-governance is to make every information of the government
available to all in the public interest.
• One of its goals is to create a cooperative structure between the government and the people
and to seek help and advice from the people, to make the government aware of the problems of
the people.
• To increase and encourage people’s participation in the governance process.
• e-Governance improves the country’s information and communication
• technology and electronic media, with the aim of strengthening the country’s economy by
keeping governments, people and businesses in tune with the modern world.
• One of its main objectives is to establish transparency and accountability in the governance
process.
• To reduce government spending on information and services.
• Electronic governance or e-governance is the application of information technology for
delivering government services, exchange of information, communication transactions,
integration of various stand-alone systems between government to citizen (G2C), government-
to-business (G2B), government-to- government (G2G), government-to-employees (G2E) as well
as back- office processes and interactions within the entire governance framework.
Government-to-Government (G2G).
• G2G e-government involves sharing data and conducting electronic exchanges between
governmental actors. This involves both intra and inter-agency exchanges at the national level,
as well as exchanges between the national, provincial, and local levels. G2G applications
constitute the maximum chunk of the e-governance functions.
Government-to-Citizen (G2C)
• G2C initiatives are designed to facilitate citizen interaction with government, which is what
some observes perceive to be the primary goal of e-government.
• These initiatives attempt to make transactions, such as renewing licenses and certifications,
paying taxes, and applying for benefits, less time consuming and easer to carry out.
• G2C initiatives also often strive to enhance access to public information through the use of
dissemination tools, such as Web sites and/or kiosks.
Government to Business (G2B)
• Government-to-Business initiatives receive a significant amount of attention, in part, because of
high enthusiasm of the business sector and the potential for reducing costs through improved
procurement practices and increased competition. The G2B sector includes both the sale of
surplus government goods to the public, as well as the procurement of goods and services.
Although not all are directly dependent on the us of information technology, several different
procurement methods are used in relation to the G2B sector.
Government to Employee (G2G)
• The Government to Employee is the internal part of G2G sector. G2E aims to bring employees
together and improvise knowledge sharing. G2E provides online facilities to the employees like
applying for leave, reviewing salary payment records, and checking the balance of the holiday.
Features of E Governance
 • De bureaucratization: Due to e-governance, the gap between the people and the government in
all the services of the government is narrowing and the dependence of the people on the
bureaucracy is also greatly reduced.
• E-Services: Its main feature is the provision of services through the Internet. As a result, we get
G2C, G2B, G2E, etc. services.
• International Services: through e-governance, all the essential services can be delivered to the
citizens who are living outside of their country for job purposes or any other reasons.
• It enhances the right to express to the citizens. Using the means of e- governance anyone can
share their views with the government on any bill or act or decision taken by the government.

• Economic Development: With the introduction of e-governance, various information like import-
export, registration of companies, investment situations, etc. are available through the internet.
As a result, time is saved, procrastination decreases, and economic dynamism increases.
• Reduce inequality: using e-governance tools everyone can gather information and empower
themselves. In this globalized world, knowledge is power, and means of e-governance empower
us by providing relevant information at minimal cost, effort, and time.
• E-Governance can be considered as the social inclusive policy for development of transparency
and accountability of both people in society and administration. This policy involves providing
the services to the people with collection of information through the institutional and
communicational development.
Technologies can serve as a variety of different ends:
• A. better delivery of government services to citizens
• B. improved interactions with business and industry
• C. citizen empowernment through access to information, or more efficient government
management.

• The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience,
revenue growth and or cost reduction.
• Governance has become a major requirement in most organizations and business communities.
• E-Governance applies to both: Government as well as private organizations.
What is SMART Governance?
• Simple — implies simplification of rules and regulations of the government and avoiding
complex processes with the application of ICTs and therefore, providing a user-friendly
government.
• Moral — meaning the emergence of a new system in the administrative and political machinery
with technology interventions to improve the efficiency of various government agencies.
• Accountable — develop effective information management systems and other performance
measurement mechanisms to ensure the accountability of public service functionaries.
• Responsive — Speed up processes by streamlining them, hence making the system more
responsive.
• Transparent — providing information in the public domain like websites or various portals
hence making functions and processes of the government transparent.

• E-government is a much more massive information than electronic service delivery.

