Proceedings of the Geosynthetics Conference for Young Professionals

4 & 5 July 2024 – Irene Country Lodge, Irene, Centurion

Harnessing the Potential of Geotextile Tubes to Bulk Treat and

Dewater Fly Ash Tailings in South Africa

N. Budhai1, S. Naidoo2
1Maccaferri, Johannesburg, Gauteng, [email protected]
2Maccaferri, Johannesburg, Gauteng, [email protected]

Abstract

South Africa is host to several coal-fired power stations whose core function is to generate and supply electricity (Department
of Environmental Affairs, 2018). As these facilities continue to expand and supply the majority of South Africa with energy
and electricity, an expected by-product called fly ash tailings is formed (Päivi Kinnunen, 2022). This pulverized coal-fired
boiler ash is stored in large, engineered facilities called ‘ash dump facilities’ and is generally designed to accommodate the
increasing challenges of storing tailings ash. Whilst evidence of successfully operational ash dump facilities exists in South
Africa, the utilization rate of tailings ash in South Africa is internationally unnoticeable, thereby paving the way for innovative
development in bulk-treating fly ash for use in general construction practices.

Keywords: ‘Tailings fly ash’, ‘Geotextile Tubes’, ‘Dewatering cells’, ‘Bulk treating fly ash’, ‘Geosynthetics’.

1 Introduction

Research studies on fly ash geopolymers showcase the potential of reusing fly ash tailings (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2018). However, in almost all cases, fly ash is required to be treated for reuse (Gustafson, 2012). Expanding on
promoting the utilization of fly ash, this paper focuses on bulk-treating pulverized fly ash using Geotextile Tube dewatering
cells. Through this process, fly ash tailings are chemically treated and stored in Geotextile Tubes which serve as bulk dewatering
and containment units.

Understanding the molecular structure of fly ash slurries provides a baseline for determining the geotextile requirements.
Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) imaging of fly ash slurries is used to determine the chemical composition of fly ash
tailings, which indicates the type of geotextile used for dewatering and filtration. SEM imaging is also used to explore the
geotextile filament type, which is a significant contributor to its dewatering and filtration efficiencies. The mechanical and
physical-chemical properties of fly ash slurries and geotextiles are pertinent requirements for the design and analysis of
Geotextile Tube Dewatering Cells.

2 South Africa’s potential for bulk treating fly ash tailings

A Geotextile Tube dewatering system is being proposed to South African mining houses, with the expectation of increasing
the utilization rate of fly ash tailings, thereby promoting sustainability. South Africa’s bulk energy and electricity supplier,
Eskom, reports having used 122.7 million Metric tonnes of coal in 2010, which produced 34.16 million Metric tonnes of fly
ash (Plessis PWD, 2013). While there are industries that benefit from the production of fly ash tailings, an example being ash
brick manufacturers, there is major potential for utilizing fly ash in a wider scope of construction projects, such as geopolymer
stabilized road construction layers (Plessis PWD, 2013).

Figure 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the movement of sludge through hydraulic pumps with a chemically treated
admixture (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). The treated slurry is pumped into the Geotextile Tube and laid over a dewatering pad
with drainage channels used to channel discharged effluents into collection ponds (Environmental Impact Management
Services, 2018). The potential gain of implementing drainage channels is the reuse of the discharged effluent with an initial
required water volume of approximately 102.48 litres per 34.16 metric tonnes of solids (Plessis PWD, 2013). Once the initial
water requirement is supplied, the system can become more sustainable, with the proposal of repeatedly reusing expelled
effluent.

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Figure 1: Dewatering of sludge process (Officine Maccaferri, 2017)

Once the geotextile tube is filled and entirely dewatered, it can be removed from its hose network and transported off-site,
available for integration into construction activities. The hose network is replaced with an empty tube, to ensure continuity of
the dewatering system.

