HISTORY NOTES

Section A
The emergence of Pakistan (1927–1971)
1.1 a) the Simon Commission (reasons and opposition): the Nehru Report and Jinnah’s
Fourteen Points, the Salt March and Iqbal’s Allahabad Address

Simon commission (1927)

Reasons - To enquire into the workings of the reforms set up in 1919.

- To draft a future constitution under the light of Indian recommendation
- To put an end to the communalism in India and restore Hindu-Muslim
cooperation.

Opposition - It was opposed as it had no Indian member

- It was considered an insult in India leading to protests.

Outcomes - The Nehru Report was drafted

- Lord Irwin announced a series of conferences to be held in London.
(Round Table Conferences).

Nehru report (1928)

Aims - To appeal for a new dominion status and a federal set-up of government
for the constitution of India.
- To oppose the simon commission.

Provisions - Immediate dominion status for India.

- No separate electorates for any community or weightage for minorities.
- Men and women to have equal rights.
- Hindi to be made the official language of India.

Reasons - Muslims opposed the report as Urdu was of great cultural importance for
for rejection Muslims and for Hindi to be the national language, was a threat to their
cultural rights.
- Muslims were greatly angered as the idea of no separate electorates
was against the lucknow pact.
- Hindus were trying to dominate Muslims and did not protect Muslim
rights even in Muslim majority areas like Punjab and Bengal.

Outcome - Production of Jinnah’s 14 points.

 - United the Muslim Leage.
- Marked the end of Hindu-Muslim unity

Jinnah’s 14 points (1929)

Aims - Respond to the nehru report as it contained provisions against muslim

interests.
- Safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims.
- To form the basis of negotiations with the congress and British.

The 14 points 1. Any future constitution should be federal, power resting with the
provinces.
2. All Provinces should have the same amount of autonomy.
3. All legislatures and local bodies should be constituted with adequate
representation of minorities.
4. Muslims should have one-third of the seats in the Central Assembly.
5. Elections should be by separate electorates.
6. Any territorial changes should be affect the Muslim majority in Bengal,
the Punjab and the NWFP.
7. Full liberty of belief and worship shall be granted to all communities.
8. No Bill shall be passed in any elected body if ¾ of any community in
that body opposed it.
9. Sindh shall be separated from Bombay.
10. There should be reforms in the NWFP and Balochistan to put them on
the same footing as other provinces.
11. Muslims should have an adequate share in the services of the state.
12. Muslim culture, education, language, religion and charities should be
protected by the constitution.
13. All cabinets (at central or local level) should have at least 1/3 Muslim
representation.
14. The Federation of India must not change laws without the consent of
the provinces.

Outcomes - It clearly ended Hindu-Muslim unity and cooperation.

- Hindus and the British Government were given a clear message that
Muslims wanted their own identity without influence by Hindus.
- It united Muslims a great deal.

The Salt March (1930)

Aims - Oppose the salt laws which forbade locals to make salt except with a
special license.
- Oppose British rule in any possible way

Events - A 24-day march headed by Gandhi was carried out.

 - British cloth shops were picketed. Their schools, colleges and services
were boycotted.

Outcomes - The British outlawed congress, censored the newspaper and began
widespread arrests. Gandhi and Nehru both were arrested.
- Jinnah disapproved of the non-cooperation and most muslims did not join
the movement as it was seen as an attempt to not only gain
independence but also dominate over muslims.

Iqbal’s Allahabad Address (1930)

What? - Iqbal called for the muslims of the subcontinent to work towards
achieving a separate homeland.

Importance - He was the first muslims leader to suggest partition of the subcontinent
in keeping with the two-nation theory.
- His views acted as an inspiration to many Muslims who were uncertain
about how to defend their religion and culture as Iqbal set out a clear
goal for muslims to work towards.
- Iqbal’s poetry was a source of inspiration for the Muslims of India as it
kindled a sense of nationhood and motivated them to work harder to
achieve their goal.

1.1 b) continued attempts at a solution and reasons for failure: the Simon Report, the three
Round Table Conferences, the Communal Award and Government of India Act 1935

Simon report (1930)

Provisions - The power of the central government and provincial governors should be
reduced.
- Federal system of government should be introduced.
- The right to vote should be extended to more people.
- India to be given dominion status with self-government for its internal
affairs.

Opposition - Indians wanted nothing less than complete freedom whereas the
commission talked about dominion status which ‘charged-up’ the Indians
leading to demonstrations and unrest.

Round table conferences

Aims - To discuss constitutional reforms in India.

 - To discuss the recommendations of the Simon Commission report.
- To end the complete deadlock between congress and league due to the
proposals of the nehru report and jinnah's 14 points.

First Round Table Conference (1930)

Agreements - The princes would join a future federation of India as long as their rights
were recognized.
- Representative government would be announced at the provincial level.

Outcome - Muslims were somewhat satisfied as they felt that some ground had
been gained.
- The absence of congress led to the Gandhi-Irwin talks in which Irwin
agreed to release most political prisoners and return property seized by
the government and in return Gandhi agreed to call off non-cooperation
campaigns and attend the next round of talks; he also agreed to give up
the immediate demand for full independence in return Indian
responsibility of all matters which were “safeguards in the interests of
India”.

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

What? - NWFP and Sindh were to be made provinces with governors.

- The British warned that if no agreement was reached, a British-imposed
settlement may be the only option.

Reasons for - The new coalition government was less keen to reach a compromise in
failure India.
- Gandhi refused to recognize the problems of the minorities.

Third Round Table Conference (1932)

Reasons for - Lord Irwin had been replaced by Lord Willington as viceroy.
failure - Non- cooperation movement restarted; Willington arrested Gandhi and
Nehru
- Jinnah distanced himself from it, disillusioned at the lack of progress.

The Communal Award (1932)

 Provisions - The right for separate electorates for minorities would be ensured.
- Principle of weightage would be applied.

Outcomes - Congress rejected it as they weren't ready to recognize minority-rights.

- Muslims accepted it despite the fact that it fell short for some demands (it
reduced their majority in Bengal and Punjab)

Government of India Act (1935)

Reasons - Failure of the round table conferences.

- To end the system of dyarchy introduced by the Government of India Act
1919.
- To provide for the establishment of a Federation of India to be made up
of provinces of British India and some or all of the Princely states.

Provisions - India was to be a federation including both the provinces of British India
and any Princely States which chose to join.
- NWFP would be given the status of a fully-fledged province.
- The governor general was the head of the federation and could exert
special powers in the reserved subjects.

Outcome - The property qualification for voting meant that only 25% of the Indian
population was allowed to vote in the provincial elections.
- The act was opposed on all sides of India; The Congress, ML and even
the princes of states disliked and resented this act.

Importance - Some provincial autonomy was granted.

- Granted more voting rights to the people of India i-e 25% of the
population of India was now having the right to vote which was 5 times
larger than that in 1909.
- The act was an important point in the move towards independence. It
provided the basis for the negotiations which finally resulted in the British
leaving India.

1.1 c) Congress Rule 1937–39: reasons for the success of Congress in the election of 1937 and
impact of Congress Rule on the Muslim community.

1937 elections

What? - Although league and congress disapproved of the government of

india act 1935, the saw an advantage of the elections which was to
get their message across the subcontinent
- Congress won absolute majority; league won only 109 of the 482
seats reserved for them
 Reasons for the - Muslims were unaware of what exactly the league stood for as it
failure of League failed to get its message across the sub-continent.
- Muslim league was poorly organized.
- Muslim League did better in Muslim minority areas as it didnt fear
hindu majority in muslim majority areas.

Benefits brought - The League learnt a great deal about how to contest elections; it
to League realized that it had to improve its organization and planning.
- League realized that it had an ‘image problem’. Its leaders were
seen as aristocrats and princes whereas many muslims were poor
and illiterate.
- The League now knew that it was vital for them to spread the
message about what the League actually stood for.

Congress rule (1937-39)

Impact on muslim - Congress refused to cooperate in the Muslim majority provinces.

community. - The Bande Matram (a Hindu song which encouraged Hindus to
expel Muslims from ‘Hindustan’ was made compulsory to sing
before the start of official business everyday.
- The Wardha scheme (teaching was to be in Hindi, there was to
be no religious education and all students were expected to bow
before a picture of Gandhi) was made compulsory and was seen
by muslims as an attempt to subvert love for islam amoungst
their children and convert them to Hinduism.
- Muslims were forbidden to eat meat.
- Azaan was forbidden and attacks were carried out on mosques
including pushing pigs into mosques and carrying out noisy
processions at prayer time.

1.2 a) the continued search for a solution: the importance of the Day of Deliverance, the
outbreak of the Second World War, the Lahore Resolution 1940, the failure of the Cripps
Mission and the Quit India Resolution

The Day of Deliverance (1939)

Events - When Britain went to war with Germany, it announced that India was at
war with Germany too.
- Congress provincial government resigned as they objected to the fact
that it had not been consulted at all.
- Congress rule ended.

Importance - Muslims were pleased to see the end of congress rule as now they
wouldn't have to indulge in unislamic practices such as bowing before
 the picture of gandhi and they could offer their prayer in peace without
any disturbances.

Outbreak of the second world war (1939)

What? - The British were deeply involved in WW2 – their army mostly consisted of
Indians thus Indian support was imperative.
- The Congress refused to fight Britain’s battle unless freedom for India was
announced.
- The British agreed to give India dominion status once the war was over.

Impacts - Congress rule ended.

- The Muslims were now free of Congress rule and celebrated the “Day of
Deliverance” which offended the Congress.

The Lahore Resolution (1940)

Resolution - For the establishment of a separate homeland for the Muslims of British
India

Outcome - Muslims finally got their rallying call; years of oppression from Hindus and
British was to be put behind them.
- Muslim majority was in favour of the idea
- Congress strongly opposed it and the British were unenthusiastic about
the idea.

Cripps Mission (1942)

Aims - To reach a compromise with the congress leaders

- Negotiate their support for the war.

Proposals - After the war, an Indian Union would be set up with Dominion status.
- After the war, a constitution assembly would frame a new constitution.
- Elections for the constituent assembly would be held right after the war.

Reasons - Muslims League rejected the plan immediately as it contained no

for failure reference to the establishment of Pakistan.
- Congress rejected the proposals as now they were demanding immediate
power and independence.
- Cripps proposal of provinces opting out of the Indian Union, which was
not acceptable to Congress Nationalists as they couldn't see
 disintegration of Mother India

The Quit India Resolution (1942)

Aims - Force the British to leave India in order to get rid of the Japanese threat
of invasion.

Events - In august 1942, the All-India Congress Committee passed its ‘Quit India
Resolution’ calling for the immediate withdrawal of the British.
- Mass struggles,rioting and campaigns were carried out.

Outcomes - Senior Congress leaders including Nehru and Gandhi were arrested.
- Muslim League didnt approve of it as Hindu attempts were seen as
means of gaining control in India to exercise their own, anti-muslim
wishes.

1.2 b) failure to reach agreement: the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944, the Simla Conference, the
significance of the 1945–1946 elections, the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan 1946

Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944)

Aims - To discuss how to handle communal affairs after the British departed
including the issue.

Reasons - Gandhi wanted the league to give immediate support to congress in its
for failure struggle to remove the British and after the British left could partition be
considered. Jinnah wanted to secure partition before the British left as he
knew that congress would never agree to it once the British were gone.
- Gandhi wanted the central government to have control over the key areas
(defense and foreign policy) whereas Jinnah wanted these matters to be in
the hands of the provinces.
- Gandhi considered himself to be the speaker of all of India but Jinnah
reminded him that he was only the spokesman of Congress.
- Gandhi gave the impression that he didn't support the ‘Two-Nation Theory’
whereas this had now become the official League policy.