• E-government is multi-faceted: it deals with information technology as a tool of government, as
an object of government's attention, and as a major factor in shaping the social and economic
environment in which government acts. Looked as this way, e-government can and does
 implicate all aspects of public service.
• E-governance is no more and no less than governance in an electronic environment. It is both
governance of what environment and governance within that environment, using "electronic
tools".
• E-governance focuses on how these new technologies can be used to strenghen the public's
voice as a force to reshape the democratic processes, and refocus the management, structure,
and oversight of government to better serve the public interest.
• E-governance fosters partnerships and collaborations of those who have a stake in enriching the
processses. This includes all levels of government (country, municipal, state, regional, etc), the
private sector, the academic community and foundations.
• “E-governance comprises the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to
support public services, government administration, democratic processes, and relationships
among citizens, civil society, the private sector, and the state.”
Advantages of e-Governance
• Improves delivery and efficiency of government services
• Improved government interactions with business and industry
• Citizen empowerment through access to information
• More efficient government management
• Less corruption in the administration
• Increased transparency in administration
• Greater convenience to citizens and businesses
• Cost reductions and revenue growth
• Increased legitimacy of government
• Flattens organisational structure (less hierarchic)
• Reduces paperwork and red-tapism in the administrative process which results in better
planning and coordination between different levels of government
• Improved relations between the public authorities and civil society
• Re-structuring of administrative processes
Leadership in Public Sector
• Public Leader: A formal or informal leader who serves in a leadership role in the public sector.
• Public official: One who holds or is invested with a public office; a person elected or appointed
to carry out some portion of a government's sovereign powers (Garner, 2009).
• Leadership in any organization is important, but developing good leaders in the public sector is
especially crucial.
• Leadership in the public sector is especially important; it not only influences the job
performance and satisfaction of employees, but also how government and public agencies
perform.
• Leadership is critical to good public governance, including good planning, efficiency,
transparency, and accountability.
• Public leaders “are responsible for formulating policies, goals, and implementing strategies to
maneuver a country through various stages of economic, social, and political development”
• Public leaders are held to a higher standard and code of ethics in which they represent the
people and act on their behalf.
• “Leadership is influence, nothing more, nothing less,” John C. Maxwell
• “True leaders ensure they continue to develop their leadership skills throughout their careers,
through learning and development materials and activities.”, Hugo Heij, business coach.
 • “Effective leaders are made, not born. They learn from trial and error, and from
experience,”Colin Powell, Former U.S. Secretary of State.
• "Leadership are those who always empower others,", Bill Gates.
• The word "leader" implies there is someone present with potential to follow and a direction to
move.

• As a leader, you are expected to give advice, guidance, motivation and inspiration to your team.
• Public sector leaders also face different challenges than in the private sector, and perhaps call
on different competencies.
• For example, a study by Hudson, Decoding the DNA of Public and Private Sector Leaders, a
recruitment and talent management company in the Netherlands, found public sector leaders
are confronted with the challenge to deliver public services efficiently in accordance with the
authorized procedures, processes, and rules.
• Public sector senior leaders are typically prone to follow and monitor rules and procedures and
give clear directions about the way things need to be done.
Core qualities that come from some of the greatest leaders there has ever been.
These can include:
• Honesty and trustworthy
• Self-aware and ethical
• Strategic thinking
• Highly motivated to reach goals
• Ambitious and courageous
• Committed

• Public leadership has been generally described as a "role where a person holds a public office
and serves and guides the community as a whole" for example, a Mayor.
• Nothing in public sector is more important, interesting, or mysterious than leadership.

