NERVOUS CONTROL

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES ®

NERVOUS CONTROL
Compiled by G. Taruvinga

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8.12 TOPIC 9 NERVOUS CONTROL

KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

CONCEPT Learners should be (ATTITUDES, LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES
KNOWLEDGE) AND NOTES
8.12.1 Need for  recognise the - Neurones  Drawing  Prepared
communication need for - Need for neurones from slides
communication communication prepared slides
systems within  Discussing the
living organisms need for
communication
in living
organisms.

8.12.2 Action  describe the - Action potential  Illustrating the  ICT tools
potential generation of an - Resting generation of an  Braille
action potential potential action potential. software/Jaws
 Print media
 explain the - Myelinated  Watching
transmission of neurone simulations on
an action (importance of transmission of
potential along a sodium and an action
myelinated potassium ions potential.
neurone in the impulse
transmission to
be emphasised).

 explain the - Myelin sheath

importance of - Saltatory  Demonstrating
myelin sheath conduction saltatory
and the - Refractory conduction in
refractory period period myelinated
in determining neurones
speed of impulse
transmission
8.12.3  describe the - Cholinergic  Demonstrating  ICT tools
Cholinergic structure and synapse (Role of the function of  Braille
synapse function of a calcium ions to cholinergic software/Jaws
cholinergic be emphasised) synapse using
synapse animations.

 explain the - Effects of  Discussing the  Pain killers

effects of analgesics on effect of
analgesic drugs the nervous analgesics on the
on the nervous system nervous system.
system

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THE NEED FOR COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVE: Recognise the need for communication systems within living organism.

Here are some points as to why organisms need a communication system.

1. To detect and respond to changes in their external environment

(Such as temperature)
The changes can occur slowly e.g. as the seasons change from summer -> winter
- or quite rapidly day/night
In order to survive and reduce stresses such as high/low temperatures the organism will need a
communication system that can monitor changes and bring about a response.
This response can be behavioural or physiological.

2. To detect and respond to changes in their internal environment

e.g. when cells are going through metabolic activities they produce waste products such as CO2.
When dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid.
If this was to build up in the tissue fluid it would lower the pH of the surrounding environment.
This would disrupt the activity of enzymes.

Importance of detecting changes in internal environment of mammals:

- Need to keep internal environments constant
- So enzymes and biological pathways work effectively (at their optimum conditions) at a speed
that will sustain life
- Corrective mechanism is switched on.

3. To coordinate the the functions of the different systems

Multicellular organisms have differentiated (Specialized) cells that perform specific functions. A
communication system is needed that allows all the different parts to communicate with each
other.
Multicellular organisms need to coordinate different organs and this requires a communication
system which will:
- Cover the while body
- Enable cells to communicate with each other
- Enable specific communication
- Enable rapid communication
- Enable both short and long term responses

A good communication system needs to be able to:

 cover the whole body

 enable cells to communicate
 detect and respond to stimuli
 allow for long term and short term responses
 allow for specific communication

— These systems are hormonal (endocrine) and neuronal.

— Cells need to communicate with each other by a process called cell signalling.

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— Neuronal and hormonal systems are examples of cell signalling.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The nervous system is a means of coordinating activities and reactions to stimuli with the help
of the following parts:
1. Receptors: Sensory cells or organs that detect stimuli from the external and internal
environment, transferring information (impulses) to the nerve cells.
2. Nerve cells (neurones): specialised cells that transmit information in the form of nerve
impulses.
3. CNS (central nervous system): Made of the brain and spinal cord. It is part of the NS
(nervous system) that coordinates and processes the information.
4. Effector: a structure, gland or organ that responds to the stimuli.
5. PNS (Peripheral nervous system): Nerves (cranial and spinal).

NEURONES

- Nervous system  nervous tissues  nerve cells (neurones).

