BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

07 January 2025 15:53

Since the dawn of humanity , attempts of classification have been made mainly on the basis of use
and disuse of organisms.
Aristotle was the first to classify organisms on a scientific basis, he used simple morphology to
classify organisms into trees, herbs and shrubs.
Also divided animals into those with and without red blood cells.

TWO KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION:

• Linneues.
• Plantae and animalia.
• Did not distinguish prokaryotes and eukaryotes, unicellular and multicellular and
photosynthetic(green algae) and non photosynthetic (fungi).
• Large number of organisms fell neither into plant or animal category , hence this classification
system fell short.

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FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION:

• Monera, protista , fungi , plantae and animalia.
• R H Whittaker.
• The main criteria used was cell structure, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenic
relationship.
• There is also a three domain system that divides the kingdom monera into two domains and
the rest of the kingdoms in the eukaryotic domain.
• Why its better?
• Earlier bacteria , gymnosperms, blue green algae , fungi , mosses, ferns etc were all included
under plants , unifying factor being the cell wall.
• It brought together prokaryotic bacteria and blue green algae(cyanobacteria) with other
groups which were eukaryotic.
• Unicellular and multicellular organisms were brought together, chlamydomonas and spirogyra
were together under algae.

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 were together under algae.
• Did not distinguish heterotrophic group fungi and autotrophic green plants. Even though fungi
had chitin in its cell wall.
• Hence kingdom fungi was formed.
• All prokaryotes were in monera and unicellular eukaryotes were in protista.
• Protista has brought together chlamydomonas , chlorella with amoeba and paramecium.

KINGDOM MONERA:
• Bacteria are the sole members of this kingdom. In extreme conditions as well like hot springs,
deserts etc, even parasitic.
Shape Name
Spherical Coccus
Rod shaped bacillus
Comma-shaped vibryo
spiral spirillum
•

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• Bacteria have simple structure but complex behavior.
• Most extensive metabolic diversity.
• Some bacteria are autotrophic , may be phoyosynthetic or chemosynthetic.
• Vast majority are heterotrophs , depend on other organisms or dead organic food.

ARCHAEBACTERIA:
• Live in some of the most harsh areas.
Salty areas Halophites
Hot springs Thermoacidophites
Marshy areas methanogens
• Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure, this feature
helps them in survival of extreme conditions.
• Methanogens are found in the gut of ruminants such as cows and buffalos and are responsible
for the production of biogas from cow dung.

EUBACTERIA:

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Screen clipping taken: 17-01-2025 12:25

Screen clipping taken: 17-01-2025 12:25

• They are characterized by the presence of rigid cell wall , and if motile , a flagellum.
• The cyanobacteria(blue green algae) have chl a similar to green plants and are photosynthetic
autotrophs.
• Unicellular , colonial or filamentous.
• The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
• They form blooms. Fix nitrogen in specialized cells known as heterocysts. Nostoc and
anabaena.
• Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidize various inorganic substances such as nitrates,
nitriles and ammonia and use the released energy for ATP production.
• Great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous , iron and sulfur.
• Heterotrophic bacteria: most abundant in nature.
• Majority of them are decomposers.
• Curd , antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots etc.
• Pathogens=> cholera , typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker are well known diseases.
• Reproduce by fission , under unfavourable conditions through spores.
• Proto sexual reproduction: adopting primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacteria to
another.
• Mycoplasma: completely lack cell wall, survive without oxygen. Pathogenic on both plants and
animals.

KINGDOM PROTISTA:
• All single celled eukaryotes are present here.
• Boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined, what may be a photosynthetic protistan to
one biologist may be a plant to another.
• Primarily aquatic.
• Being eukaryotes , the protistans contain a well defined nucleus and other membrane bound
organelles. Some have flagella or cilia.
• Reproduce sexually or asexually. Sexually => by cell fusion and zygote formation.
CRYSOPHYTES:
• Includes diatoms and desmids(golden algae).
• They are found in fresh water as well as marine.

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 • They are found in fresh water as well as marine.
• They float passively in water(plankton). Most of them are photosynthetic.
• Diatoms: cell wall is made up of two indestructible thin overlapping shells. They fit together as
a soap box.
• Shells are made up of silica.
• The accumulation of this substance for billions of years is refered as diatomecious earth. Being
gritty , this soil is used in polishing , filtration of oils and syrups. Chief producers of oceans.

DINOFLAGELLATES:
• These are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• Appear red, brown , green, yellow and blue depending on the pigment.
• They have stiff cellulosic plates on their outer surface. Two flagella are present , one
lognitudenal and other transverse present in a furrow.
• Red dinoflagellate=> Gonyaulax undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the sea
appear as red.
• This is known as red tide and is bad for marine animals such as fishes.