• In a world characterized by diffusion of power and policymaking regulation and the delivery of
public services administrative leaders play a critical roles in accomplishing the work of
democratic governance.
• The public sector is fundamental to our society and is an essential element in protecting safety,
promoting social cohesion, delivering justice, supporting learning and helping people live
healthy lives. The skills of the workforce within the sector are key to successfully delivering
against a range of social and economic priorities
• These findings(30% genetic, 70% learned) propose that leaders are made not born.
• leadership is a skill that can be learned
• Ultimately, the answer is that both are true: a person can be born with natural leadership
abilities, and someone can learn how to be a good leader at work.
• Many leaders do utilise natural, inherent traits.
• They may have developed key leadership traits via environments they were raised in, or they
may simply possess them naturally.
• For example, you might have come across leaders who are naturally influential. Without even
trying, some leaders are able to inspire others, simply through their demeanour and presence.
• Leadership in public sector is the art of inspiring others to do the right thing, at the right time,
for the benefit of the whole.
• Leadership development is neither new nor unique to the public sector.
 • Leadership is a critical component of good public governance,
• Leadership is perhaps one of the most important aspects of management. This is because
leadership is a major factor which contributes immensely to the general wellbeing of
organizations and nations.
• Leadership in public sector is accepted to be an important component of good governance in
general and good public governance in particular.
• Leadership is in essence the heart of good governance.The Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development work defines also the role of public leaders as:
• “to solve the problems and challenges faced in a specific environment. When we say we want
more leadership in the public sector, what we are really looking for is people who will promote
institutional adaptations in the public interest. Leadership in this sense is not value-neutral. It is
a positive espousal of the need to promote certain fundamental values that can be called public-
spiritedness. “
• Consequently, leadership is an important and crucial component of good governance that leads
to a superior management level and higher organisational performance which also integrates
efficient human resources management and establishes public service ethics.
• “The earlier definitions identified leadership as a focus of group process and movement,
personality in action. The next type considered it as the art of inducing compliance. The more
recent definitions conceive leadership in terms of influence relationships, power differentials,
persuasion, influence on goal achievement, role differentiation, reinforcement, initiation of
structure, and perceived attributions of behaviour that are consistent with what the perceivers
believe leadership to be. Leadership may involve all these things.”
• The effectiveness of organizational performance of public sector, which can be highly affected
by effective leadership, in developing countries, has been a major concern to the government to
achieve the goal of growth and transformation in all aspects as lack of effectiveness in the areas
of leadership is a common problem in most public service organizations’ of developing
countries.
• Regardless of the sector, leaders need to fulfill certain attributes according to the situation,
environment, and expectations. Being able to choose the right leader or the most successful
education for managers it is essential to understand how leadership preferences differ among
public sector organizations.
• A leader in the public sector has to represent the organization to external interests and
combines the pluralistic interests to one vision. The followers are not only the subordinates, but
also other interests groups as taxpayers, governmental agencies and legislators, who all have
different ideas and expectations of their leader.
Van Wart distinguishes five possible definitions for public leadership:
1. as the process of providing results required by authorized processes in an efficient, effective and legal
manner
2. as the process of supporting followers who provide results
3. as the process of aligning the organization with its environment, especially the macro level changes
necessary, and realigning the culture as appropriate
4. as the service focus
5. as a composite of providing technical performance, internal direction to followers, external
organizational direction –all with a public service orientation.
The core characteristics of public sector leadership?
• Public sector leaders, on the other hand, are impartial, non-partisan, and appointed through
merit-based selection with tenure beyond the life of any particular government.
 • Leadership is one of the most important functions of management.
• Leading involves directing, influencing and motivating employees to perform.
• Being a manager largely involves the ability to practice leadership that creates and facilitates
change.
• Leadership is a key to managing organizations in periods of change and crisis and is thus
important to all of us working within organizations.
How does leadership affect organizational change?
• Leadership plays a role in an organization to motivate and encourage the employees to change
in order for the organization to be able to sustain and adapt to the business environment, to
make sure the organization will improve and be innovative.
• Leaders provide the motivation to change and get people involved. They create a sense of
urgency and importance about the change, and show commitment and passion about getting
things done. They offer recognition to those who are participating and doing well.
Key distinction between management and leadership
• Management consists of implementing the vision and direction provided by leaders,
coordinating and staffing the organisation, and handling day-to-day problems.
• The management process involves planning and budgeting, organising and staffing, and
controlling and problem-solving. A manager therefore theoretically (though not always) has an
administrative role within a structure that has subordinates, which they manage so as to
produce order and reduce uncertainty.
• Leadership, on the other hand, can be defined as a process, exercised by an individual or group,
to influence followers towards achieving a common goal. Both leaders and managers make a
valuable contribution to an organisation, in different ways. Managers direct groups and exercise
power over them, whereas leaders create teams and develop power with them.
• Organisations need both leaders and managers. They need leaders to challenge the status quo,
and to inspire and positively influence employees, which is enabled by having managers who
develop and maintain operational stability.
Distinction exists between public sector and political leadership
• Public sector leaders, on the other hand, are impartial, non-partisan, and appointed through
merit-based selection with tenure beyond the life of any particular government.
• Political leaders set policies and manage issues in the jurisdictional interest, whilst public sector
leaders manage the development and implementation of said policies.
• To support the interdependent nature of the relationship, public sector leaders are expected to
give independent, ‘frank and fearless’ advice (MacDermott, 2008) to their political leaders,
adopting a long- term view in the community interest.
• The leadership differences and implications between political and public sector leaders are
profound.
• Political leadership focuses on understanding the electorate, communicating with the public and
maintaining supportive relationships across communities. On the other hand, public sector
leadership is founded on the principle of political neutrality and focuses on the professional and
operational capabilities required to lead organisations.
• A leadership focus also plays an integrating role among various Human Resource Management
components including recruitment and selection, training and development, performance
management, public service ethics, and succession planning.