- Each neurone consists of a cell body with a nucleus. The cell body has short cytoplasmic
extensions known as dendrons that transmit impulses to the cell body. Dendrons branch into
smaller extensions known as the dendrites.
- Nerve impulses are carried away from the cell body via long single extensions known as axons.
- There are THREE types of neurones, each with a different function:
1. Sensory neurones: Transmit impulses from receptors to the CNS.
2. Relay neurones (a.k.a intermediate or connector neurones): transmit impulses from
sensory neurones to motor neurones.
3. Motor neurones: Transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors.

MOTOR NEURONE
- Motor neurone’s cell body lies within the spinal cord or brain.
- Dark specks that can be seen in the cytoplasm are regions of RER that synthesise proteins.
- A motor neurone has many branched dendrites through which it receives information.
- The axon of a motor neurone is much longer and conducts impulses over long distances. The
cytoplasm of axon contains large number of mitochondria together with many vesicles
containing chemical transmitters. These vesicles are involved in passing impulses to an
effector.

SENSORY NEURONE
- Has a single dendron which brings impulses towards the cell body.
- It has a single axon which carries impulses away from the cell body.
- Similar basic structure as a motor neurone.

RELAY NEURONE
- A.k.a intermediate or connector neurone.
- Found entirely within the CNS.
- Have numerous short fibres. Each fibre is a thread like extension of a nerve cell.
- Relays impulses to other neurones.

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DIAGRAMS: Three types of neurones of the nervous system

MYELIN
- Surrounding the neurones are different types of supporting cells called glia cells.
- Glia cells nourish, protect and insulate neurones.
- In the PNS, the axons of many neurones are enclosed by glia cells called Schwann cells.
- Schwann cells are wrapped around the axon many times in a spiral to form a thick lipid layer
called the myelin sheath.
- The myelin sheath provides physical protection, nourishment and electrical insulation for the
axon, which greatly speeds up the transmission of impulses (action potentials).
- Between each pair of Schwann cells is a tiny uncovered junction or gap called the node of
Ranvier.
- The myelin sheath and the junctions help increase the speed at which impulses are conducted.
- Not all neurones are myelinated.

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DIAGRAM: Most neurones have many companion cells called Schwann cells, which are wrapped
around the axon many times in a spiral to form a thick lipid layer called the myelin sheath. The myelin
sheath provides physical protection and electrical insulation for the axon, which greatly speeds up the
transmission of action potentials. There are gaps in the sheath, called nodes of Ranvier. Not all neurones
are myelinated.

DIAGRAM: TS: Myelin made of Schwann cell wrapped around axon

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A REFELEX ARC

- A reflex arc is the pathway along which impulses are transmitted from a receptor to an effector
without involving ‘conscious’ regions of the brain.
- Not all the reflex arcs may have intermediate neurones and the impulse may pass directly from
the sensory neurone to motor neurone.

The diagram above shows the structure of a spinal reflex arc in which the impulse is passed
from neurone to neurone inside the spinal cord.

REFLEX ACTION

- Within the spinal cord, the impulse will also be passed on to other neurones which take the
impulse up the cord to the brain. This happens at the same time as impulses are travelling along
the motor neurone to the effector.
- The effector therefore responds to the stimulus before there is any voluntary response
involving the conscious regions of the brain.
- This type of reaction to a stimulus is called a reflex action. It is a fast, automatic response to a
stimulus; the response to each specific stimulus is always the same.
- Reflex actions are a very useful way of responding to danger signals such as the touch of a
very hot object on your skin or the sight of an object flying towards you.

QUESTION
Think of a reflex action other than the four already mentioned. State the precise stimulus, name
the receptor that first detects this stimulus and the effector that responds to it, and describe
the way in which the effector responds

THE ACTION POTENTIAL

OBJECTIVE: Describe the key features of an action potential

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The action potential describes the phenomenon by which neurons create an electrical signal
via the movement of Na+ and K+ ions across the membrane.