The Simla Conference (1945)

Aims - To unite the sub-continent and form a coalition interim government of

Congress and Muslim League at the center
- To discuss the future policy in India after the British left.
Proposals - An Executive Council should be set up to govern the country under the
present constitution until a new constitution could be agreed on.
- The Executive Council should contain equal numbers of Hindus and
Muslims and be entirely Indian apart from the Viceroy and a member
controlling defense.

Reasons - Lack of agreement about who was to be on the council.

for failure - Jinnah pointed out that Sikhs and Scheduled Castes on the council were
bound to vote with the Hindus resulting in a permanent Muslim minority in
the Executive Council.
- Jinnah objected to the Congress suggestion that it could nominate
Muslims as well as Hindus.

1945-46 elections

Results of the - The League won 87% of the Muslim vote, all 30 Muslim seats in
elections the in the provincial elections.
- Congress won 91% of the Non-Muslim vote.

Reasons for - Since 1937, the League had succeeded in getting its message
League’s success across the subcontinent and had become a force in Indian politics.
- The period of congress rule had made Muslims realize that if they
did not stand up for their rights, they would suffer at the hands of
the Congress.

Significance - The elections showed the split in India between Congress and
Muslim League.
- The elections made it clear that there could be no settlement in
India without the League’s approval.

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

Aims - To find a settlement acceptable to all

Provisions - Rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan

- There would be three different parts to a post-British India: the
Hindu-majority territories; the Western Muslim provinces; Bengal and
Assam.
- Each part would have local autonomy and would be able to draw up its
own constitution
- Foreign affairs, defense and communication would be managed by a
central Indian Union.

Failure - Both the Muslim League and Congress initially accepted it but Nehru said
that Congress would not feel bound by the plan once the British had left
 which made further discussion pointless and the plan was dropped.

1.2 c) partition achieved: Direct Action Day 1946 and communal violence, the failure of the
Executive Council, the appointment of Mountbatten, the June 3 Plan, the Radcliffe
Commission/Award and Independence Act 1947, and the overall contribution made in achieving
the establishment of Pakistan by Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Allama Mohammad Iqbal and Chandri
Rahmat Ali.

Direct Action Day (1946)

Aims - Show Muslim solidarity and an indication of Muslim strength to both British
and Hindus

Events - In August, 1946, the League called for a ‘Direct Action Day’.
- Thousands demonstrated peacefully.

Communal violence

Events - On the ‘Direct Action Day’, the demonstrations turned into violence in
Calcutta (‘The Great Calcutta Killing’)

Outcome - 4000 people died.

Executive Council

Reasons for its - As a result of the Cabinet Mission Plan

formation - The British were determined to make arrangements for leaving India.

Events - Nehru was asked by the British to form an Executive council to act
as an interim government
- Initially Jinnah refused to nominate League members until Congress
accepted that it had no right to nominate Muslims
- Jinnah -upon realizing the importance of including League members
in the council- appointed 5 members including Liaqat Ali and a Hindu
(to show that he wasn't anti-Hindu and if Pakistan was formed, many
Hindus would be living there)

Reasons for - League members refused to attend the first meeting of the
failure Constituent Assembly and in retaliation Congress demanded the
resignation of the League members in the Executive Council since
the League had originally rejected the idea of the Cabinet Mission
Plan.
Mountbatten

Who? - The last viceroy of India, appointed by Attlee and arrived in India in
March 1947.

Reasons for - Work out a plan for the transfer of power

appointment

Works - Had meetings with many political leaders and realized that partition
was inevitable.
- Announced the June 3 Plan.

June 3 Plan (1947)

Reasons - The British government had decided to leave no less than June
- An outbreak of violence in Punjab convinced the Congress to accept
the partition along religious lines.

Provisions - Two states should be set up, India and Pakistan, the interim
constitution of both states was the 1935 Government of India Act.
- Each state was to have Dominion Status and have an Executive
responsible to a Constituent Assembly.
- Muslim majority provinces would vote either to stay in India or join
Pakistan.

Problems it left - How the boundaries between the Muslim and Non-Muslim states
undecided were to be drawn.
- How much Pakistan would receive of the military and financial assets
of British India
- The problem of the Princely states who wished to remain
independent or join a country with whom they did not share a border
or religion.
- The relationship of the British with the independent states of Pakistan
and India. India had already accepted Lord Mountbatten as their first
governor-general but Quaid decided that he was to be Pakistan’s

The Radcliffe Award (1947)

Aims - Establish new borders

What? - Radcliff, along with 4 assistants (2 members of League and 2 of

Congress), established the borders.
Problems - Calcutta, Firozpur and Guardspur (later leading to the Kashmir dispute)
were given to India in last minute changes without the knowledge of the
Muslim League.

Independence Act (1947)

Statement - The Act stated that from 15th August, British India would be partitioned
into two dominion stes- India and Pakistan
- Each state would have complete freedom to pass any law it wished
- The government of India Act 1935 would be the provincial constitution
until their states devised their own.

Contributions made by Muhammad Ali Jinnah towards the establishment of Pakistan

Left congress - Disapproving of the radical Hindu approach, Jinnah

left the party in 1921
- Jinnah argued that Gandhi’s approach was likely to
lead to division between the two communities.
- This step clearly showed the Muslim-Hindu unity
couldn’t take place.

Boycott of the Simon - In 1927, the Muslim League under the leadership of
Commission Jinnah boycotted the Simon Commission because it
had no Indian member.
- This step showed how Muslims were not willing to
make any compromises to their rights.

Rejection of the Nehru report - In 1928, Jinnah took a stand against the Nehru Report
and formation of the 14 points and asked him to make amendments to make it
acceptable by Muslims.
- After Congress rejected Jinnah's suggestion of
amendments in the Nehru Report, Jinnah proposed
his famous 14 points to protect the Indian Muslims'
rights.
- This tep was described as the ‘parting of ways’ and
was one of the most important steps towards the
establishment of Pakistan as it formed a blueprint for
all future discussions.

Round Table Conferences - In 1931 - 1932, Jinnah attended the first two Round
Table Conferences and spoke for the rights of
Muslims.

Elections - After the Muslim League experienced a terrible defeat

in the general elections of 1936-1937, Jinnah
 responded to the defeat with optimism and launched a
mass contact to let the common people of India know
what Muslim League stands for.
- In 1945 - 1946 general election, Muslim League
experienced a tremendous victory in Muslim majority
states clearlt highlighting the split in India between
Congress and League.

The Day of Deliverance - In 1939, Jinnah asked the Muslims to celebrate ‘The
Day of Deliverance’ because the tyrant rule of
Congress came to its end.
- This action clearly highlighted that Muslims wanted
freedom from the Hindu dominance.

Pakistan Resolution - In 1940, the Pakistan Resolution was passed under

the leadership of Jinnah.
- This resolution called for Muslims to work for an
independent homeland and end the oppression faced
by Hindus for good.

Cripps's mission - The League under the leadership of Jinnah rejected

the plan immediately as it contained no reference to
the establishment of Pakistan.
- This move clearly highlighted that the Muslims would
agree on nothing less than an independent homeland.

Cabinet Mission - The League under the leadership of Jinnah rejected

the plan as the Congress stated that it wouldn't feel
bound by the plan once the British had left.
- This action clearly shows Muslim determination for
protection of their rights.

Contributions made by Allama Muhammad Iqbal towards the establishment of Pakistan

Poetry - Iqbal’s poetry called on Muslims of the Sub-continent to improve

their position in the society.
- His poetry also reflected his belief that India should stand against
British rule.
- He encouraged Mulisms to work towards a separate homeland
through his poetry.

Convincing Jinnah - In 1936 when Jinnah was residing in England, Iqbal wrote him
letters to express the urgency of the situation and requested him
to return.
- Iqbal has played a major role in Jinnah's success as he is the
sole reason why Jinnah returned in the first place.
 Allahabad - He was granted the honour of presiding over the All India Muslim
Address League meeting in Allahabad.
- He called for a federation in which Muslims were given political
autonomy (a separate homeland)

Contributions made by Chaudhary Rehmat Ali towards the establishment of Pakistan

The Pakistan Movement - In 1933, he established the ‘Pakistan Movement’ to

campaign for the idea of Pakistan.

Now or Never - He started a pamphlet known as ‘Now and Never’ and

suggested in it a separate homeland for Muslims and called
it ‘Pakistan’.
- In the name Pakistan, ‘P’ represents Punjab, ‘A’ for
Afghania (NWFP), ‘K’ for Kashmir and ‘TAN’ for
Balochistan.
- This showed his serious attitude and determination for a
separate homeland and it provided inspiration for many
Muslim leaders.

Pakistan, the Fatherland - He published a work ‘Pakistan, the Fatherland of the Pak
of the Pak nation nation’ which contained all his writings on the subject which
persuaded Muslims to work towards an independent
homeland.

1.3 a) the Governor-Generalship of the Quaid-e-Azam and creating a new country: internal
social and cultural divisions, particularly language (East and West Pakistan), the issues relating
to the princely state of Kashmir

Society and culture

Divisions - Natural borders were not present

- East and West Pakistanwere separated by about a thousand
miles of land that belonged to India
- Different population groups were present: Pakhtuns; Balochs;
Sindhis; Punjabis; Bengalis
- Different traditions, cultures and lifestyles were present
- The language preferences of the two states -East and West-
Pakistan were different: East Pakistan wanted Bengali as the
national language whereas West Pakistanis preferred Urdu

Governor-Generalship - Quaid-e-Azam stressed on the need to work together to

of the Quaid-e-Azam create the nation so he stated: ‘people should not think of
 themselves as, for example, Panjabi or Bengali. Instead, they
should think, feel and act as Pakistanis and be proud of it’

Princely state of kashmir

Issues - It has a great strategic importance due to boundaries with

Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia
- The Muslim-majority wanted to join Pakistan but the Hindu
maharaja was not in favour of this

Governor-Generalship - Quaid-e-Azam used the army to help Kashmir

of the Quaid-e-Azam - Hesecured membership of the country to the UNO and the
Kashmir matter was referred to it

1.3 b) the Governor-Generalship of the Quaid-e-Azam and establishing stability and growth: the
influx of refugees, division of financial and military assets, water distribution, industrialisation

Refugees

Influx - When the Boundary Award was announced, millions of

people found themselves in the wrong country and fled.
- Muslim knew that they would become victims of violence if
they remained in india as minorities and their rights would
never be recongnized.
- 10 million people moved from India to Pakistan and in the
other direction
- 20 million people found themselves to be homeless and
became victims of poverty
- Violence and crime spread rapidly

Governor-Generalship - Quaid-e-Azam set up the Relief Fund to rehabilitate refugees

of the Quaid-e-Azam as soon as possible

Financial and military assets

Division - It was agreed that the assets were to be divided in a ratio of

17 of India to 5 of Pakistan.
- Of the 750million rupees agreed to be paid to Pakistan, india
refused to make further payments after the first 200 million
were paid as the war between the two countries broke out
over the issue of Kashmir
 - The strike of Gandhi compelled them to pay further 500
million rupees, though the rest of 50 million were never paid.
- Pakistan needed 4000 military officers for 150,000 army men,
whereas only 2500 were available so Jinnah was forced to
appoint 500 British officers. I
- Military weapons arrived late and were mostly outdated
- India refused to hand over any 1 of the 15 ordnance factories
located in India, though it paid 60 million rupees to build an
ordinance factory in Pakistan which was soon to be built at
Wah.

Governor-Generalship - Quaid-e-Azam established the State Bank of Pakistan to

of the Quaid-e-Azam develop economy
- He helped persuade the Indian government to hand over the
agreed share of financial assets from pre-partition India

Water

Issue - In 1948, India blocked the two rivers that flowed through the
head-works located in India
- Pakistan claimed that as Pakistan was an agro-based
country, so its economy mainly depended on agriculture,
therefore it had every right upon it.
- A temporary agreement was reached, India agreed to flow
the water if Pakistan tried to India alternative water supplies.