• Poor leadership and management have a direct impact on other areas of work, the report
findings state that: It can critically impact the loss of funding (72.2%)
 • It can majorly affect staff motivation (62.3%)
• There is a 65.2% chance of causing loss of business opportunities to a competitor
The four major factors in leadership within the public sector context?
• All leaders should be in tune with four key factors of leadership: the led, the leader, the
situation and the communication.
• All four factors must always be considerations when exercising leadership, but at different
moments, they affect each other differently
The qualities of a good leader in public service:
• The qualities of effective leadership include courage, strength, the ability to communicate
effectively, knowledge, judgment, integrity, and interpersonal skills.
• A particularly important quality is vision, along with the power to implement that vision.
The factors affecting leadership in public sector?
• Regression model is 0.504. It means that 50.4% of the variation in dependent variable (Factors
affecting Leadership Effectiveness) is explained by variation in all the six independent variables:
Professional skill, Motivation, Commitment, Awareness, Experience and corruption.
The best leadership style in public administration?
• The democratic leadership style is one of the most effective because it encourages everyone to
participate in all processes, share their opinions, and know that you will hear them. It also
encourages employees to be engaged because they know you will hear their feedback.
• Leaders with a democratic style value their colleagues opinions. They open up most decisions
for debate, which help employees feel valued and appreciated

• Consultative:
Process of consultation before decisions are taken.
• Persuasive:
Leader takes decision and seeks to persuade others that the decision is correct.
5 leadership skills that the recruiters might be looking for in you:
1) Self-development:
2) Team development:
3) Strategic management skills:
4) Professional ethics:
5) Creativity:

Public Administration Reforms

• The Oxford English Dictionary provides a definition of reform as “ The amendment, or altering
for the better, of some faulty state of things, esp. of a corrupt or oppressive political institution
or practice; the removal of some abuse or wrong”.
• Cambridge Dictionary, “to make an improvement, especially by changing a person's behaviour
or the structure of something”.
• An administrative reform is a conscious, well-considered change that is carried out in a public
sector organization or system for the purpose of improving its structure, operation or the quality
of its workforce.
Definition
• It is complicated to agree on a single definition of administrative reform.
• Opinions are various - two extremes:
• Generally, the word reform means to make something better, to improve something or to
remove the faults of something, in our case
 - the change of public administration.
- Some introduces the reform of public administration as a complex rebuilding of public
administration,
- others consider the reform to be also just a particular change within public
administration or just a modernizing or improving of public administration procedures.
Five principles of Public Administration
1) transparency and accountability
2) participation and pluralism
3) subsidiarity
4) efficiency and effectiveness, and
5) equity and access to services

the 4 pillars of public administration

1) economy,
2) efficiency,
3) effectiveness, and
4) social equity

• In order to function properly and develop good conditions, a state should have an organised and
accountable public administration.
• Such public administration needs professional services, well organised and established
procedures for policy and legislation development, well planned accountability, and clear public
financial management (Donald & James, 2009).
• This is the only way to be able to offer the necessary services and provide for citizens and
businesses in an efficient and effective manner (Pusić, 2002).
• Public administration is the main factor in the proper functioning of the modern state, which is
why a good public administration plays a relevant role in the development and improvement of
the country (Stavileci, 1997).
• Public administration is one of the main segments through which the relations between the
state, civil society and the private sector are realized.
• In this regard, supporting innovations in public administration enables the realization of
development objectives, in particular the economic advantages, poverty reduction, harmony
and institutional stability.
• Public administration is one of the main segments through which the relations between the
state, the civil society, and the private sector are realised (Denters, 2017, p. 91).
• In this regard, supporting innovations in public administration enables the realisation of
development objectives, in particular the economic advantages, poverty reduction, harmony
and institutional stability (Hood & Dixon, 2015).
• Public administration is facing various challenges, including improper regulation, insufficient
capacity, lack of standardisation, unorganised management structures, and lack of regulations
and procedures (Groot & Budding, 2008) as the main ones.
• Public Administration Reform can be very comprehensive and include process changes in areas
such as organisational structures, decentralization, personnel management, public finance,
results-based management, regulatory reforms etc.
• The quality of a country’s public administration and governance is a key factor in its economic
performance and the wellbeing of its citizens.
• Efficient public administrations serve the needs of citizens and businesses. It is essential that
 public
• authorities are able to adjust to changing circumstances.