The key features of an action potential are:

 It relies on ionic gradients – Pre-existing ionic gradients are required for the movement of
ions across the membrane. Changing the membrane’s permeability to different ions (i.e.
opening and closing ion channels) allows the cell’s membrane potential to be changed.
 It is predictable in nature – Although the shape of the action potential can vary between
neurones, in a particular neurone the action potential should be the same every time.
 It is ‘all or nothing’ – For an action potential to be generated, the voltage across the
membrane must reach a threshold level of -55mV. Any voltage lower than this threshold
level results in failed initiations and no action potential will be fired.
 It is propagated without loss of amplitude – The strength of the action potential is
maintained along the length of the axon as the local spread of depolarisation triggers new
action potentials to be generated.
 The action potential relies on the movement of Na+ and K+ ions, in which Na+ influx causes
depolarisation, while K+ efflux causes hyperpolarisation.

THE GENERATION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL

OBJECTIVE: Describe the generation of an action potential

The stages of the action potential are as follows:

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1. Resting potential: The resting potential describes the unstimulated, polarized state of a
neuron (at about –70 millivolts) i.e. when the neurone is not ‘firing’.

How the resting potential is maintained in the neurone

a) all voltage-gated ion channels are closed.

b) the Na+/ K+ ATPase pumps are operating pumping 3 Na+ out for 2 K+ in per ATP
hydrolysis.
c) A certain amount of Na+ and K+ is always leaking across the membrane, but Na+/K+
ATPase pumps in the membrane actively restore the ions to the appropriate side.
d) Other ions/organic anions, such as large, negatively charged proteins and nucleic
acids, reside inside the cell. It is these large, negatively charged ions that contribute to
the overall negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane compared to the
outside.
e) This gives a membrane potential (difference in electric potential) of approximately -70
mV.

2. Initial stimulus – This is the initial depolarisation that triggers the action potential; it is
generally due to the movement of Na+, either due to the activation of receptors or the
local spread of depolarisation from an adjacent action potential.
 It is based on the ‘all or nothing principle’ –which states that for an action potential to
be generated, the voltage across the membrane must reach a threshold level of -55mV.
Any voltage lower than the threshold level results in failed initiations and no action
potential will be fired.

3. Depolarization phase:

a) If the initial depolarisation reaches the threshold level, around -55 mV, it causes
voltage-gated Na+ channels to open and Na+ ions diffuse into the cytoplasm.
b) which results in rapid depolarisation. Potential reverses from approximately -70 mV to
approximately +30 mV
c) the Na+ /K+ ATPase pumps are operating (3 Na+ out/2 K+ in per ATP hydrolysis)

4. Repolarization phase:

a) After the membrane is fully depolarised the voltage-gated Na+ ion channels become
inactivated and slowly close; Na+ ions can no longer diffuse into the cytoplasm.
b) meanwhile, the voltage-gated K+ ion channels open; K+ ions diffuse out of the
cytoplasm
c) membrane potential reverses again, dropping from approximately +30 mV to
approximately -70 mV
d) the Na+ /K+ ATPase pumps are operating (3 Na+ out/2 K+ in per ATP hydrolysis)

5. Hyperpolarization phase:

a) the voltage-gated Na+ ion channels have closed; Na+ ions can no longer diffuse
into the axon cytoplasm
b) meanwhile, the voltage-gated K+ ion channels remain open and slowly close;

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c) As a result the membrane potential ‘undershoots’ or becomes more negative than

the resting potential, dropping to approximately -80 mV; resulting in a brief period
of hyperpolarisation before returning back to the resting membrane potential.

What causes hyperpolarisation: Hyperpolarisation is caused by the slow closing of

the voltage-gated K+ ion channels which result in more K+ ions moving out of the
cell and membrane potential undershooting below the resting potential to -80mV.