Governor-Generalship - Quaid-e-Azam reached a compromise with India on the canal

of the Quaid-e-Azam water dispute ensuring Pakistan’s agriculture

Industries

Issues - Pakistan was not a wealthy country and its major activity,
agriculture, did not produce a sufficient surplus to create the
wealth needed for industrialization
- The two wings of Pakistan had little economic exchange
before partition
- Jute export was the main source of foreign earnings for East
Pakistan and all the jute mills were given to india

Governor-Generalship - Quaid-e-Azam set uporganizations like Muhammadi

of the Quaid-e-Azam Shipments, Orient Airways, Habib Bank, Muslim Commercial
Bank, All India Federation of Muslim Chambers of Commerce
and Industries and Printing Press
1.3 c) the contributions of Khawaja Nazimuddin and Liaquat Ali Khan: the Objectives
Resolution, the Public and Representative Officers (Disqualification) Act, the Rawalpindi
Conspiracy, the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan.

Objectives Resolution (1949)

Aims - To decide the principles on which the new constitution would be based
on

Declarations - The constitution should observe the principles of democracy, freedom,

equality, tolerance and social justice as laid down by Islam
- Muslims would be able to lead their lives according to Islamic principles
- Other religious groups should be able to practice their religion freely
- Minorities and the poor would be protected from social injustice
- All fundamental and human rights would be granted
- The legal system should be independent of the government

Problems - The ulama declared that the declarations were not islamic enough
- There was no agreement on how these objectives would be
implemented.
- No timetable was made to achieve later tasks (leading to a delay in
constitution-making.)

The Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act (1949)

Aims - Eliminate corruption

Declarations - By this act complaints could be made to the governor general or

provincial governors who could order an enquiry by judges
- Anyone found guilty under PRODA would be debarred from office

Outcome - It allowed the ruling elite to remove those who it didn't approve of

LIaqat-Nehru pact (1950)

Aims - Guarantee the rights of minorities

- To avert another war between them
- To promote communal peace

Agreements - Each government was responsible for the safety of minorities

- Free passage of refugees across the border was restricted
- A visa system for refugees was introduced
- Refugees were allowed to return to dispose of their property
- Abducted women and looted property would return
 - Forced conversions would be unrecognized.

The Rawalpindi Conspiracy (1951)

Reasons - A general discontent of the Army's Officers with the performance of Liaqat Ali
Khan's Government
- Many of the high ranking Pakistani Generals viewed the continuing presence
of British Army Officers in the army as a security threat, as well as an
impediment to their speedy promotions
- Liaqat regime's handling of the Kashmir war with India

Events - Discover by Ayub Khan, the conspiracy led to the arrest, trial and
imprisonment of the conspirators including Major general Akbar Khan,
Chief of General Staff and 14 other officers

The assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan

Events - Liaqat survived his first coup but on 16th October, 1951, he was shot
dead by an assassin while addressing a public meeting in Rawalpindi

Outcomes - He was given the title of ‘Shaheed e Millat’

- Ghulam Muhammad came into power

1.4 a) constitutional matters 1951–58: the contribution of Malik Ghulam Muhammad, the 1952
Report of the Basic Principles Committee, the 1954–55 Constitutional Crisis, the contribution of
Iskander Mirza, the One Unit system, the 1956 Constitution

Contribution of Malik Ghulam Muhammad

Economic development - In 1950, a planning commission was set up to oversee

economic development in Pakistan
- In1951, it launched a 6-year plan, covering agriculture, fuel,
power etc.
- In 1953, a planning board was set up to review the
development that had taken place and produced a 5-year
plan to follow on from the 6-year plan
- A major jute processing plant was opened at Narayanganj
- The exploration of oil and gas led to the discovery of vast
reserves of natural gas in Balochistan
- The hurdle in economic growth was the end of the Korean
war and along with it, the supply of jute and cotton; the
severe drought in Pakistan led to food-shortages and rioting
 which was worsened by the Ulama’s demand of declaring
Ahmedis non-Muslims and dismissing them from office
including the foreign minister(Zafarrullah Khan)

The 1952 Report of the - The second report of the BPC altered the proposals of the
Basic Principles first report as it had received criticism
Committee - The proposals were: the head of state shall be muslim, the
head of state would choose a committee of islamic
specialists to ensure that all legislation cpnformed to islamic
law, the official language should be settled by the assembly
and religious minorities would have representetives at
National and Provincial levels
- As these proposals too met with criticism, Ghulam
Muhammad dismissed Khuwaja Nazimudin and 3 other
members of cabinet, blaming them for not being able to
control the economy and the riots that resulted from food
shoratges.

The 1954–55 - Ghulam Mohammad expected Bogra to support his

Constitutional Crisis authority.
- Bogra wanted to curb the power of the governor general.
- When Ghulam Muhammad was out of country, Bogra
persuaded the assembly to pass laws limiting the powers of
the governor general by stating: all his ministers including
the prime minister must be members of the assembly; the
assembly had to approve the cabinet; the governor general
had to take the advice of his ministers
- Ghulam Muhammad’s retaliation included the declaration of
a state of emergency and he dissolved the Assembly.
- Ghulam Muhammad chose a new cabinet, re-appointed
Bogra as prime minister and selected 5 members of the
cabinet who were not assembly members
- Maulvi Tamizuddin -the speaker of the dissolved assembly-
contested that the dissolution had been illegal which was
later on declared illegal too by the high court.
- Upon Ghulam Muhammad’s appeal to the Fedral court, the
court ruled that Ghulam Muhammad had the authority to
dismiss the assembly ‘if he was satisfied that the situation
demanded it’.
- On 21st june, 1935, elections were held for a new
constituent assembly; it met for the first time on 7th july,
1955.

Contribution of Iskander Mirza

One Unit system - It was passed to Improve efficiency in management of

(1955) administration and economic resources.
 - It was proposed that the 4 provinces and 10 princely states within
Pakistan should be joined, unifying all of West Pakistan
- This division of Pakistan into two wings (East and West Pakistan),
ensuring equal representation in the assembly, prevented the
Eastern wing from gaining majority in the assembly, causing
resentment as well as the partition of the Eastern and Western
wing

1956 constitution - It was Pakistan’s first constitution adopted by the second

constituent assembly
- It was a compromise between the League and United Front; United
front dropped its objections to equal seats in the assembly and no
longer demanded full provincial autonomy; in return, Bengali was
accepted as the national language
- The main points were: the president could appoint the prime
minister; Bengali was to be the 2nd national language; Pakistan
was named as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan; no law could be
passed against Islam and all existing laws would be brought in
conformity with Islam.
- It was made irrelevant because there was no competent civilian
government to implement it.

Modernization - This industrialization and rural development programme was

started to bring about economic development
- Karachi airport was completed in 1955
- Steps were taken to improve railways
- The telephone system was expanded
- Health and educational services were uplifted

1.4 b) the contribution of Ayub Khan: Martial Law, Basic Democracies, the 1962 Constitution,
the Decade of Development, the new capital, war with India, uprisings against Ayub, including
those led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Sheik Mujibur Rahman, resignation

Martial law (1958)

Reasons - Misgovernance and public corruption

- Constant dismissals of Prime Ministers in 1956–58
- Threat of losing presidential election in 1958 by President Mirza
- To stabilize the economy

Methods - Curfew
- Media blackout
- Suspension of fundamental rights such as right to assembly and
expression
- Abolition of the 1956 constitution
- Abolition of political parties
Outcomes - Political tension
- Sectarian politics
- Continued uncertainty around canal water disputes

Basic democracies (1959)

Aims - To provide a link between the government and the people

- To form the basis upon which a new constitution was to be set up

Provisions - A four- tier structure consisting of a Village Council at the most basic
level, a Sub-district council, a District Council and a Divisional Council

Outcomes - Ayub khan announced the creation of a Constituent commission to make

recommendations for a new constitution
- Became the basis for the formation of the 1962 constitution

1962 constitution

Provisions - Pakistan was named as the Republic of Pakistan.

- The constitution provided for a federal system with the
principle of parity between East Pakistan and West Pakistan.
- Both the provinces would run their separate provincial
governments.
- The president couldn't be removed until impeached
- The president nominated the cabinet from the members of the
national assembly
- The president nominated the head of judiciary and provincial
governors
- The National Legislature couldn't pass a law without the
approval of the president

Outcomes - Martial law came to an end

- Ban on the political parties was removed
- It increased the power of the ruling elite
- East Pakistanis were upset as they felt that they would have
little part in governing Pakistan

Steps taken to placate - Both Urdu and Bengali was recognized as the National
East Pakistanis language
- The National Assembly Session was to be held in both Dhaka
and Islamabad
- If the president were from West Pakistan, the speaker of the
National Assembly was to be from East Pakistan
The Decade of Development

Aims - Restore economic stability

- End poverty
- Develop industry
- Support agriculture
- Maintain the basic level of social welfare

Agricultural reforms - Ayub Khan fixed the limit that no one could possess less than
12.5 acres of land and more than 500 acres of irrigated and
1000 acres of unirrigated land.
- He provided several incentives to the farmers in order to
modernize agriculture by providing loans to the farmers so that
they could purchase tractors, insecticides and pesticides.

Industrial reforms - The Export Bonus Scheme offered incentives to industrialists

who increased imports.
- An oil refinery was set up in Karachi and gas development
projects were also started.
- Pakistan built three large dams in order to provide irrigation
water to facilitate agriculture.
- Hydroelectric power plants were also set up in order to deal with
the electricity crisis of Pakistan.
- Pakistan, Iran and Turkey came into an economic alliance
known as the Regional Cooperation for Development to
facilitate the development in the three countries.

Social reforms - 75,000 refugee dwellings were built near Karachi

- Laws were passed that factory owners had to provide
accommodation for their workers at a reasonable rent
- Family planning programmes were set up
- More medical and nursing training schools were set up

Educational reforms - A new curricula for schools was set up

- New textbooks were published
- New schools and colleges were built

Outcomes - Led to a 15% increase in the GNP

- Agricultural output increased along with food prices
- The industrial reforms led to 66% of Pakistan's industrial assets
being controlled by 22 families mostly of West Pakistan leading
to resentment by East Pakistanis
- Medical facilities were improved
- Student protests began

The new capital

 Reasons - Islamabad's central location in the country
- Ayub Khan wanted to be closer to the army’s command headquarters in
the north which he saw as vital in times of martial law.
- Existing buildings of Karachi were not adequate in number or up to the
standards required by a capital.

Events - Construction began in 1961

- Islamabad came into life in 1966

War with India (1965)

Reasons - Operation Gibraltar

- India stopped the water of the rivers

Events - India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on West Pakistan.

- The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides

Outcomes - Tashkent agreement was signed

- Ayub Khan blamed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto for the failings in the war
- People were discontented with the government

Uprisings against Ayub

Protests - Protests by students

- Protests followed by widespread arrests

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto - Zulfikar Ali Bhutto started gathering forces against Ayub Khan in
1967.
- Bhutto had created the Pakistan Peoples Party in 1967
- Bhutto went around Pakistan on a speaking tour and reached out
to those that the government had neglected in order to inspire
them to join a revolution against Ayub
- He was successful in gaining support across the country and the
people continued to follow him.

Sheikh Mujibur - After the publication of the Six-Points, Mujib traveled around
Rahman Bengal to gain support in favor of the Six-Point formula.
- He stated that East Bengal was being exploited by the West wing
- He was arrested in 1966 under the government of Ayub Khan, but
was bailed out soon.
- Ayub ordered again for his arrest.
- Soon he was charged with Agartala Conspiracy.
- Protests started against Ayub Khan and he withdrew this case and
all the accused including Mujib were released.
 - On Mujib’s arrival to his province, he was hailed as a hero of the
Bengali people.