History of Public Administration Reforms

• Since the 1970s-1980s, as many Western countries weren’t able to control the public
expenditure and to ensure continuous economic growth (Passet, 2010), they carried out a
number of reforms in order to improve their public administration and reinvent government
(Osborne and Gaebler, 1992).
• These reforms, which Hood called the New Public Management (NPM), have mainly tried to
introduce private management into public organisations (Hood, 1991, Dunleavy and Hood,
1994).
• By means of market systems, as well as performance management, the public administration is
supposed to become more economic, effective, and efficient.
• This reform is aimed at building a modern, digital, service-oriented state. The reform includes
the formation of an efficient public administration system that can develop and implement an
integrated public policy focused on the people’s needs, sustainable social development and
addressing internal and external challenges properly.

• The public administration reform is designed to change the approach to three key elements of
the executive branch — structures, processes and people. In practice, this means:

• building strong and accountable state institutions;

• preparation of quality executive decisions;
• forming professional civil service;
• launching e-governance;
• providing convenient services to general public.

• A strong democratic state cannot be built without an efficient public administration system. The
public administration reform is, therefore, an important precondition for European integration.
In its turn, the European Union is supporting the reform at the expert, technical and financial
levels.
• The public administration reform is among the most important tasks for countries with
economies in transition. A lot of important changes required for the economic development,
investment and job creation across the country depend on the ability of the state to develop
and implement efficient public policies.
• Modern public administration is also a key element in building trust in government through the
provision of
• affordable, quality public services, openness and accountability of governmental agencies.
Public Administration in Western Balkans
• Public Administration in WB has become an instrument to provide employment to party
members, family members or potential voters. This has created an administration of a
disproportionate size to its functions and workload, causing a burden on public finances and fails
to provide effective services to the citizenry.
• Current managerial and planning capacities cannot ensure that policies are based on needs
assessments and cost-effect studies.
• A well-functioning state requires an organized, qualified, and accountable public administration.
 • Such an administration, in turn, requires a professional civil service, clear procedures for policy
and
• legislative development, a clear framework for accountability, and a sound public financial
management.
• Only then can it efficiently and effectively deliver services to citizens and businesses.
Public Administration in Kosovo
• Public Administration Reform (PAR) is a dynamic process aimed at improving its capacity to
deliver public services.
• Kosovo created its own public administration less than two decades ago, and reforms took place
simultaneously with its institutional building. Along the way, from UNMIK’s interim
administration to the most recent national PAR Strategy, reform could never succeed without
the necessary recourses and willpower. The legal framework has advanced substantially in
recent years, mostly as a result of it being a requirement to implement the Stabilization and
Association Agreement and the European Reform Agenda, but it is rarely respected.
History
• 1999 – 2008, Kosovo was governed by the UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo
(UNMIK) that contributed to and had the responsibility of establishing self-government bodies,
organising elections, and transferring responsibilities to local institutions.