6. Refractory period.
— With the passage of the action potential, the cell membrane is in an unusual state of
affairs. The membrane is polarized, but the Na+ and K+ are on the wrong sides of the
membrane. During this refractory period, the neuron will not respond to a new stimulus.
To reestablish the original distribution of these ions, the Na+ and K+ are returned to their
resting potential location by Na+/K+ ATPase pumps in the cell membrane. Once these
ions are completely returned to their resting potential location, the neuron is ready for
another stimulus.
— The refractory period is the period in an action potential where the axon can't be
depolarised to initiate a new action potential. It limits the frequency of action potentials
and ensures action potential are discrete and only travel in one direction.
The importance of the refractory period:
1) limits / controls, (maximum) frequency of action potentials;
2) ensures action potentials / impulses travel in one direction.

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TRANSMISSION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL

1. TRANSMISSION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL ALONG AN AXON.

 Transmission/propagation of an action potential (impulse) occurs by:
a) continuous propagation (aka normal propagation) along an unmyelinated
axon
b) saltatory propagation along a myelinated axon.

TRANSMISSION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL ALONG AN UNMYELINATED

AXON BY CONTINUOUS PROPAGATION (NORMAL PROPAGATION).

— In unmyelinated axons, the action potential travels continuously along the axons.
— The action potential moves along an axon in a wave of depolarisation. This is like a
Mexican wave.
— The depolarisation of part of the membrane acts as a stimulus for the next part.
— A local circuit is set up between the positive part of the axoplasm, in the area in action
potential, and the negative part in the adjacent area, that is in resting potential. This
local circuit stimulates the opening of sodium ion channels.

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TRANSMISSION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL ALONG A MYELINATED

AXON BY SALTATORY PROPAGATION
— Local circuits are set up between nodes of Ranvier.
— Movement of ions occurs from positive to negative region;
— (causes) opening of Na+ channels at the next node of Ranvier (gap in myelin sheath) ;
— causing next / new, action potential / depolarisation ;
— Saltatory conduction then occurs. Impulse jumps/hops/leaps from one node to the next
in a one-way transmission ;

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— Myelin sheath / Schwann cells, insulate axon i.e. is impermeable to Na+ and K+ ions.
This lengthens local circuits thereby increasing the speed up transmission.

— Advantages of saltatory conduction:

(a) Increases the speed of transmission of action potentials since action potentials
are only generated at the nodes of Ranvier and jump from one node to the next.
Myelinated neurons conduct at 100m/second, whereas unmyelinated conduct at
1m/second.
(b) Na+/K+ pumps only operate at the nodes, so less ATP/energy is used in
myelinated neurons. The voltage-gated channels are only found at the nodes of
Ranvier so only these regions are depolarised.

Factors that affect the speed of transmission of an action potential

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(a) Myelination: Speeds up transmission due to saltatory conduction.

(b) Axon diameter: The wider the diameter of an axon the less resistance there is.
Action potentials travel faster if axon diameter is increased.
— Squid famously have giant axons which allow them to initiate their escape
response very quickly.
(c) Temperature: Higher temperatures increase transmission speed as diffusion
happens faster. However, extremely high temperatures denature enzymes and
slow down or even stop transmission.

Compare and contrast action potential transmission/propagation along unmyelinated and

myelinated axons.
— Action potential propagation/transmission depends on the activation of voltage-gated sodium
channels.
— Unmyelinated axons have more voltage-gated sodium channels along the entire length of the
membrane. In contrast, myelinated axons have less voltage-gated sodium channels only in the
nodes of Ranvier. (Nodes of Ranvier are unmyelinated spaces approximately 2 um long and they
are about 1mm apart).
— Action potential propagation along unmyelinated axons requires activation of voltage-gated
sodium channels along the entire length of the axon and therefore requires more time and more
ATP/energy. In sharp contrast, action potential propagation along myelinated axons requires
activation of voltage-gated sodium channels only in the Nodes of Ranvier and therefore requires
less time and less ATP/energy.
— Thus, the action potential is regenerated only at the nodes of Ranvier (approx. 1 mm apart) rather
than being regenerated continuously along the axon, as is the case in an unmyelinated axon.
— That is, the action potential transmission occurs by continuous propagation (normal propagation)
along an unmyelinated axon. In contrast, it occurs by saltatory propagation in a myelinated axon
when the action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next.
— The myelin sheath reduces the length and surface area where depolarization occurs and increases
the speed of action potential propagation.
— For this reason the action potential propagation is therefore much faster along myelinated axons.
— The big difference between continuous propagation and saltatory propagation is speed. In
continuous propagation, the action potential is making small steps and that takes time. In saltatory
propagation, these small steps are avoided by the myelin isolation that forces the action potential to
make bigger steps or jumps.