Resignation (1969)

Reasons - The opposition united and formed the Democratic Action Committee
- Basic democrats resigned in large numbers
- Opposition rapidly gained support and Ayub rapidly lost support
- Ayub didn't have enough support to stay in power

Events - On 25th March 1969, President Ayub Khan resigned from office and
invited commander-in-chief of the army General Yahya Khan to take
over the control of the country.

Outcomes - Pakistan was under martial law for the second time
- The One Unit Scheme was suspended
- The 1962 constitution was suspended

1.4 c) the contribution of Yahya Khan, 1969–1971: restoration of martial law, suspension of the
One Unit system and the 1962 Constitution, the 1970 elections and consequent constitutional
crisis.

Restoration of martial law

Reasons - Pakistan had fallen into a state of disarray

- Civil unrest in East Pakistan had evolved into a mass uprisings

Events - Ayub Khan handed over power to Yahya Khan in March 1969, who
immediately imposed martial law.

Suspension of the One Unit system and the 1962 Constitution

Reasons - End the regional rivalry problems

- End the hostility of East Pakistanis and ensure the integrity of Pakistan
- Solve Pakistan's constitutional matters

Suspension - He dissolved the one unit and restored the pre-1955 provinces of West
Pakistan
- On 26 March 1969, General Yahya appeared on national television and
announced the enforcement of martial law all over the country; the 1962
constitution was abrogated, the parliament was dissolved, and Ayub's
civilian officials were dismissed.
 Outcomes - East Pakistanis felt that the west wing had politically suppressed them
since 1958, which caused the rise of anti-West Wing sentiment in the
East Wing
- Pakistan’s 4 provinces were re-established
- Constitutional crisis

1970 elections

Aims - Bring democracy to Pakistan based on the ‘one man, one vote’

Events - Elections were originally supposed to be held in October but were

postponed as a result of severe flooding in East Pakistan followed by
chaos.
- They were finally held in December
- The Awami League from East Pakistan won an overwhelming majority

Outcomes - Constitutional crisis

Constitutional crisis

Reasons - The awami league had won the election on a programme limiting the
power of the central government over the provinces
- The Awami League had a majority not only in East Pakistan but also in
the National assembly
- The victory of the Awami League on the basis of the six-point
programme was not acceptable by West Pakistani politicians

Deepening of - The 1st March National meeting was postponed by Yahya Khan
the crisis - Yahya appointed General Tikka Khan as chief martial law administrator
- Yahaya and Bhutto met Mujib for talks to resolve the situation
- The failure of the talks led to Tika Khan bringing in reinforcements

Impacts - Campaign of mass civil disobedience and strikes

- Operation searchlight

Section B
The pre-Mughal and Mughal period (c700–1784)
2.1 a) Sufism: its meaning, early roots in Umayyad period, mysticism, the influence of Sahl
al-Tustari, shaykhs, Abdul Hamid al Ghazali and the ‘Revival of Religious Sciences’
Sufism (meaning) Islamic mysticism, tasawwuf (act of becoming a sufi)
A branch of Islamic knowledge that focuses on spiritual development in
developing and strengthening an individual’s direct connection with their
souls and Allah
1) Zikr: reMethods/essentials of sufism/tasawwuf:
2) Mujahida: (juhd/hard work) follow Allah’s path
3) Muraqabah: deep thinking (meditation)
4) membrance of Allah in all times

Sufism in the sub Sufism has a history of over 1000 years in the subcontinent and has a
continent deep impact of social, religious and cultural life
How sufis came to the subcontinent:
❖ Travelled with arab traders and settled
❖ Through Persia/Kashmir when Ghaznis settled in
❖ Through Sindh/Multan when M bin Qasim arrived
❖ During Delhi sultanate when Mongols had attacked Central Asia
and Baghdad
Why did the Sufis travel?
❖ To revitalise the true spirit of Islam in newly conquered lands as
leades were distracted by worldly riches
How did they help spread Islam?
❖ No mass conversions
❖ Translation of Persian and Arabic works in vernacular languages
❖ Attractive character of great sufis to locals
❖ Madrassas established next to mosques welcomed anyone
❖ Sufi message of love for God, prophet PBUH, brotherhood,
peace, harmony spread far as it turned to folk music through
poetry and into story-telling
❖ Khanqahs were built:
➔ Educational centres (academic discourse between a shaykh and
his pupils), places of coming together...impact on cultural
centres
➔ Community shelters for all, distribution of free food
➔ Spiritual guidance and support to all
➔ Away from cities, easily accessible to rural population

Early roots and A. Early Asceticism: first stage of sufism in reaction to the
development in worldliness of the early Umayyad period (661-749). From their
Umayyad period practice of constantly meditating on the words in the Quran
about Doomsday, the ascetics became known as “those who
always weep” and those who considered this world “a hut of
sorrows.” They were distinguished by their scrupulous fulfillment
of the injunctions of the Quran and tradition, by many acts of
piety, and especially by a predilection for night prayers
B. classical mysticism of divine love: introduction of the element of
love, which changed asceticism into mysticism, is ascribed to
Rābiʿah al-ʿAdawīyah (died 801), a woman from Basra who first
 formulated the Sufi ideal of a love of Allah (God) that was
disinterested, without hope for paradise and without fear of hell
A number of mystics in the early generations had concentrated their
efforts upon tawakkul, absolute trust in God, which became a central
concept of Sufism
The last great figure in the line of classical Sufism is Abū Hāmid
al-Ghazālī
C. the rise and proliferation of fraternal orders of mystics:
Revival through Naqshbandiya Order
Sufism became more organised and documented through the work of
following:
● Ibn alʿArabī: created a comprehensive theosophical system
(concerning the relation of God and the world) that was to
become the cornerstone for a theory of “Unity of Being.”
According to this theory all existence is one, a manifestation of
the underlying divine reality.
● Ibn al-Fāriḍ: wrote the finest mystical poems in Arabic
● Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭar(Persian poet): one of the most fertile writers
on mystical topics
● Najmuddīn Kubrā(Central Asian master): presented elaborate
discussions of the psychological experiences through which the
mystic adept has to pass.
Major Sufi orders/chains:
1) Chishtiya order: founded by Abu Ishaq Shami(Syria), died in
940AD. Brought to Chiti town. Brought to the subcontinent by
Khawaja Moinuddun Ajmeri. contributed much to the formation
of classical Indo-Muslim music
2) Naqshbandiya order: previously known as Siddiquia, now
named after Bahuddin Naqshband Bukhari from the 14th
century. Stresses on the purification of the heart by constant zikr
and by discourse with the master
3) Qadriya order:(most widespread) name from Abdul Qadir
Gillani(1077-1166). Relies strongly on the adherence to
fundamentals of Islam
4) Suharwardiya order: founded by Abu al Najb Suharwardy
(1079-1168), popularized by Shaykh Bahuddin Zakariyya

mysticism Islamic mysticism is called taṣawwuf (literally, “to dress in wool”) in

Arabic

The influence of ❖ Wrote a commentary on Quran

Sahl al Tustari ❖ Established the Salimiyah theological school
❖ Major work: Tafsir al Tustari
❖ Sahl was the master of al-Ḥusayn ibn Manṣūr al-Ḥallāj
❖ The first of the theosophical speculations based on mystical
insights about human nature and the essence of the Prophet
Muhammad were produced by such Sufis as Sahl al-Tustarī
 Shaykhs ❖ Establishers of Halaqahs and Khanqahs where they could learn
and teach Quran and Hadith to students, write works of literature
and were also often artisans
❖ People around them would see them as scholars and learn
religion by being in their company

Abdul Hamid al ❖ Biggest contribution is lhya’u Ulumuddin (revival of religious

Ghazali and ‘the sciences) which covers almost all fields of Islamic sciences: fiqh,
revival of religious kalam(theology) and sufism
sciences’ ❖ It's great achievement was to bring orthodox Sunni theology and
Sufi mysticism together in a useful, comprehensive guide to
every aspect of muslim life and death
❖ Well received bu Islamic scholars such as Nawawi who stated
that: “were the books of Islam all be lost, excepting only the lhya,
it would be suffice to replace them all”
❖ became most frequently recited after Quran and Hadith
❖ It consists of four major sections:
1. Acts of worship
2. Norms of daily life
3. The ways to perdition
4. The ways to salvation

2.1 b) the role of Muhammad bin Qasim: conquests and historical controversy over his religious
policy the role of Mahmud of Ghazni: invasions of India, establishment of empire, idol smashing

Muhammad bin ❖ First muslim ruler in the subcontinent

Qasim ❖ Nephew of Hajjaj bin Yousaf (ruler of Baghdad, Iraq)
❖ Sindh was ruled by Raja Dahir, muslims were oppressed

Conquests Sindh:
❖ 711: a richly laden Arab ship was attacked by pirates at a seaport
near Sindh, Women and children were imprisoned
❖ In order to retaliate, Hajjaj bin Yousaf sent Muhammad bin Qasim
(17 year old) with a force of 6000 Syrian horses and an equal
number of Iraqi camels
❖ He managed to capture Deebal and conquer Sindh, Dahir was killed
and captives were set free
Multan:
❖ After his conquest of Sindh, Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 CE
captured Multan from the local ruler Chach of Alor following a
two-month siege.
❖ The army was running out of supplies, but Multan's defenses were
still holding strong.
❖ His army was considering a retreat when an unnamed Multani came
to him and told him about an underground canal from which they
derived their sustenance.
 ❖ He told them that if Muhammad's army were to block that canal,
Multan would be under their control.
❖ Muhammad bin Qasim blocked the canal and soon took control of
Multan.

Historical ❖ He declared Hindu temples the same as churches for christians or

controversy synagogues for Jews, hence would be unharmed
over his ❖ Jizya tax was established (less than muslims’ tax zakat) which
religious policy contributes to protection of non muslims and exempts them from
religious duties mandated on Muslims
❖ He was noteworthy of the new administration established by new
rulers (complete foreigners to the land, culture, customs and
language) was to include previous ruling elite in the new
government in order to have smooth succession, better knowledge
of new land, and a continuation of political power in the locals’
hands; however, there was controversy over the point that the ruling
elite were mostly Brahman caste and it somewhat repeated the
caste based bias
❖ A large majority of historians agree that this conquest did not result
in mass forced conversions, destruction of places of worship or
elimination of local customs

Mahmud of Background:
Ghazni ❖ Alaptagin (Turkish officer) who conquered Ghazni in AD 962, he died
in AD 976 leaving Sabuktagin (slave soldier) in control
❖ Sabuktagin was the first one to cross Khyber pass into the
subcontinent and heavily defeated the Hindu Shahi kings in Punjab
and Northern India who felt threatened by the presence of a Muslim
kingdom near their territory
❖ Mahmud (his son) was left to rule Ghazni (became king in 997)
❖ 1001: Mahmud launched his 17 major expeditions
❖ The first expeditions were aimed against the Punjab and
northeastern India, whereas in his last campaign Maḥmūd reached
Somnath on the southern coast of what is now Gujarat state

Invasions of ❖ 1001: Mahmud of Ghazni first invaded modern day Afghanistan and
India Pakistan and then parts of India
❖ 1004/5: Bhatia (Bhera) is annexed after it fails to pay its yearly tribute
❖ 1004-5: A special expedition against the rulers of Multan who
belonged to a eect which carried away the black stone
❖ 1006: invasion of Multan, Mahmud appointed Nawasa Shah
(converted hindu) as governor of Multan who rebelled against him
and was defeated in 1008, Multan was recovered too
❖ 1012-1013: Sacks Thanesar
❖ 1012: Invades Gharchistan and deposes its ruler Abu Nasr
Muhammad.
❖ 1018-1020: Sacks the town of Mathura
❖ 1024: Ajmer, Nehrwala, Kathiawar: This raid is his last major
campaign
 ❖ conquest of Somnath was followed by a punitive invasion of
Anhilwara (capital of Gujarat)
❖ 1037: Annexed Lahore, Malik Ayaz was appointed governor who
restored the city

Establishment ❖ He used his wealth to transform Ghazni and ordered the famous
of empire author Al-Baruni and poet Firdausi to settle there
❖ At the end of his reign, Mahmud's empire extended from Kurdistan in
the west to Samarkand in the Northeast, and from the Caspian Sea
to Punjab in the west
❖ Although his raids carried his forces across Northern and Western
India, only Punjab came under his permanent rule; Kashmir, the
Doab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat remained nominal under the control of
the local Indian dynasties

Idol smashing ❖ 1018: The city of Mathura was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged,
desecrated and destroyed". In particular, Al-utbi mentioned in his
work Tarikh-e-yamini, that Mahmud Ghaznavi destroyed a "great and
magnificent temple" in Mathura. According to Muhammad Qasim
Hindu Shah, writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th
century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India, and was
consecrated to Vāsudeva-Krishna. When it was attacked by Mahmud
of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of
twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was
burnt down
❖ 1025: Raid at the famous temple of Somnath and Mahmud’s army
managed to capture 6.5 tonnes of gold
❖ As with the invaders of three centuries ago, Mahmud's armies
reached temples in Varanasi, Mathura, Ujjain, Maheshwar,
Jwalamukhi, Somnath and Dwarka.