3 Tapping into the potential of fly ash tailings

There are various types of tailings waste available, and these can be identified by their source of origin, i.e., mineral mine
tailings and coal fly ash tailings (Lee, 2007). A mineral mine tailings slurry is reported to have a low solid content and high
water content when combined with distilled water and a chemical admixture (CaCl 2), as compared to a fly-ash slurry, which
exhibits a higher solid content (Lee, 2007). Whilst both tailings are abundantly available, the utilization of a fly-ash tailings
slurry as infill material for Geotextile Tubes is explored for its potential reutilization in construction practices.

3.1 Disposal of fly ash tailings

Fly ash tailings are deposited following dry or wet disposal methods (Gustafson, 2012). Dry disposal involves the transportation
of dampened fly ash (10% water), (Environmental Impact Management Services, 2018), while wet disposal methods require
pumpable slurries of 33% solids, 67% liquids (Gustafson, 2012). Both disposal methods have arguably positive and negative
impacts on the surrounding environments, however, research studies show that due to the finer particle size of fly ash, wet
disposal of fly ash is suggested (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2018). Although this is a preferred storage and disposal
method for fly ash slurries, leachate formation, and acid-mine drainage concerns arise in ash dump facilities (Gustafson, 2012).
To mitigate the concerns of accidental leakages into the bulk water supply pipelines, on-site dewatering systems are proposed
to bulk treat fresh fly ash produced.

3.2 Material properties of fly ash

A study focused on determining the mineralogy of fly ash investigated the leachate concentration of some element groups
present in fly ash samples and displayed in Table 1 (Gustafson, 2012). When the results obtained are compared to the World
Health Organization’s Drinking Water Standards, the potency of fly ash leachate is discovered (Gustafson, 2012). Other
elements found in fly ash include Admium (Ad), Chromium (Cr), Strontium (Sr), (Gustafson, 2012). Although these elements
exist in small concentrations within a volumetric sample, the presence of these elements have severe effects if mismanaged and
untreated (Gustafson, 2012).

Table 1: Chemical composition and leachate concentration of fly ash (Gustafson, 2012)

Fly-Ash WHO Drinking

Leachate Water Standard
Element
concentration Requirement
[μg/kg] [μg/kg]
As 175 10
Ni 6900 70
Pb 7000 10
Sr 63000 NA

According to ASTM Specification C350-54T, fly ash is accepted for use as an admixture and can be classified into two
categories:

Class F : ash produced from bituminous coal and,

Class C : ash produced from sub-bituminous coal containing lignite* (Manz, 1996).

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A South African study conducted on coal fly ash samples tested from five different power stations located within the
Mpumalanga region, showed that Class F fly ash is largely present (John Alegbe, 2018). Although fly ash can be classified by
their composition, mineralogy, and surface chemistry, its physical appearance varies from dark brown to grey, depending on
the percent of unburned carbon present in the coal ash (Anjani R.K. Gollakota, 2019). Since the fly ash produced in South
Africa can be considered largely bituminous, the dewatering efficiencies of a Class F fly ash slurry are investigated further.
Class F fly ash is expected to have the following chemical composition: Ml: Mullite, C: Calcite, H: Hematite, M: Magnetite,
and Q: Quartz, GP: Gypsum, α-Fe: Syn Fe, (John Alegbe, 2018). It is further reported that samples exhibited spherical and
non-spherical particles, ranging from 0.2-0.25μm in size (Gustafson, 2012). The morphology of the slurries was reported to
formulate microspheres once agitated, which resembles the formation of a sludge cake, at a microscopical level, as shown in
Figure 2 (Anjani R.K. Gollakota, 2019).

(a) (b)

Figure 2: SEM Imaging of Class F Fly ash slurries (John Alegbe, 2018).