• UNMIK made attempts to establish a plan or framework for an effective public administration
based on merits, through several regulations, including the Civil Service Law, Local Government
Law etc.
• These regulations defined the positions and roles or responsibilities of civil servants, the
involvement of politics, and the code of conduct
• In 2017, Kosovo signed a sector reform contract on public administration reform with the
European Commission.
• The purpose of this contract is to support the reform of the public administration in Kosovo in
order to increase the accountability, transparency, and efficiency of the public administration
which, as its most relevant function, is focused on the needs of both citizens and businesses.
• This contract contains eight general indicators of the public administration reform, which the
Government of the Republic of Kosovo agreed to fulfil every year over the next three-year
period, in 2018, 2019, and 2020, respectively.
• The public administration in Kosovo is still struggling to fulfil its function, since political factors,
financial capacity, human resources, and the legacy have an important role in the development
and change of the public administration.
• As the main employer in Kosovo, with around 80,000 people on the payroll (Balkans Group
Policy Report,
• 2019), it has a huge number of employees.
• The data by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development show and prove that
the public administration in Kosovo is the largest of all the other Western Balkan countries, i.e.
with the highest percentage of total employment at 30.81%, whereas North Macedonia has the
lowest share with 22.79% (OECD, 2020).
• Progress reports of the European Commission emphasised that politicised administration
hinders the reforms in the public administration. On the other hand, the financial factor also
plays an important role in the reforming process.
• Although the EU provides financial assistance for the reforms of the public administration,
Kosovo needs more professional capacities to implement the reforms and policies. The financial
 factor contributes to delaying the reforms as the budget capacities are limited.
• One of Kosovo’s main goals is to reform and build administrative capacities at the level of
European Union standards, as this is a criterion established by the EU for advancing on its
accession route to the European Union, which also represent a challenge for the institutions of
Kosovo striving to fulfil the criteria set by the EU (Bieber, 2011).
• The legislation of Kosovo should be harmonised with the legal basis of the EU,
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REFORM STRATEGY 2022-2027
• Public Administration Reform Strategy (PARS) 2022 - 2027 is a strategic document of the
Government of the Republic of Kosovo that sets out objectives and guidelines for the
development and modernization of public administration over the next five (5) years.
• The document focuses on the responsibilities and administrative duties of the Government and
the state administration under the leadership, control and supervision of the Government.
• This 6 involves any segment of state administration, affected by legislation (e.g. administrative
procedures and service delivery, civil service system, access to information, public sector salary
system, etc.). This document also targets such administrative duties and responsibilities, while
recognizing the autonomy of local administration
• The vision of the PAR Strategy is a modern public administration that serves the public interest,
meets the needs of citizens and businesses, and successfully completes the EU membership
process, supporting democracy and the rule of law.
The scope of PARS is summarized into 4 priority areas:
(a) Policy Planning and Coordination;
(b) Service delivery;
(c) Public Service and Human Resource Management (HRM);
(d) Accountability and transparency.
Principles of public sector reforms
 Administrative reform

Reform Movements: New public Management(NPM)

Service delivery
Accountability

The role of civil society in the public sector

Civil society can be understood as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government(state sector)
and business (market sector), and including the family and the private sphere.
By other authors, civil society is used in the sense of
1) the aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that advance the interests and will
of citizens or
2) individuals and organizations in a society which are independent of the government.
Civil society (CS) representation

What is civil society?/ definition

• Britannica defines civil society as a ‘dense network of groups, communities, networks, and ties
that stand between the individual and the modern state.’
• These groups may include sports clubs, charities, indigenous groups, non-profit organizations,
faith-based organizations, foundations, professional associations, and more. Well-known
examples include the Red Cross, Rotary Clubs, the Salvation Army, Amnesty International, and
Wildlife Warriors.
• Civil society groups help to bring about the interests of citizens and individuals, but tend to act
independently of government institutions and businesses.
• But even though civil society acts independently of government institutions, many civil society
organizations regularly interact with governments and their representatives. In fact, we’ve
identified at least ten ways that civil society organizations typically engage with the government:
• “the wide array of non-governmental and not-for-profit organizations that have a presence in
 public life, expressing the interests and values of their members or others, based on ethical,
cultural, political, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations.
• Civil society has grown in size and importance around the world.
• A vibrant civil society can ensure that millions of vulnerable people have a voice and that they
play a central role in the struggle to further political, social, economic and constitutional rights.
• Civil society can identify and raise issues around which collective problem-solving needs to take
place.
• Civil society organizations (CSOs) also play an essential role in contexts of state service reduction
or lack of services, particularly in countries of protracted crisis.
Why is civil society important?
Among the many areas civil society focuses on and among the different functions it serves,
strengthening democracy and contributing to development are the most crucial.