2.1 c) the life, career and achievements of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi: his opposition to heresy
under Akbar and Jehangir, reform of Sufism, religious law.

Profile: (1564-1624)
➢ Born in Punjab to a devout Muslim family
➢ Full title: Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi al-Faruqi an-Naqshbandi
➢ Known as Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Thani, the one who restored pure doctrine to Islamic
thought
➢ Father: Sheikh Abdul Ahad, a well known sufi
➢ Received formal education at home, went to Sialkot and worked in Lahore
➢ Sheikh Ahmed went to Delhi at the age of 36 and was influenced by Khwaja Baqi
Billah
➢ His influence spread through Afghanistan, Central Asia and Ottoman Empire

Opposition to Akbar and Jehangir:

➢ Opposed Akbar’s Din-i-Illahi by pointing out differences between Islam and Hinduism
 ➢ He wrote to Muslim clerics who misinterpreted Islam
➢ Since his followers worked in the imperial camp and Army, he was noticed by Jehangir
and refused to bow before him; therefore, Jehangir imprisoned him at Gwalior fort for
two years
➢ When set free, Jehangir asked his son Shah Jehan to be Sheikh Ahmed’s disciple,
cancelled all unislamic orders by Akbar and gave Sheikh Ahmed a special audience
after maghrib prayers

Work and Achievements:

➢ Countering unorthodox sufism and mystic belief
➢ Reform of Sufism: Organized Mujaddidiya Order (a branch of Qadariya Naqshbandiya
Order) to reform the society and spread shariah
➢ Writings: Isbat-un-Nabat and Risalah-e-Nabuwat (finality of prophet PBUH)
➢ Tauheed-i-Shuhudi
➢ Preached Islam in Agra and Sirhindi
➢ Religious law: According to the Mujaddid, religious Law has three aspects: knowledge,
actions, and fidelity. To acquire these aspects of the law it is necessary to win the
pleasure of God. Ecstasy, “intoxication,” and “illumination” are by-products of Sufism.
They are not its ends but merely fantasies and projections in order to please the
beginners. After passing these on his way, the Sufi has to surrender to the divine will,
which is his real destination. One among thousands achieves pure fidelity. Blind men
take the by-products for the principle articles and are, therefore, deprived of the truth.
A Sufi has to experience these states before his acquisition of the truth.The Mujaddid
himself experienced these intermediate states for years, and ultimately achieved the
goal of fidelity.
➢ The straight Path is the path of the Holy Prophet whose guidance is the best
➢ Internal purification completes the external and is not contradictory to it

2.2 a) Babur establishing the Mughal Empire: it's consolidation and extension under Humayan,
Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jehan
Babur establishing the Mughal empire

Consolidation and expansion of the the Mughal empire under Humayun

Consolidation and expansion of the the Mughal empire under Akbar
Consolidation and expansion of the the Mughal empire under Jehangir
Consolidation and expansion of the the Mughal empire under Shah Jehan
2.2 b) reforms of the early Mughal emperors: political, civil, military, social, education and
religious
Political reforms of the early Mughals
Civil reforms of the early Mughals
Military reforms of the early Mughals
Social reforms of the early Mughals
Educational reforms of the early Mughals
Religious reforms of the early Mughals
2.2 c) developments in art, architecture, literature, music, the economy, trade and commerce.
Developments in art
Developments in architecture
Developments in literature
Developments in music
Developments in economy
Developments in trade
Developments in commerce
2.3 a) the weaknesses of the empire: size, weak administration, the power of nobility, failure to
reform, succession issues

2.3 b) the impact of Aurangzeb’s policies on the stability of the Mughal Empire: social, religious,
economic reform

Aurangzeb’s policies

Social - He appointed censors of public morals

- He banned the consumption of alcohol
- He banned singing and dancing at court
- He determined the maximum length for beards

Religious - He reintroduced non-Muslims tax ‘Jizya'.

- He destroyed a number of Hindu temples and he also tried to ban some of
Hindu practices such as Suttee.
- He also enforced Islamic law making Hindu and Sikhs live according to
the Quran.

Economic - Taxation was very high during his reign.

- He spent huge sums on building luxurious palaces such as his famous
pearl mosque in Delhi, which was made for his private prayers.

Impact of Aurangzeb’s policies on the stability of the Mughal Empire

Social

Religious

Economic

2.3 c) Aurangzeb’s warfare and the later external intervention of the Persians, Marathas and
Afghans.

Aurangzeb’s warfare

External intervention
 Persians

Marathas

Afghans

2.4 a) the reasons for British interest in the Indian subcontinent and the development of the East
India Company to 1756.

Reasons for the British interest in the Indian subcontinent

Portuguese - The success of the Portuguese in establishing a base in Goa due

to trade encouraged the British to begin trading too

Wealth - There was enormous wealth in the subcontinent.

- Trade, profit and power were the real motives that East India
Company was looking at.
- Indian goods including spices, silk, yarn, cloth and cotton were very
demanding in the European markets

British factories - British factories needed raw materials while British merchants
needed big markets like India to sell their industrial products.
- Cotton was the main raw material for the textile industries in Britain.

Indian soldiers - A plus point was that Indian soldiers at very cheap wages were
available to protect their trade and profit

Position of India - India had a strategic position on the globe.

- It would give regional supremacy to the British and Royal Navy.
- They would control the sea routes and hence trade with the East.

Decline of the - The British came to India primarily for trade but the decline of the
Empire Mughal Empire prepared the gateway for the British to take over
India.
- Now they started thinking about establishing the British Raj in the
subcontinent.

Development of the East India Company to 1756

2.4 b) the British victories at Plassey and Buxar and their impact on Bengal.

Battle of Plassey (1757)

Causes - Misuse of the trade privileges given to the British by the Nawab of
Bengal (Siraj-ud-Daulah)
- Non-payment of tax and duty by the workers of the British East India
Company
- Incident of the Black Hole(1756) in which the Nawab of Bengal kept
the people of fort William in a prison measuring 14 x 18 feet to
suffocate; 23 out of 146 people survived

Events - It started at 5am

- It started to rain and Clive was able to cover his weapons whereas the
Nawab couldn't
- In the evening when the battle started again, Clive’s forces defeated
Siraj-ud-Daulah

Reasons for - Indians were frightened by flint-lock guns

British victory - Clive was helped by Mir Jaffar (Siraj’s uncle)
- Clive was successful in covering his weapons when it started to rain

Battle of Buxar (1758)

Causes - After Mir Jaffar was made the Nawab, he wanted to be independent
- Mir Qasim refused to be a puppet ruler
- Mir Qasim signed a treaty with Shuja-ud-Daula (nawab of Oudh) and
Shah Alam II after which they gathered against the British

Reasons for - Mir Qasim disappeared into impoverished obscurity

British victory - Shah Alam realigned himself with the British
- Shuja-ud-Daula fled west, pursued by the victors

Impact of the victories at Plassey and Buxar on Bengal

Complete - The East India Company gained complete control of Bengal’s defense
British and finances
control
 - The Nawab of Bengal became dependent for his internal and external
security on the British.

Puppet - The Nawab and his officials had the responsibility of administration, but
nawabs not the power to discharge it

Dual - Dual Government was established

government - The consequences of double government for the people of Bengal were
disastrous: neither the Company nor the Nawab cared for their welfare

2.4 c) the increasing intervention of the British government and the passing of the 1784 India
Act.

Increasing intervention of the British government

Commercial intervention - British increased emphasis on growing commercial crops

- Networks of roads and rails and infrastructure was built in
areas were the British could benefit from
- Warren Hastings set up an efficient tax-collecting system
- Lord Wellesly built a governor house in Calcutta

Military intervention - British employed local indian sepoys

- Double batta system was cut down to half

Social intervention - English replaced Persian as the official language under

Lord Bentick
- Warren Hastings introduced the English style system
- They set up their own schools
- Suttee was made illegal in 1829 by Lord Bentick and the
killing of baby girls was declared a murder

Religious intervention - Christian missionaries came to the sub-continent to preach

and convert the people
- Churches were maintained

Laws and treaties - The ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ introduced by Lord Dalhousie

stated that If a ruler died without a natural heir, the British
would annex his land
- The ‘Doctrine of Paramountcy’ introduced under Warren
Hastings made the company the supreme law, the
paramount power and gave it the right to protect its interest;
the company justified the annexations of any Indian
kingdom
- The ‘Doctrine of Subsidiary Alliance’ introduced by Lord
Wellesly compelled the ruler of any allying indian state to
accept the permanent stationary of a british force within its
territory and pay a subsidiary for its maintenance
 - The ‘Regulating Act 1773’ prohibited the servants of the
company from engaging in any private trade or accepting
presents or bribes from the "natives"; the Act elevated
Governor of Bengal, Warren Hastings to Governor-General
of Bengal and subsumed the presidencies of Madras and
Bombay under Bengal's control.

1784 India Act (Pitt's India Act)

Reasons - Address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act of 1773

Provisions - Established the dual system of control by the British government and the
East India Company, by which the company retained control of
commerce and day-to-day administration but important political matters
were reserved
- The British Government was given complete control over the Company's
affairs and its administration in India

Impact - Administration of the company's Indian territories were made efficient and
responsible.
- It provided the supreme control over the company's affairs and its
administration in India

British expansion and rule (c1783–1898)

3.1 a) Shah Wali Ullah and the beginnings of the revival of Islam

Shah Walli Ullah (1703-62)

Profile - His name was Qutbuddin bin Abdul Rahim

- Born in Delhi and worked for the revival here too

Beliefs - Islam has lost its glory in the sub-continent and reform had to come from
within the Muslim community itself.
- Many problems of the Muslims resulted from the incomplete knowledge
of islam and Quran in general; all behaiviour(social, economic, political)
of Muslims must be based on Islamic principles.
- Sectarian division was a major problem; Muslims should focus on the
fundamental principles of Islam and put aside their differences.

Works - He translated the Quran in Persian, in order to make the Quran more
accessible and easily understandable for the community.
- He wrote 51 Islamic books including Hujjatullah al- Baligha and
 Izalat-Akhfa
- He wrote an account on the first 4 caliphs in a way that it was acceptable
to both Shias and Sunnis
- He wrote to explain that when this religion was new, the problems of
sectarian division didn't exist which helped to bridge the gulf between
them.
- He taught at his fathers Madrassa (madrassa Rahimia)
- He created a group of scholars to spread his message in the
Sub-continent which included giving up un-islamic practices
- He advised Muslims to avoid wasteful expenditures on marriages, births
and deaths; wealthy Muslims were advised to look after the needy and
poor.
- He wrote to Muslim nobles, calling on them to unite and rise against the
Marathas after which Ahmed Shah Durani from Persia joined forces with
local Muslims and defeated the Marathas (battle of Panipat) in attempt to
end the constant threat.