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— Because it makes bigger steps, saltatory propagation will go faster compared to continuous
propagation (think of running with big steps in contrast to running with many small steps).
— Normal propagation speed along a non-myelinated axon is typically in the range of 0.5-1 m/sec. In
myelinated axon, saltatory propagation ranges from 15 to 150 m/sec (i.e. 30 -150 times faster!).

SYNAPES
- When two neurones meet, they don’t touch. Instead there is a very small gap about 20nm
between them called the synaptic cleft.
- The parts of the two neurones near the cleft plus the cleft itself make up a synapse.
- Synapse can be a junction between two neurones or between a motor neurone and a muscle
cell.

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2. TRANSMISSION OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL ACROSS A CHOLINERGIC

SYNAPSE

1. Action potential arrives at presynaptic neurone.

2. Stimulates opening of channels for Ca2+ ions
3. Ca2+ ions diffuse into cytoplasm of presynaptic membrane.
4. Ca2+ causes vesicles containing acetylcholine (Ach) /neurotransmitter to move towards
the presynaptic membrane.
5. Vesicle fuses with the membrane;
6. Acetylcholine (Ach) is released by exocytosis and diffuses across the synaptic cleft.

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7. Ach temporarily binds to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane;

8. This causes channels for Na+ to open.
9. Na+ ions diffuse through postsynaptic membrane and depolarize the membrane.
10. which generates an action potential when a threshold level is reached.
11. Recycling of Acetylcholine:
 If the Acetyl Choline remained bound to the postsynaptic receptors, the sodium
channels would remain open, and action potentials would fire continuously. To
prevent this from happening, and also to avoid wasting Acetyl Choline, it is recycled.
The synaptic cleft contains an enzyme, acetylcholinsterase, which splits each Acetyl
Choline molecule into acetate and choline.

 The choline is taken back into the presynaptic neuron, where it is combined with
acetyl co-enzyme A to form Acetyl Choline once more. The Acetyl Choline is then
transported into the presynaptic vesicles, ready for the next action potential.

ROLES OF SYNAPES
1. Synapses ensure one way transmission.
- Impulses can only pass in one direction at synapses; because neurotransmitter (Ach) is
released on one side and its receptors are on the other.
- Chemical transmission cannot occur in the opposite direction.
2. Synapses allow integration of impulses.
- Each sensory neurone has many branches at the end of its axon that form synapses with many
relay neurones.
- The cell body of a motor neurone has many terminations from many relay neurones.
- Motor neurones only transmit impulses if the net effect of the relay neurone is above the
threshold level. If the depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane reaches the threshold level,
only then an impulse is sent in that neurone.
- This disables the low frequency impulses from travelling in the sensory neurones to reach the
brain and hence preventing the overloading of brain from sensory information.
3. Synapses allows interconnection of nerve pathways
- This happens in two ways;
(I) Individual sensory and relay neurones have axons that branch to form synapses with many
different neurones. This means that information from one neurone can spread out
throughout the body to reach many relay neurones and many effectors, such as during
dangerous situations.
(II) There are many neurones that terminate on each relay and motor neurone as they have
many dendrites to give a large surface area for many synapses; this allows one neurone to
integrate the information from many different parts of the body – something that is
essential for decision making in the brain.