In particular, civil society and civil society organisations make their key contribution to development and
democratization processes by:
• delivering basic services, such as primary education, health, water and sanitation, and providing
shelter, counselling and support services to disadvantaged groups.
• demanding efficient public services to the relative authorities
• promoting political participation
• monitoring the performance of government and other stakeholders in the provision of services
and by holding them accountable for their work
• participating in local planning and budgeting
• advocating for human rights, for the needs and priorities of their constituency (especially of
marginalized groups) and advocating against government deficiencies
• contributing to mediating and resolving conflict, contribute to social innovation
• influencing government policy and lobbying for change
• contributing to social innovation
Civil Society – Government Policy
• Civil society groups are often involved in shaping government policy, programs, and strategy
through consultation, discussions, and public hearings, with organizations often representing
the interests of a broader group of stakeholders.
Promoting Accountability and Transparency in Public Administration
• Civil society plays an important role in holding governments to account — from
monitoring government actions to publicly calling them out with reports that highlight
potential issues.
• For example, the Global Partnership for Social Accountability (GPSA) provides grants
that facilitate ‘collaboration of civil society organizations with governments, and
engagement of citizens in joint, iterative problem solving in order to solve development
problems,
• strengthen accountability and improve sector governance.’ One of
• their projects involved citizen monitoring to improve transparency and accountability of
licensing and revenue management in the Indonesian mining sector.

Civil Society and Human Rights

• Every day in every part of the world, civil society contributes to the promotion, protection and
advancement of human rights.
 • Whatever they call themselves -- human rights defenders, human rights NGOs, bar associations,
student clubs, trade unions, university institutes, bloggers, environmental rights activists, or
charities working with discriminated groups – countless civil society actors work for a better
future and share the common goals of justice, equality, and human dignity.
the roles of the civil society sector?
• advocating for human rights, for the needs and priorities of their constituency (especially of
marginalized groups) and advocating against government deficiencies. contributing to mediating
and resolving conflict, contribute to social innovation.
Who are the members of civil society?
• CSOs include nongovernment organizations (NGOs), professional associations, foundations,
independent research institutes, community-based organizations (CBOs), faith-based
organizations, people's organizations, social movements, and labor unions.

• Civil society organizations provide citizens with knowledge crucial to political participation, such
as the obligations and rights of citizens with regard to government processes, different types of
political issues and policy agendas, ways in which citizens can collaborate to address societal
issues, and approaches to creating meaningful change in communities
CIVIL SOCIETY – PUBLIC SECTOR
• Civil society can be the main pillar in controlling government policy. A free and responsible press
will provide actual and factual information. Civil society as citizens those who have rights and
freedoms must also be guaranteed and maintained.
• A good citizen must show inclusiveness or openness to other citizens of the country and do not
let the will of a group of people be imposed on one person or group of other people so as to
result in the denial of the principles of civil society. In addition, it is also necessary to pay
attention to and maintain the principle of independence of civil society which is often placed in
a position that is contrary to the concept of state power.
• This certainly has implications for state officials' suspicion of the existence of civil society who
only want a common relationship between citizens with values such as mutual respect, respect
and building harmonious relationships.
• It can be said that democracy is a system of government that originates from the people by
mandating power and authority to the community through participation forms and mechanisms.
• Public participation is fundamental in democratic governance because it is the main condition in
running its government.
• civil society can simultaneously strengthen other institutional roles. Therefore strengthening the
role of civil society is important because of its position as stakeholders as well as beneficiaries of
services.
• There are several views on the role of civil society as a pillar that can be carried out in
encouraging the realization of good public services, namely as follows:
• First, the role of civil society in monitoring. The implementation of public services so far includes
identified advocacy and supervision in the form of dialogue catalysts, balancing interests,
providing signals, and mobilizing for collective action.
• The role of civil society as a catalyst is carried out by means of a dialogue instrument between
policy makers, service providers and the community as the subject and object of policy.
• This dialogue is usually carried out to reach consensus or mutual agreement between the
government, the community and other stakeholders to formulate and create a role model for
implementing policies.
• Second, strengthening the role of civil society in conducting outreach and consultation. This
 strengthening is focused on building a legal framework and public policy. Forms of advocacy
include fighting for the aspirations and interests of the public when the formulation of public
policies in the form of laws, central and regional government regulations are implemented. In
this case, civil society acts as a specific and independent source of expertise and knowledge for
the bureaucracy. Meanwhile, from the consultation side, civil society plays a role as a catalyst
for the process of sharing knowledge and conducting trainings.
• Third, become a source of new ideas or innovative thoughts for the improvement of public
services. This innovative idea can be extracted from a wealth of local knowledge as well as from
the experiences of success in other countries.
• Relations between government and CSOs vary greatly depending on levels of democratization.
• Non-democratic governments are generally suspicious of and show little tolerance for
independent non-governmental organizatons (NGOs).
• They introduce laws and rules aimed at control rather than regulations.
•