Importance - He was one of the first Muslim thinkers to state that the vulnerable
position of Muslims was due to a neglect of Islamic principles
- Madrassa Rahimia continued to play a vital role in teaching Islamic
principles.
- His writings in Persian made Islamic teaching available to a large
number of Muslims.
- He stated that Muslim revival could only take place if sectarian division
was to stop.
- He was an inspiration to many future Islamic leaders.

3.1 b) Syed Ahmad Barelvi and the Jihad Movement

Syed Ahmed Barelvi (1786-1831)

Profile - Born near Lucknow in Raibareli

- He studied at Madrassa Rahimia

Beliefs - Freedom of Muslims could only come as a result of arm struggle

- There was a need to end the evils that had corrupted into the
Islamic society

Jihad Movement - Syed Ahmed Barelvi traveled across India and raised a mujahideen
force.
- He set his headquarters near Peshawar in order to liberate Muslims
from tyrannical Sikh rule.
- An attack was made on the Sikh army and Peshawar was in the
hands of the mujahideen.
- He set his headquarters near Nowshera but was betrayed by Yar
Muhammad Khan.
- He set his headquarters at Balakot where he and his Chief both
 were killed due to traitors.

Reasons for - Mujahideen were not trained and did not have formal military
failure training
- Sikhs were tough and organized
- Due to small doctrinal differences, there were disagreements over
military tactics.
- Mujahideen were increased upto 80,000 and taxes were collected
from locals which caused resentment.
- Sikhs succeeded in winnig over Yar Muhammad Khan who tried to
assasinate Syed Ahmend Barelvi
- At Balakot, Sikhs launched a sudden attack with the help of traitors
in the army and killed Syed Ahmed and his chief.

Importance - It was the first example of an armed movement for the purpose of
reviving Islam
- It was a uniting force for Muslims
- Some historians regard it as ‘the fore-runner of the Pakistan
movement’.

3.1 c) Haji Shariat Ullah and the Faraizi Movement.

Haji Shariat Ullah (1781-1840)

Profile - Born in Faridpur, East Bengal

Beliefs - The country was in a state of Dar-ul-Harb

- The Muslim community had moved away from true Islamic
practices
- Muslim pride should be restored
- Muslims should purify their religion and give up Hindu practices

Faraizi Movement - Haji Shariat Ullah organized Muslims, made them aware of their
rights and united them against the harsh treatment they were
receiving
- He asked Muslims to purify their religion and give up Hindu
practices

Problems - Hindu and British landlords faced problems as Muslim cultivators

were uniting in desire to improve their lives due to which they
drove Haji Shariat Ullah out of the region and he died in 1840
- His work was carried on by his son but he too was arrested and
put into prison where he also died, putting an end to the Faraizi
movement.

Importance - Gave encouragement to Muslims at a time when they were

 demoralized by the oppression they faced.
- Hindu influences were removed from Islamic practices.
- It united peasants
- Muslims peasants became more aware of their rights

3.2 a) further British expansion: the deaths of Tipu, Titu Mir, overview of the annexation of
Sindh, the Punjab and North West Frontier

Tipu Sultan (1750-99)

Profile - Born in Mysore, India

- Known as the ‘Tiger of Mysore’

Works - He fought 4 Anglo-Mysore wars

- Haider Ali died after the first war; Tipu Sultan took over.
- During the first and second wars, the Indians were victorious.
- In the 3rd war, Tipu Sultan lost half of his territories as he forcefully had to
sign a shameful treaty known as the Treaty of Seringapatam, according to
which Tipu had to surrender half of his kingdom to the British East India
Company and its allies.
- During the 4th war, Tipu Sultan was publicly beheaded while defending his
fort in Srirangapatna and Mysore was annexed.

Titu Mir

Profile - Follower of Syed Ahmed Barelvi

- Peasant leader and freedom Bengali fighter

Beliefs - The terrible state of Muslims can only be improved if the Muslims of Bengal
stand united against the cruel Hindu zamindars

Work - Following Titu Mir's guidance, the Muslims refused to pay the tax imposed by
cruel zamindars on beards.
- He gathered a small army and trained the people with the lathi.
- In 1831, he built a bamboo fort in Narkelbaria, Calcutta and set his own rule.
- He defeated British forces sent to destroy the fort.

Death - The British were threatened by his fellowship and with a force of 300 sepoys
and 100 soldiers attacked Titu Mir and his army.
- They failed to resist the British attack due to cavalry and cannons and Titu
Mir along with many of his followers died in the battle.
Annexations by British

Sindh - A rebellion in Afghanistan led to British troops in the country

being killed which hurt their pride and they decided to turn on
Sindh
- The British general provoked the amirs of sindh so much that
they attacked the British residency and gave the British an
excuse for war.
- The Amirs were defeated and Sindh was annexed by the
British.

Punjab and the North - After the death of Ranjit Singh (ruler of Punjab), Pnajab
West Frontier became unstable
- 2 battles took place between the Sikh and British army
- Sikhs were eventually defeated and Punjab came under Sikh
rule what later came to be known as the NW Frontier

3.2 b) reasons for the British conquest of India: British commercial and military strength,
divisions among Indians, technological weaknesses

Reasons for the British conquest of India

British commercial - They were skilled diplomats

and military strength - They were successful in turning various groups against each
other
- They were able to gain the loyalties of many Indians
- Their troops were experienced in warfare and military tactics

Divisions among - There was no strong uniting force in India

Indians - Most Indian princes were only concerned about their own
territory
- They saw British as allies in their arguments with their
neighbors, rather than potential enemies
- There was no sense of national patriotism

Technological - Indians had no modern or advanced weaponry whereas the

weaknesses British had the latest weaponry, means of communication as a
result of the Industrial Revolution in Britain
- They were supplied with flint-lock guns and cannons; things
that Indians did not have access to.

3.2 c) British rule: the Doctrine of Lapse, British administration and reform, including
educational, religious, technological and social developments.
Doctrine of Lapse

Reasons - To further increase British control

- Provide an excuse to the British to annex lands

Statement - If a ruler died without a natural heir, the British would annex his land

Outcome - British annexed many lands using the Doctrine of Lapse

- It created resentment and was one of the reasons that led to the war of
Independence

British administration and reform

Educational - Vernacular schools were established by Lord Hastings, one of them

being the Hidnu College at Calcutta in 1816
- ’Calcutta Medical College was founded by Lord William Bentick
- Lord Dalhousie patronized female education and set up Bethune
College for women in Calcutta.
- Universities were changed from examinations to teaching bodies and
the government increased control on educational institutions
- Missionary schools were also set up which encouraged English over
Urdu, Hindi and Persian.

Religious - Christian missionaries came to the sub-continent to preach and

convert the locals
- Christianity was taught in the schools set up by British

Technological - Dalhousie proposed social change through railways and electric

telegraph.
- Mining was given importance and along with that, many iron and steel
industries were made.
- Chemical Industries were also made which began forming many
products including industrial acids, soda, matches and refined sugar.

Social - Female infanitcide, prevalent in higher caste Rajputs was stopped.

- Slavery system was also abolished.
- Thuggee (thugs who claimed they were serving a goddess) was dealt
with under colonel Sleeman’s command
- Widow remarriage act was passed- Hindu women, especially upper
caste ones, were not allowed to remarry after the death of their
husbands.
- The Factory Act was passed that limited the number of working hours
for children.
- Human sacrifice offered by some tribes in Orissa was banned.
3.3 a) causes: political, religious, social, economic and military reasons for the outbreak of war

Causes for the outbreak of war

Political - British extended their control and local leaders saw their authority decline
- The ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ created resentment
- After the annexation of many lands, Indians were convinced that the
British were simply ‘greedy land-grabbers’
- Dalhousie’s decision of moving the royal family from the Red Fort of Delhi
to the more obscure Qutub Sahib was seen as the mistreatment of the
empire.
- There were lack of opportunities for native Indians in the civil services
- English had replaced persian as the official language and also the
language in which education would be provided

Religious - Indians feared that Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism were under threat from
British rule as their culture was spreading fast
- Christian missionaries came to the sub-continent and preached
christianity
- Christianity was taught in the schools they set up and expected the locals
who worked for them to give up their religion and follow the christian
teachings

Social - Indians and British were not seen as social equals

- British considered themselves superior and thus showed an arrogant
attitude
- Introduction of a new way of life that included rails, roads and telegraph
was unacceptable to many Indians

Economic - The British followed a practice of imposing high taxation to make sure that
they exploited India's wealth to the full.
- Peasants and small landowners found it difficult to pay the increasing
taxes and resentment grew
- Tax collectors were corrupt
- Salaries of sepoys were kept low

Military - Upper class in the army was exclusively British and Indians were not
provided opportunities to have good positions in the civil services
- The introduction of a new cartridge covered in grease that was made of
the fat of cows and pigs was unacceptable to Indians as pigs are haram in
Islam and cows are a sacred animal in the eyes of Hindus.

3.3 b) events and reasons for failure: refusal to use cartridges at Meerut, the opposition of Nana
Sahib at Kanpur, poor Indian leadership, disunity amongst Indians, British military strength

Events of the war

 Meerut - Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to use the cartridges.
- 85 soldiers were imprisoned for 10 years.
- They were stripped of their uniforms in the presence of a large Indian
crowd leading to disgrace and anger.
- Indian soldiers at Meerut broke into an open revolt.
- They released their companions and killed a few European officers.
- The soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it.

Cawnpore - Indian troops led by Nana Sahib rose up against the British and kept their
forces trapped for over three weeks.
- After being promised a safe passage out of the city, the British
surrendered.
- Nana Sahib’s forces turned on them, killing 300 British women and
children.
- The British recaptured the city and carried out even worse atrocities in
revenge

Reasons for the failure of the war

Poor Indian - There was no experienced leader to lead the Indian soldiers.
leadership - They had declared Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar as their
leader but instead of warfare he was devoted to poetry and was too
old and incompetent to lead the revolutionaries.
- The British troops, on the other hand, were endowed with extremely
competent generals like Edwards and Lawrence.

Disunity among - Indians were not coordinated or united in what they hoped to
Indians achieve
- There was no general plan or attempt to work together
- There was no sense of national patriotism
- Most Indian princes were interested in their own power and territory
and didn't even want to see imperial power restored

British military - English troops were modern and strikingly advanced not only in
strengths warfare but also in new ways of swift and speedy communication.
- They were able to turn various groups against each other
- They had modern weapons such as flint-lock guns and cannons.

3.3 c) consequences: British reform, British attitudes towards Muslims, growth of nationalism,
formation of Indian National Congress.

Consequences of the war

British reforms - They took complete political and military control and did not at
all depend on local chiefs and rulers
 - The EIC was abolished
- The government of India was taken over by Queen Victoria who
would appoint a viceroy to represent the crown.
- The Vernacular Act of 1878 was passed which placed strict
restrictions on newspapers due to the increased criticism
- The arms Act of 1878 made it impossible for Indians to own
weapons.
- The supply of greased cartridge rifles was stopped.
- The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished

Attitude towards - Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last of the Mughals was dethroned,
Muslims arrested and sent to Rangoon, Burma were he was sentenced
to life imprisonment. Many of his family members, including 24
princes, were executed by EIC soldiers.
- As the British believed that the Muslims were the main
instigators behind the uprising, they (the British) extensively
reorganized the army such that there was no all-Muslim units.
- Muslims were tortured
- Employment opportunities for Muslims decreased.