EUGLENOIDS:
• Majority of them are fresh water and found in stagnant water.
• Instead of the cell wall , they have a protein rich layer known as pellicle which makes their
body flexible.
• Two flagella are present, one long and other short.
• Even though they are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight, they act like heterotrophs by
predating on other smaller animals.
• Pigments are smaller to those of higher plants.

SLIME MOULDS:
• Saprophytic protists.
• Its body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
• Under suitable conditions they form an aggregation known as plasmodium which can grow
and spread over several feet.
• During unfavorable conditions, the plasmodium differenciates and forms fruiting bodies
bearing spores in their tips.
• Spores have true walls which are extremely resistant and survive for many years.

PROTOZOANS:
• All are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites, they are believed to be primitive
relatives of animals.
• They are divided into four groups:
1. Amoeboid protozoans: these organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil. They move
and capture their prey by putting out their pseudopodia(false feet). Marine forms have silica
shells on their surface. Some of then such as entamoeba are parasites.
2. Flagellated protozoans: either free living or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms
cause diseases like sleeping sickness as in trypanosoma.
3. Ciliated protozoans: these are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of cilia. They have a
gullet. Paramecium.
4. Sporozoans: diverse organisms with infectious spore like stage in their life cycle.
Plasmodium(malarial parasite).

KINGDOM FUNGI:
• Unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.
• Great diversity in morphology and habitat.
• Unicellular=> yeast. Used to make bread and beer.
• Wheat rust=> puccinia.
• Some are anti biotic sources , penicillium.
• They are cosmopolitan.
• With the exception of yeast, fungi are filamentous.
• Bodies consist of long , slender, thread like structures known as hyphae.

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 • Bodies consist of long , slender, thread like structures known as hyphae.
• The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm. These are known as
coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls.
• Cell walls are composed of chitin and polysaccharide.
• Most fungi are heterotrophic=> saprophytes.
• That depend on living plants and animals are known as parasites.
• Symbiotes=> lichens => association of fungi and algae
• Mycorrhiza=> fungi with roots of higher plants.
• Reproduction: in fungi can take place by vegetative means- fragmentation, fission and
budding.
• Asexual reproduction by spores known as conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores.
• Sexual by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
• The various spores are produced in distinct structures known as fruiting bodies.
• The sexual cycle occurs by:
1. Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes=> plasmogamy.
2. Fusion of nuclei=> karyogamy.
3. Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
• Process: two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come together and fuse.
• In some the nuclei immediately fuse together whereas in some an intervening dikaryotic
phase(n+n) occurs. Such a condition is known as dikaryon(ascomycetes and basidiomycetes).
• Later the nuclei fuse and cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies where reduction
division occurs , leading to formation of haploid spores.
• The morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for
division of kingdom into various classes.
PHYCOMYCETES:
• Aquatic habitats. Found on decaying wood or as damp places or as obligate parasites on
plants. The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
• Asexual reproduction=> zoospores(motile) or by aplanospores(non-motile).
• Spores produced endogenously in sporangium.
• Zygospore formed by fusion of two gametes, similar in morphology(isogamous) or
dissimilar(anisogamous or oogamous). Examples: mucor, rhizopus(bread mould) ad
albugo(parasitic fungi).
ASCOMYCETES:
• Sac fungi.
• Mostly muticellular , penicillium, rarely unicellular ,yeast(saccharomyces).
• Saprophytic, decomposers, corprophillus(growing on dung).
• Mycelium septate and branched.
• Asexual spores are conidia produced by conidiospores. Conidia on germination produce
mycelium.
• Sexual reproduction through spores known ascospores, produced endogenously through in sac
like asci , asci are arranged in different fruiting bodies known as ascocarp.
• Some examples are aspergillus, claviceps and neurospora(ACN).
• Neurospora used in extensive biochemical and genetic work.
• Many members like morels and truffels are edible.

BASIDIOMYCETES:
• Commonly known forms are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
• They grow on soil, tree stumps or logs or on plant bodies as parasites. Eg rust and smut.
• Mycelium => branched and septate.
• Asexual spores are not found but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common.
• The sex organs are absent but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resulting cell is dikaryon which ultimately
gives rise to basidium.
• Karyogamy and meiosis take place in basidium producing four basidiospores.
• The basidiospores are exogenously formed on basidium.
• The basidium are arranged in fruiting bodies known as basidocarps.
• Examples: agaricus(mushroom), ustalgio(smut) and puccinia(rust fungus).

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 • Examples: agaricus(mushroom), ustalgio(smut) and puccinia(rust fungus).

DEUTEROMYCETES:
• Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only asexual or vegetative phase of this fungi is
known.
• They reproduce asexually by spores known as conidia.
• Septate and branched.
• Some members are saprotrophs while large number of them are decomposers.
• Alternaria , colletotricum, trichoderma.

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