4. Synapses are involved in memory and learning

- For example, if our brain frequently receive information about two things at the same time
(e.g. the sound of a particular voice and the sight of a particular face) then it is thought that
new synapses form in our brain that link the neurones involved in the passing of information
along the particular pathway from your ears and eyes.

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EFFECT OF ANALGESICS ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED

Learners should be (ATTITUDES, LEARNING RESOURCES
able to: SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES AND
KNOWLEDGE) NOTES
Effect of  explain the - Effects of  Discussing the  ICT tools
analgesics effects of analgesics on effect of  Braille
(painkillers) on analgesic the nervous analgesics on software/Jaws
the nervous drugs on the system the nervous
system. nervous system.  Painkillers
system

PERCEPTION OF PAIN

— Pain reflexes occur as a result of stimulation of pain receptors in the skin and other
organs.
— Impulses are carried from pain receptors to the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
of the brain, where messages are interpreted so we perceive pain and make suitable
responses.
— Pain is an important feeling because:
1) it warns of damage to the body and
2) enables us to take action to protect ourselves.

Endorphins and enkephalins – the body’s natural analgesics (painkillers)

 Endorphins and enkephalins are neurotransmitters produced by the body to relieve

stress and pain. They work similarly to a class of drugs called opioids.
— Endorphins and enkephalins are peptides produced by the pituitary gland and
central nervous system and that act on the opiate receptors in your brain.
— These neurotransmitters act to increase feelings of pleasure and well-being and
also to reduce pain and stress.
— Endorphins and enkephalins are the body's natural painkillers.
— When a person is injured, pain impulses travel up the spinal cord to the brain. The
pituitary gland in the brain then releases endorphins and enkephalins to relieve the
pain.
— Endorphins and enkephalins block the transmission of pain impulses to the cerebral
cortex by binding with opiate receptors at synapses in the brain and spinal cord
respectively.
— That is, endorphins block pain principally at the brain stem while enkephalins block
pain signals in the spinal cord.
— Immediately after a road accident, a person may feel no pain and may sometimes
even be able to move themselves away, despite serious injuries. Why? Because
endorphins, enkephalins and adrenalin override the feelings of pain for a short time
so that the person can quickly escape from danger.
— Opioid analgesics such as morphine and heroin mimic endorphins and enkephalins
by binding to the same opiate/pain receptors.

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ANALGESICS aka PAINKILLERS

— Analgesics are medications that relieve pain by either reducing inflammation or

changing the way the brain perceives pain.

Types of medical painkillers (analgesics):

— There are three main types of analgesics: anti-inflammatory analgesics,

acetaminophen and opioids.

1) Anti-inflammatory analgesics

— Anti-inflammatory analgesics relieve pain by reducing inflammation (swelling

and soreness).
— Examples of anti-inflammatory analgesics are Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs).
— NSAIDs are used primarily to treat inflammation (swelling and soreness), mild to
moderate pain, and fever.
— Examples of NSAIDs are aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen.
— Most NSAIDs are over-the-counter (OTC) painkillers. ‘Over-the-counter’ means
these medicines can be bought from a pharmacy or shop without a prescription.

What are prostaglandins?

— Prostaglandins are a group of naturally occurring fatty acids that:

1. promote inflammation (swelling and soreness) that is necessary for
healing, but also results in pain, and fever;
2. support the blood clotting function of platelets;
3. protect the lining of the stomach from the damaging effects of acid.
— Prostaglandins are produced in body cells by the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX).
There are two COX enzymes, COX-1 and COX-2. Both enzymes produce
prostaglandins that promote inflammation, pain, and fever. However, COX-1
further produces prostaglandins that support platelets and protect the stomach.

How NSAIDs/ anti-inflammatory analgesics work

— Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) block the COX enzymes that help
make prostaglandins and this reduces prostaglandins throughout the body. As a
result, ongoing inflammation, pain, and fever are reduced.
— Since the prostaglandins that protect the stomach and support platelets and blood
clotting also are reduced, NSAIDs can cause ulcers in the stomach and promote
bleeding.