Growth of - In 1866, Rajinarayan Bose founded a society for the promotion

nationalism of nationalist feeling
- In 1867, the yearly Hindu Mela was started in Bengal
- Political groups such as Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) and the
Indian National Congress (1885) formed

Formation of Indian - Formed by Allen Octavin Hume

National Congress - Formed to create a meeting point for Hindus and British, leading
to a greater understanding between the two
- Congress was dominated by Hindus
- Their demands were: competitive examination to be held for
government posts, local representation to be based on a
democratic form of government and Hindi to replace Urdu as
the national language

3.4 a) education and language: the Aligarh movement and the Hindi-Urdu Controversy

Aligarh Movement

Background - Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was unhappy about the position of muslims in
the subcontinent and tried to overcome this by launching the Aligarh
movement

Aims - Improve British-Muslim relationships

- Encourage Muslims to receive Western education
- Increase political awareness of the Muslim community
Education

Works - He set up an Urdu journal called Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq containing articles from

influential Muslims who agreed with Sir Syed that there was a need for a new
approach to education.
- He founded the scientific society at Ghazipur in 1863 to make scientific
writings available to a wider market by translating them from English, Persian
or Arabic to Urdu.
- He opened a school in Moradabad and Ghazipur.
- He also published a magazine called the Aligarh institute Gazette in 1866 to
introduce modern sciences among the Muslim public.
- Sir Syed Ahmad Khan opened the school at Aligarh which became M.A.O
(Mohammedan-Anglo Oriental) school in 1875 where English, Modern
sciences and as well as Islamic teachings were taught. It was later raised to
the status of university in 1920.
- Following the lead for Sir Syed Ahmad many Muslim high schools and Islamic
colleges were opened in many big cities of India for Muslim students. Sir Syed
established ‘Muhammadan Educational Conference’ which was an
organization to discuss the problems of the Muslims education in India which
greatly helped the Muslims who started getting good jobs, improved their
economic condition and improved their status in the society.

Language

Hindi-Urdu controversy - Started in 1867

- Hindus demanded Hindi to be the official language but
Muslims wanted Urdu as the official language
- Sir Syed started the ‘Two-Nation Theory’ which stated that
Muslims and Hindus were two seperate kinds of people.

3.4 b) improving relations with the British: writings such as The Loyal Muhammadans of India

Improving relations with the British

Convincing the - Sir Syed wrote The Loyal Muhammadans of India in which he gave a
British detailed account of the loyal services Muslims had given and named
various Muslims who had shown particular loyalty.
- Sir Syed wrote a pamphlet ‘Essay on the Causes of the Indian
Revolt’ in which he pointed out the main reasons for the uprising.
- He explained that the word ‘Nadrath’ came from an Arabic word
which meant helper so Muslims calling British nadrath was a positive
image Muslims had of the British, not an insult
 Convincing the - Sir Syed wrote Tabyin-ul-Qalam to point out the similarities between
Muslims Islam and Christianity do bridge the gulf between them

3.4 c) raising political awareness: role in the Indian National Congress and promoting the
two-nation theory.

Indian National Congress

Sir Syed’s role - Sir Syed was invited to attend and join the Indian National Congress,
but he refused the invitation and warned the Muslims to do the same.
- He predicted that Congress will soon become the party to speak for
the Hindus only.
- Sir Syed Ahmed also considered the involvement of Muslims in
politics very important.
- However, he advised Muslims to not get involved in politics until they
acquire modern education and understand English.
- He organized the United Patriotic Alliance to counter the Congress.

Two-Nation Theory

Reasons for its - Sir Syed started his Two-Nation Theory to state the place of Urdu in
promotion the hearts of Muslims and that Muslims supported this language so it
can't be replaced by Hindi which was the desire of the Hindus; this
was achieved by the Hindi-Urdu controversy.
- The parliamentary system which states that local representation
should be based on a democratic form of government was opposed
through the Two-Nation Theory as Sir Syed pointed out that Hindus
were in majority and would outnumber the Muslims; through the
Two-Nation Theory, the view of separate electorates was brought
forth
- Congress spoke of competitive examinations for government posts
but as Muslims were not recieving education of the same standard,
Sir Syed -through theTwo-Nation Theory- pointed out that only when
equal educational opportunities were provided could such an idea
work.

The growth of political awareness and British reform

(1883–c1927)
4.1 a) the Indian National Congress: early influence on the British, British reaction to growth of
radical nationalism

Indian National Congress

Early influence on British - It persuaded the British to introduce the Indian Councils
Act 1892 which increased the number of Indians in the
councils.
- As the bodies had very little power, the British began to
ignore Congress.

British reaction to growth - In 1897, Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Poona was imprisoned for
of radical nationalism writing a provocative newspaper article.
- Partition of Bengal

4.1 b) reasons for the formation of the Muslim League in 1906: Simla Delegation and the All
India Muslim Educational Conference

Reasons for the formation of the Muslim League in 1906

Success of the - The acceptance of the demands of the Simla delegation which
simla delegation called for separate electorates for the Muslims and weightage in all
elected bodies, compelled them to have their own political party to
voice their own demands to the British as they were a seperate
nation.

Protection of - Congress supported the movement against Urdu and there was no
Urdu political party to support the language so the need of a Muslim
political party was felt severly

Attitude of the - All India National Congress was a predominantly Hindu body.
Congress - Its interests were always at odds with those of the Muslims.
- By 1906, Muslim leaders were convinced that they must have their
own party which may speak for the community on all important
occasions.

All India Muslim - On the 12th session of the annual meeting of the Muhammadan
Educational Educational Conference at Dhaka, Muslims considered setting up
Conference an organization called All India Muslim League on the basis of Sir
Syed’s Two-Nation Theory

4.1 c) partition of Bengal (reasons, reactions and results): Hindu protests and British reactions
to them.
Partition of Bengal (1905)

Reasons - The province spread over an area of 189,000 square miles with a
population of about 84 million; it was too vast to be managed by one
lieutenant governor so it was partitioned for efficient management.
- There was a difference in language and civilization of the natives of
West and East Bengal; West Bengalis considered themselves
superior in civilization to the residents of East Bengal.
- There were limited sources of communication due to the presence
of rivers and forests; the law and order of the province was poor due
to insufficient police and inefficient management.
- Division of Bengal was the need of time to develop trade in East
Bengal and promote the Port of Chittagong.

Muslim reaction - Muslims were delighted as their condition was improved overnight
(they were in majority in East Bengal)
- Muslims now had a recognition which enabled them to escape from
Hindu oppression

Hindu reaction - Hindus believed that the British had tried to weaken Hindu unity be
establishing a Muslim-majority province.
- They were furious
- The ‘Swadeshi Movement’ spread rapidly under which British cloth
was thrown into bonfires and their goods were boycotted.
- Indian workers began a series of strikes
- A number of small extremist groups came into existence that
launched attacks on the British officials

British reactions - Restrictions were placed on the newspapers and public meetings
- Editors were prosecuted and some were imprisoned
- In 1908, the Press Act was passed, giving the government greater
control over the newspapers
- Tilak was arrested and sentenced to six-years of imprisonment
- Local prisons were filled with those the British considered to be
revolutionaries
- Suspects were deported without trial or charge

Outcome - Morley-Minto reforms were passed to win Hindu support

4.2 a) the Morley-Minto Reforms 1909 (the Indian Councils Act): reasons for and importance of
the reforms, reactions of Congress and the Muslim League

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

Reasons - Control the rising nationalism

- Introduce reforms that would satisfy Indians
 Provisions - Enlarging the Imperial Council to 60 members and Provincial Councils to
50 members in the larger states and 30 in the smaller states
- Right of separate electorates was given to the Muslims.
- At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces
non-official members would be in majority.
- Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for
Indian Affairs.
- The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member
to his Executive Council.

Reaction of - Congress criticized the reforms as the British intended that Indians could
Congress voice their demands but Hindus wanted a say in how the government
was to be run.

Reaction of - Muslims were happy as they got the right of separate electorates
League - Muslims were pleased by the promise to press for greater provincial
autonomy

Importance - Increase in the number of Indians sitting in the councils gave the local
population a greater say in how the country was to be run.
- Acceptance of the separate electorates for Muslims resulted in improved
British-Muslim relations and clearly showed the importance of
considering Muslim demands.

4.2 b) the reversal of the partition of Bengal and of First World War: impact on relations between
Hindus, Muslims and the British

Reversal of the partition of Bengal (1911)

Reasons - The elite Hindus of West Bengal, who were collecting taxes from
Muslim peasants in east Bengal, lost their influence in the new
province and launched a series of violent protests and
demonstrations which spread across the country.
- A number of small extremist groups came into existence that
launched attacks on the British officials.
- The Hindus of West Bengal started the Swadeshi Movement, due to
which, imports from Britain had fallen off significantly and sales of
British goods in Indian markets dropped drastically leading to
economic loss
- Political unrest got out of control and British measures such as
restrictions on newspapers and public gatherings, imprisonment of
editors, arrest of Tilak and introduction of Morley-Minto reforms all
failed.
- Both Hindus and Muslims had set up their own parties and were
campaigning for greater rights; the British had to react to their
demands.
- King George V was visiting India at the time and British wanted
 peaceful proceedings

Decision - Sir John Jekins made a proposal for the capital of the empire to be
announced shifted to Delhi and partition to be reversed
- Upon Lord Minto’s agreement, the measures were announced at a
Durbar in Delhi on 12th December by King George V

Relations with - Muslims saw the reversal of partition as a betrayal of British promises
Muslims - Muslims lost faith in British to allow them any real political power
- They soon realized that the Morley-Minto reforms did not provide any
genuine voice to the Indians in the government

First World War

Involvement of Indians - When the war broke out, more than a million Indians
responded and gave their lives fighting.
- Many politicians in India agreed to the Idea of supporting
the British in this difficult time as they would surely reward
the Indians for their sacrifices with a larger role in governing
India.
- Indians also saw this as an opportunity to press for
self-government so in 1915, there was a planned uprising
by Indian ‘nationalists’ in Punjab.
- Lala Hardayal set up a Mutiny Party which arranged for
armed opposition against the British.
- The ‘Silk Letter Conspiracy’ proposed a general uprising by
the Muslims to free themselves by the British rule

British response - The British passed the ‘Defense of India Act’ which gave
them powers to exile or imprison revolutionaries without
proper trials.

Impact on British-Indian - Indians lost trust in British and carried out widespread
relations protests leading to political unrest

Impact on Hindu-Muslim - Congress and League moved closer together and

relations developed greater cooperation
- Joint councils of Congress and League were set up

4.2 c) the Lucknow Pact: reasons for and importance of the pact, including co-operation
between Hindus and Muslims.

The Lucknow Pact (1916)

Reasons - After the reversal of the partition of Bengal and betrayal of the British,
 Muslims realized that they needed a new strategy and wanted to turn
towards the demand of self-rule but they needed constitutional
protection – separate electorate and provincial autonomy – from
Hindus after the British would leave India. Muslim League, therefore,
signed the Lucknow Pact in which Congress agreed on granting the
Muslims 1/3 reserved seats in the central legislative council.
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah believed that Hindus and Muslims could work
together and thus persuaded the Congress and the Muslim League for
the Lucknow Pact believing that this it would lead to a united Indian
nation.
- Congress was keen to gain the support of Muslim League for its
demand of self-rule in India. It hoped that it would be difficult for the
British to reject the joint demand of self-rule for longer time

Congress - Muslims had the rights to separate electorates

concessions - Muslims should be given ⅓ seats in the councils (even though they
were only ¼ of the population)
- No Act affecting a community would be passed unless ¾ of that
community’s council members supported it.

Demands - Number of elected seats on the councils should be increased

- Minorities should be protected
- All provinces should have autonomy

Importance - It was the first time Hindus and Muslims made a joint demand for
political reform
- It led to a growing belief self-rule was a real possibility
- The pact also marked the high-water mark of Hindu-Muslim unity by
establishing cordial relations between the League and Congress
- It showed that Muslims stood a greater chance of protecting their rights
if they worked with Congress

4.3 a) the Rowlatt Act 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (the Government of India Act):
reasons for introduction, terms, reaction to the reforms

The Rowlatt Act (1919)

Reasons - To enhance British superiority over the common people

- To deal with the increasing unrest

Terms - Arrest without warrant

- Detention without bail
- Right of the provincial government to order people where to live

Reaction - The Act caused an uproar in India as it went against two of the central
principles of British justice: trial by jury and safeguard against illegal
imprisonment
 - Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in opposition
- Gandhi launched a ‘hartal’ against the proposals
- There were strikes and demonstrations all across India

The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919)

Reasons - To expand participation of Indians in the government of India.