3.3 Availability of fly ash tailings in South Africa

South African coal-fired power stations are used as a reference to define the quantity of coal ash produced. Mpumalanga has
the highest concentration of coal-fired power stations (66%), while Gauteng comes in second (22%) and Limpopo third (11%)
(Department of Environmental Affairs, 2018). It is further reported that coal contributes between 91% and 93% of South
Africa’s electricity generation. While there are many case studies on the reutilization and integration of fly ash into general
construction practice within South Africa, the efforts cannot be seen on a global scale - Europe reports to have successfully
reused 90% of all fly ash generated, the China reports 66%, US reports 40%, India reports 13% (Gustafson, 2012) and South
Africa reports only 5% on the same matter (Kelley Reynolds-Clausen, 2018).

*Lignite: non-agglomerating coal with high moisture, volatile content, and low carbon content (The Coal Handbook , 2013).

4 Engineering geofabrics into geotextiles

Geofabrics are textiles engineered to form porous, flexible, planar polymeric fabrics that are used for a variety of applications
in the construction industry (Koerner, 1990). The fundamental characteristics of geotextiles have proven to have exceptional
results in the following criteria: filtration, separation, protection, barrier, erosion control, reinforcement, and drainage, however,
in a Geotextile Tube application, the dewatering and filtration efficiencies are emphasized.

4.1 Characteristics of a geotextile

The technical specifications and manufacturing methods of geotextiles play a significant role in the performance of geotextiles
(Gustafson, 2012). Geotextiles are woven or non-woven fabrics consisting of either polypropylene (PP) or polyester (PET)
mono-/multi- filament fibres, assembled by needle-punched (N) treatment and thermocalendered (H) processes. These
manufacturing methods contribute to the material characteristics displayed in Table 2 (Gustafson, 2012). The chosen sample
group was pre-selected based on dewatering research conducted by Gustafson, 2012.

Table 2: Geotextile material characteristics (Gustafson, 2012)

Sample Material Material Mass Thickness Permittivity Apparent Filtration

structure per [mm] [sec-1] opening opening
unit size size
area (AOS) (FOS)
[g/m2] [mm] [mm]
W-1 PP Slit-film 585 1.04 0.37 0.26 0.170
W-2 PP Slit-film 462 0.91 NA 0.40 0.37
W-3 PP Monofilament 298 0.90 0.90 0.42 0.38
W-4 PP Monofilament 271 0.89 0.51 0.25 0.22
W-5 PP Monofilament 210 0.40 0.28 0.15 0.14
W-6 PET Multifilament 813 1.08 0.38 0.17 0.14
W-7 PP Multifilament 1 117* 1.76* NA 0.70 0.71

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The sample set, W1 to W7, comprised of polypropylene and polyester fibres, with slit film, mono- and multifilament material
structure types (Gustafson, 2012). The permittivity of five samples was determined, concluding that these samples have
dewatering abilities (Gustafson, 2012). Based on permittivity results, it was determined that the mass per unit area of a
geotextile impacts the dewatering and filtration efficiencies of that geotextile (Gustafson, 2012). SEM imaging of monofilament
(Figure 3a), multifilament (Figure 3b), and slit film (Figure 3c) is used to determine the apparent opening sizes and filtration
opening sizes of the sample set (Gustafson, 2012). Those samples that gave no permittivity readings were described to
experience ‘clogging’, whereby fine particles form a sludge cake, restricting the dewatering and filtration efficiencies of the
geotextile (Gustafson, 2012).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3: Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) Imaging of Geotextile types [x25 zoom], (Gustafson, 2012)

5 Understanding Geotextile Tube Dewatering Cells

A further innovation of geotextiles revealed the invention of Geotextile Tubes, which are large containment cells traditionally
used as breakwater systems in coastal applications (Gustafson, 2012). A Geotextile Tube is formed using critically designed
geotextiles suitable for filtration and dewatering. This innovation harnesses the flexibility and permeability of these planar
fabrics to form a tube-like, three-dimensional unit, that when hydraulically pumped, forms a containment cell for solids, whilst
filtering effluents through apparent openings in the geotextile (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). The solids retained is dependent on
the particle size in relation to the apparent opening size of the Geotextile Tube.