2) Acetaminophen (aka Tylenol)

— Acetaminophen is used to relieve fever, headaches and other common pains.

It does not relieve inflammation.
— Acetaminophen belongs to a class of drugs called analgesics (pain relievers)
and antipyretics (fever reducers).

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— Examples of acetaminophens are Paracetamol and Panadol.

— Most acetaminophens are over-the-counter (OTC) painkillers, that is, you can
buy them without a prescription.

How acetaminophen (Tylenol) works:

— blocks the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) that makes prostaglandins so

reducing the production of prostaglandins in the brain. As a result pain, fever
and inflammation are reduced.
— also relieves pain by elevating the pain threshold, that is, by requiring a greater
amount of pain to develop before a person feels it.
— also reduces fever by causing the hypothalamus (heat-regulating center of the
brain) to lower body’s temperature when the temperature is elevated.

3) Opioids
— Opioids are a class of drugs naturally found in the opium poppy plant.
— Opioids (aka narcotics) are stronger pain medicines. They are mostly used for
severe pain after surgery. Examples of opioids are morphine, codeine,
oxycodone, hydrocodone, fentanyl and heroin.
— Heroin is an opioid and illegal drug derived from morphine.
— Opioids were once called narcotics because they induce sleep.
— Opioids are prescription analgesics.
— Prescription analgesics can only be bought with a doctor’s prescription.

How opioids work

— Opioids work by mimicking the effects of the body’s natural painkillers – endorphins
and enkephalins – by blocking the pain signals sent from the nerves to the brain.
— The message the brain receives is changed, so that pain is no longer perceived as
painful.
— Opioids also increase the release of a neurotransmitter called dopamine from
synapses in the brain, which gives feelings of pleasure and intense well-being.
— Stronger painkillers like illegal opioids like heroin – do the exact same thing, but in a
much more powerful way that can quickly lead to abuse and addiction.

Long-Term Effects of Analgesic (Painkiller) Abuse on the Body

— Analgesic (painkiller) abuse is the taking of an analgesic longer or more often than
you should.
 The following are the long-term effects of abusing analgesics (painkillers) on the
nervous system:
1. prevents your body from relieving pain naturally by decreasing its ability to
produce endorphins on its own.
2. depresses the central nervous system leading to slower breathing, slowed bodily
reactions and slurred speech.

 Apart from affecting the nervous system, painkiller abuse can also affect the entire
body in the following ways:

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1. dangerous and life-threatening liver damage.

2. leads to serious cardiovascular issues, heart attacks and heart disease.
3. leads to constipation, bloating, abdominal distention, bowel obstructions and
hemorrhoids.
4. Opioid/heroin overdose depresses breathing and heart rate centres in the brain
leading to:

— depressed respiration,
— coma
— or death.

5. injecting drugs like opioid painkillers can lead to collapsed veins and infections
and diseases such as HIV/AIDS.

TRY THESE EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS

1. (a) Outline the roles of sensory receptor cells in the mammalian nervous system.
1 detect / respond to, (change in) stimulus / stimuli ;
2 two examples from – light / heat / sound / touch / pressure / pain /
chemicals / taste / smell /tension ;;
3 (act as) transducers / convert stimulus energy to electrical energy ;
4 produce, generator / receptor / action, potential ;
5 passes impulse, to / along, sensory neurone ; ANY THREE [3]

(b). Fig. 8.1 shows the changes in potential difference (p.d.) across the membrane of a
receptor cell over a period of time. The membrane was stimulated at time A and at
time B with stimuli of different intensities.

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(i) State which of the letters C, D and E on Fig. 8.1 correspond to each of these events.
You may use each of the letters C, D or E once, more than once or not at all.

The Na+ / K+ pump is operating: C or D and E.