5.1 Creating Geotextile Tubes using engineered seam styles

Once the characteristics of a geotextile suitable for dewatering and filtration has been determined, the design and analysis of a
Geotextile Tube follows. These tubes are manufactured with critically designed seam strengths, suitable to accommodate
pressures created within the tube. Figure 4a and 4b shows the typical Geotextile Tube dimension and seam details (Figure 4b),
whilst Table 3 describes the seam styles applicable for geotextiles (Officine Maccaferri, 2017).

(a)

(b)

Figure 4: Characteristics of a Geotextile Tube (Officine Maccaferri, 2017)

Table 3: Seam styles and strength (Koerner, 1990)

Tensile strength
Seam style Description
[kN/m]
Geotextile is stacked without folds
Prayer seams and single, double, or triple-stitched 18-35
along one edge
Geotextile is stacked with one edge
J-seams folded over and single or double- 53-123
stitched at the fold
Each layer is folded along the edge
Butterfly seams before stacking and single or double- 53-123
stitched

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5.2 Design of Fly Ash Geotextile Tube Dewatering Cells

The analysis of Geotextile Tubes requires design checks for a filled, semi-filled, and unfilled Geotextile Tube, however, the
design methodology described below shows approximated values for a filled Geotextile Tube. In terms of the filling methods,
the slurry is set to pre-determined specifications, generally 30% solids, and 70% liquids, before being hydraulically pumped
through filling ports designed to accommodate a required volumetric inflow over time (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). The bulk
density ratio of the slurry (ɣsolids/ ɣliquids) is approximated to be 1.1 (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). The following material
properties of fly ash and Geotextile Tube characteristics were considered for analysing a preliminary design of fly ash
Dewatering Cells checks - Consolidated Shape, Circumferential Tensions, and Internal Hydraulic Pressures, assuming a
constant pumping rate of 20kPa (Officine Maccaferri, 2017)

Unit weight of fly ash slurry [30% solids, 70% liquids], ɣdry 17.4 kN/m3 (Lee, 2007)
Unit weight of saturated fly ash, ɣsat 11.46 kN/m3 (Lee, 2007)
Specific Gravity of fly ash, Gs 2.1-3.0 (Lee, 2007)

Table 4: Technical Characteristics of a Geotextile Tube (Officine Maccaferri, 2017)

Technical Characteristics Testing Standard Unit Geotextile Tube

Material - - Polypropylene
Mass per unit area of
ASTM D-5261 ISO 9864 g/m2 950
geocomposite
Tensile Strength Main
ASTM D-4595 ISO 10319 kN/m 200
Directions (MD)
Tensile Strength Cross
ASTM D-4595 ISO 10319 kN/m 200
Main Direction (CMD)
Static Puncture Resistance
ASTM D-6241 ISO 12236 N 24000
(CBR)
Permittivity (50mm head) ASTM D-4491 ISO 11058 s-1 0.5
Apparent opening size ASTM D-4751 ISO 12956 μm 297
Seam Strength ASTM D-4884 ISO 10321 kN/m 100
Length - m 30
Circumference - m 17.2
Maximum Height - m 3.40

Reduction factors for the above-mentioned Geotextile Tube, as per manufacturer specifications: Installation Damage, RFid =
1.3; Durability, RFd = 1.0; Creep, RFc = 1.5; Longitudinal Seam Strengths, RFssl = 2.0; Circumferential Seam Strengths, RFssc
= 2.0.

5.2.1. Consolidated Shape of Geotextile Tube using a Fly ash slurry

As the Geotextile Tube is filled, dewatering begins almost immediately. Figure 5a illustrates the geotextile tube after one
interval of filling and dewatering whereas Figure 5b illustrates a full Geotextile Tube after approximately four cycles of
pumping and dewatering. The following parameters relating to the consolidated shape are determined to be the following:
H=2.9m and W=4.8m.