The voltage‑gated Na+ channels are open: C.
The voltage‑gated K+ channels are open: D [3]
(ii) Describe how a resting potential is maintained in the neurone.
Sodium/potassium pumps;
ATP/active transport;
3 Na+ out 2 K+ in;
Organic anions, negatively charged molecules/proteins/nucleic acids;
Pd across membrane -60mV/-70mV;
Membrane leakage, more permeable to K+ than Na+ [4]

(iii) Explain why stimulus A did not result in an action potential being produced whereas
stimulus B did.

1 generator / receptor, potential ;

2 did not reach / exceed / cross threshold not [2]

(iv) Describe the importance of the refractory period in the transmission of action
potentials.
1 limits / controls, (maximum) frequency of action potentials ;
2 (action potentials / impulses) travel in one direction ; [2]

(v) Describe how action potentials (impulses) are transmitted along a myelinated axon.
1 local circuit / movement of ions from positive to negative region ;
2 (causes) opening of Na+ channels ;
3 at next, node (of Ranvier) / gap in myelin sheath ;
4 causing next / new, action potential / depolarisation ;
5 saltatory conduction ; impulse jumps/hops/leaps from one node to next.
6 one-way transmission ;
7 AVP ; e.g. myelin (sheath) / Schwann cells, insulate axon / prevent (named/Na+) ion
movement / impermeable to (named/Na+) ions / speed up transmission / lengthens local
circuits [8] [Total: 22]

2. (a) Describe the structure of a synapse using a fully labelled diagram. [8]
Marking points
Presynaptic neuron/cell 1
Synaptic cleft 1
Post synaptic neuron/synaptic bulb 1
Calcium ion channel/ Voltage gated ion channel 1
Membranes 1
Axon terminal 1

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Synaptic vesicle 1
Mitochondria 1
Neurotransmitter / Acetylcholine 1
Receptor for neurotransmitter 1 Max [8]

(b) Explain how an action potential is transmitted across a synapse.

1. Action potential arrives at presynaptic neurone.

2. Stimulates opening of channels for Ca2+ ions
3. Ca2+ ions diffuse into cytoplasm of presynaptic membrane.
4. Ca2+ causes vesicles containing Ach/neurotransmitter to move towards the
presynaptic membrane.
5. Vesicle fuses with the membrane; Ach is released by exocytosis and diffuses
across the synaptic cleft.
6. Ach temporarily binds to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane; causes
channels for Na+ to open.
7. Na+ ions diffuse through postsynaptic membrane and depolarize the membrane.
8. which generates an action potential when a threshold level is reached. [8]
[Total/16]

3. Aspirin is an analgesic and antipyretic.

a) What is an analgesic? [1]

Drug that relieves pain

b) What is an antipyretic? [1]

Anti-fever drug

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c) To which class of analgesics does Aspirin belongs? [1]

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs / NSAIDs

d) Give another name of a drug in this class. [1]

Ibuprofen
e) Describe how Aspirin works [4]
 Aspirin blocks the enzyme/(cyclooxygenase/COX),
 that makes prostaglandins
 resulting in lower levels of prostaglandins.
 As a consequence, inflammation, pain and fever are reduced.
[Total/8]

4. Describe the effect of the following analgesics on the nervous system.

(a) Acetaminophen e.g. Paracetamol. [10]
1. blocks the enzyme/(cyclooxygenase/COX),
that makes prostaglandins
resulting in lower levels of prostaglandins.
As a consequence, inflammation, pain and fever are reduced.

2. also relieves pain;

by elevating the pain threshold /by requiring a greater amount of pain to
develop before a person feels it.

3. also reduces fever ;

by causing the hypothalamus/ (heat-regulating center of the brain);
to lower body’s temperature when the temperature is elevated.

(b) Opioids e.g. morphine. [4]

 Mimic the effects of the body’s natural painkillers;
 endorphins and enkephalins
 by blocking the pain signals sent from the nerves to the brain.
 so that pain is no longer perceived by the brain as painful.
 Increase release of dopamine from synapses in the brain, which gives feelings
of pleasure and intense well-being.

[Total/14]

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