(a) (b)

Figure 5a: Geotextile Tube after one round of filling, Figure 5b: Fully dewatered Geotextile Tube at maximum capacity

The theoretical shape of the Geotextile Tube is assumed to have a diameter D [m], and when filled, the height is approximated
to be 70% of the theoretical diameter, H [m]. The actual shape of a Geotextile Tube can further be defined by its base contact
width, B [m], and its filled width, W[m], and respective height, h [m]. In terms of assessing the viability of the structural shape
𝐻 𝐻
of the tube, ratios are determined at intervals of the filling process (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). Approximate ratios at the
𝑊 𝑊
𝐻
start of the filling process range between 0.9 and 0.99, and are expected to decrease over time, with ratios of a semi-filled
𝑊
tube ranging between 0.5 and 0.83, and 0.2 to 0.5 for a filled Geotextile Tube (Officine Maccaferri, 2017).

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5.2.2 Circumferential surface tension

It is approximated that the total surface tension, Tmax [kN/m], is determined per square meter, which is applied to the base
surface tension, Tb [kN/m2], which is 10 to 15% of Tmax, the upper surface tension, Tu [kN/m2], which is 50 to 70% of Tmax and
the surface tension on the sides which experiences the maximum circumferential tension (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). For the
application of Fly Ash Geotextile Tube Dewatering Cells, the following circumferential tensile forces are expected, and the
required tensile strength of the geotextile should be less than the tensile strength of the Geotextile Tube in the respective
directions (Officine Maccaferri, 2017).

Circumferential Tension along the internal transversal seam 66 kN/m (Leshchinsky, 1995)
Required Ultimate Tensile Strength in Geotextile 258 kN/m (Leshchinsky, 1995)
Circumferential Tension along longitudinal seam 44 kN/m (Leshchinsky, 1995)
Required Ultimate Tensile Strength in Geotextile 170 kN/m (Leshchinsky, 1995)

In cases where the characteristics of the Geotextile Tube do not meet the required tensile requirements, a custom Geotextile
Tube is advised, using a heavier grade of geotextile (Officine Maccaferri, 2017).
*Note: Consider fly ash particle size with respect to the parent material of a Geotextile Tube.

5.2.3 Internal hydraulic pressures

Based on the ultimate tensile strength of the Geotextile Tube per square meter, the internal hydraulic pressure is approximated
to decrease over time, with the highest pressure experienced at the initial filling point (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). As the tube
dewaters a treated effluent, the pressure reduces to zero kilopascals, until a solid tube-like structure is formed out of retained
solids (Officine Maccaferri, 2017).

6 Conclusions

South Africa is identified as a mass producer of fly ash tailings through coal combustion processes implemented during
electricity generation (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2018). The ash tailings produced in South Africa are identified
as Class F tailings (Manz, 1996), which is fairly potent when compared with drinking water standards (Gustafson, 2012). This
explains the need for storing fly ash tailings in ash dump facilities, which are generally on-site or off-site facilities designed to
mitigate fly ash leachate formation (Environmental Impact Management Services, 2018). With the increasing demand for
sustainable solutions focused on minimizing environmental challenges created through electricity generation, the solutions
discussed in this paper are aimed at bulk-treating fly ash tailings through Geotextile Tube Dewatering Systems. Although a
dampened dry disposal method for fly ash is largely used in South Africa, a wet disposal system is proposed by redefining
Geotextile Tubes, tailoring its characteristics to create high dewatering and filtration efficiencies. This requires an in-depth
understanding of geotextile properties and manufacturing methods that contribute to the overall performance of Geotextile
Tubes (Officine Maccaferri, 2017). Formulating Geotextile Tube dewatering systems at South African electricity generation
facilities shows great potential for utilizing treated fly ash in a variety of geotechnical applications.

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