- To introduce diarchy

Terms - Indian members in the executive councils were increased to 3 out of 6

- The System of Diarchy was introduced under which reserved subjects
such as justice, police and revenue were controlled by the provincial
governor and transferred subjects such as education, forests and public
health were controlled by ministers.
- Besides Muslims, other minorities including Sikhs were also given the
right of separate electorate.
- New reforms were to be introduced after ten years.

Reactions - The League and Congress were disappointed by the reforms as they
hoped for greater concessions as a result of the support they gave to the
British in the first world war.
- The Congress met in a special session in August 1918 at Bombay under
Hasan Imam’s presidency and declared the reforms to be “disappointing”
and “unsatisfactory” and demanded effective self-government instead.
- The acceptance of separate electorates for other minorities were seen as
a division of the Indian society and were rejected.
- Violent communal riots and anti-British agitations became frequent.

4.3 b) the Amritsar Massacre (events and consequences): the Hunter Committee

The Amritsar Massacre (1919)

Causes - Due to rioting and unrest, General Dyer banned all public meetings
in Amritsar

Events - A crowd of 20,000 turned up for a peaceful demonstration at

Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
- This angered General Dyer and he stationed his troops at the
entrances firing over 1600 rounds killing around 400 people and
injuring 1200.

Consequences - The Hunter Committee was set up in England to investigate what

Dyer had done
- British-Indian relationship was permanently damaged
- As a result of the findings, he was removed from active service but
 didn't receive any further punishments
- Indians were highly insulted by the British failure to punish Dyer
- It created a climate of hostility between British and Indians
- Non-cooperation movement started
- Congress boycotted the 1920 elections

4.3 c) non-cooperation and the growth of communalism 1920–27: increase in the influence of
Congress, the Delhi proposals 1927.

Non-cooperation and growth of communalism 1920-27

The non-cooperation - Initiated by Gandhi, the non-cooperation movement aimed

movement to oppose British rule in any way possible.
- British cloth was burnt and the production of hand-woven
cloth was encouraged.
- Teachers and students left English colleges and schools.
- Locals set up their own educational institutions.
- Lawyers gave up their practices to boycott the English legal
system.
- The elections following the Montagu-chelmsford reforms in
1920 were largely ignored as congress refused to field
candidates.

Growth of communalism - Arya Samaj (founded in 1877 to purify Hinduism), became

an agent for the spreading of educational and social reform
by 1920; it carried out militant activities in 1924 which
helped strain relations between Hindus and Muslims.
- Pandit Mohan Malaviya -a UP congressman- formed the
Hindu Mahasabha (a political party consisting of Hindu
sabhas) who were against the idea of partition; they
contested their first election in 1926 and were slightly
successful.

Increase in the influence - In 1923, the Congress party adopted a new policy of
of Congress ‘consistent obstruction’ in an attempt to make the
government ‘impossible’.
- In the same year, the elections were fought under the name
of the ‘Swaraj party’ and a number of seats were won.
- The Increase in the influence of Congress worried League
as it was followed by the forcible conversions of Muslims to
Hinduism and the refusal of Congress to support Muslim
demands of full provincial autonomy.

The Delhi Proposals - As Jinnah was keen to have Hindu-Muslim unity and was
(1927) prepared to reject separate electorates for this, he made a
number of proposals to Congress at a meeting in Delhi.
 - He proposed that Sindh Should be given full provincial
status; one third of seats in the central legislature were to
be set aside for Muslims; all British reforms should be
extended to Balochistan and NWFP and the number of
seats to be given to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal should
be proportional to the Muslim population living there.
- Congress favorably received these proposals but withdrew
their support later in the year.

4.4 a) reasons for its formation: protecting the Caliph, protecting Turkey and the growth of
anti-British sentiment

Reasons for the formation of the Khilafat Movement (1919)

Protecting the Caliph - The Sultan of Turkey was considered to be a Caliph (head of
the worldwide islamic community) who ruled over an empire
including religious centers such as Mecca.
- When the British threatened to take territory away from the
Caliph, Muslims were outraged and organized the Khilafat
movement to protect the sultan and their religion.

Protecting Turkey - British had forgotten their promise to Muslims of treating

Turkey differently and the British prime minister stated that
Turkey should be split up
- The Muslims of India were grief stricken because Turkey was
the last great power left to them.
- They believed, if Britain destroyed Turkey then Muslims would
become like Jews, people without a country of their own and
thus opposed this idea through the Khilafat movement.

Growth of anti-British - During World War I, some Muslims were reluctant to fight
sentiment against their Muslim brothers so British put a number of
prominent Muslim leaders who encouraged Muslims to
withdraw their support, behind the bars, which offended their
feelings.
- The British forgot their promise to treat Turkey better which
convinced the Indian Muslims to launch massive protests
against the British Government in the shape of Khilafat
Movement.

4.4 b) events from 1919–22: the Hijrat, violence at Nilambur and Chauri Chaura, Gandhi and
non-cooperation

Events of the Khilafat Movement

 The Hijrat - The Western influence that direguarded the law of Islam made
India Dar-ul-Harb due to which 18,000 Muslims set off on a Hijrat to
Afghanistan after selling their lands and possessions in 1920.
- They were told that the Afghan government would welcome them
but the truth was different: the Afghan government did not welcome
the idea of such huge numbers descending upon their country so
the emigrants were sent back.

Violence at - In August, 1921, there was an uprising by the Moplahs in South

Nilambur India against British and Hindu landlords.
- Around 10,000 Moplahs set a police station on fire.
- British sent troops to end the uprising and 4,000 Moplahs were
killed

Chauri-Chaura - In 1922, 21 policemen were killed after they fired on a political

incident possession

Gandhi’s - Gandhi began a tour of India for his Satyagraha cause as he felt
non-cooperation that this was the only way for India to gain independence.
- He supported the Khilafat Movement to gain Muslims support for
non-cooperation.
- The non-cooperation involved: withdrawing children from
government schools, boycotting British courts, refusing to volunteer
to join the armed forces, refusing to stand for elections and
boycotting foreign goods.

4.4 c) reasons for its failure: outbreaks of violence, Kemal Attaturk and the abolition of the
Khilafat, lack of common aims between Hindus and Muslims.

Reasons for the failure of the Khilafat Movement

Outbreaks of violence - Violence at Nilambur

- Chauri-Chaura incident
- British royals and princes were greeted with
demonstrations and strikes
- When the prince of Wales visited, rioting in Bombay
led to the death of 53 people
- By 1921, there were more than 30,000 prisoners in
India’s jail

Kemal Attaturk and the abolition - In 1922, the sultan was deprived of power
of the Khilafat - 2 years later, Kemal Attaturk (the new leader)
abolished the Khilafat and exiled the Khalifa

Lack of common aims between - Hindus aimed towards opposing the Western
Hindus and Muslims powers and pressing for self-rule
- Muslims aimed towards protecting the Khilafat,
 caliph and Turkey.

Section C
Consolidating the new nation (1971–2013)
5.1 a) social, constitutional, cultural, economic and political tensions between East and West
Pakistan from 1947: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the Six-Point Programme and the reasons for its
rejection, the impact of Cyclone Bhola

Tensions between east and west pakistan

Social - In 1948, there were only 200 doctors and 3000 hospital beds in the
whole of East Pakistan
- Between 1947-58, the numbers in primary schools in West Pakistan
rose by 163%, but in East Pakistan, the increase was just 38%

Constitutional - The one unit policy(1954) which unified all of Pakistan ensured equal
representation in the assembly, preventing East Pakistan gaining
majority in the assembly; they felt deprived of what they saw as an
established right.
- After the 1962 constitution, East Pakistanis felt that they would have
little part in governing Pakistan as they came to realize that Pakistan's
government was in the hands of the military and civil officials of West
pakistan.
- The victory of the Awami League on the basis of the six-point
programme was not acceptable by West Pakistani politicians leading
to a constitutional crisis.

Cultural - East and West Pakistanis were separated by language and culture;
music and dance formed a strong part of the East Pakistani culture
which was considered unislamic by West Pakistanis.
- West Pakistanis considered their culture superior to that of East
Pakistan’s and this was resented by East Pakistanis.
- Initially, urdu was chosen as the national language even though it was
the mother tongue of only 6% of the population and bengali was
spoken by 56% of the people; in the 1956 constitution, it was
recognized as one of the official languages however, no measures
were taken to promote the language.

Economic - Bengalis believed that earnings from their trade in jute were used in
West Pakistan and that West Pakistan's economic growth had taken
place as a result of transferring resources from East to West
Pakistan.
- A 1000 million rupee resource transfer took place annually from East
 to West Pakistan.
- More than twice as much foriegn aid and capital investment went to
West Pakistan as compared to East Pakistan.
- The per capita income of East Pakistan was 85% that of West
Pakistan before partition and it decreased to 6%.
- Banking, insurance companies and commercial firms were centered
in West Pakistan.
- Industries in east pakistan belonged to industrialists of West Pakistan
resulting in a continuous transfer of capital.
- For every decision in economic matters, Bengalis had to depend on
the West wing.

Political - With a larger population in East Pakistan, the power was

concentrated in the Western wing; East Pakistanis wanted more seats
in the central assembly in accordance with the population.
- Agartala Conspiracy case(in 1968, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was
implicated in conspiring with India against the stability of Pakistan):
Military crackdown against Awami Party supporters (arrest of
Mujib-ur-Rehman).
- The unjustified dismissal East Pakistani leaders including Khawaja
Nazimuddin, Muhammad Ali Bogra and Hussain Shaheed
Suharwardy from primeministership.
- Even when the Awami League won a clear majority in the 1970
elections, they were not allowed to form a government so they
believed that their political right would never be recognized.
- The 1st March National meeting was postponed by Yahya Khan led to
Violent reactions by East Pakistanis.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Who? - First President of Bangladesh and later as the Prime Minister of Bangladesh
- Bangladeshi politician and statesman
- Leader of Awami league
- Assassinated in a military coup in 1975.

Works - Along with H. S. Suhrawardy, he organized the Awami League in 1949.

- Lead a black-flag demonstration against Jinnah on the issue of making Urdu
as the State language for which he was arrested
- Formulated the six points as he believed in the self-government for East
Pakistan

The six-point programme (1966)

Aims - To give the East greater autonomy in Pakistan

 - To end the perceived exploitation of East Pakistan by the West
Pakistani rulers

provisions 1. A directly elected government

2. Federal government to control self defense and foriegn
policies; all other decisions to be made at provincial level
3. Separate currencies for East and West Pakistan.
4. Provinces to tax their people and send a share to the federal
government; the federal government not to tax people
5. Each province to set up its own trade agreements
6. Each province to have its own troops

Reasons for rejection - A federal form of government, which would leave East
Pakistan to control everything except defence and foreign
policy.
- A separate currency and fiscal policy with its own taxation
along with negotiating its own trade agreements with other
countries and having its own armed forces was seen as a
threat to Pakistan's unity.

Cyclone Bhola (1970)

what? - The deadliest tropical cyclone ever recorded, it hit East Pakistan
- The government in West Pakistan was slow to react

Impacts - 500,000 people lost their lives.

- 85% of the land was damaged
- It lead to unrest and East Pakistan accused the government of “gross
neglect, callous indifference and utter indifference”
- Anti-West Pakistan feelings worsened due to the mismanagement of relief
efforts and misuse of funds.
- It led to the victory for the Awami League as it was able to win the support of
East

5.1 b) the reasons for the outbreak of civil war: the role of India, Operation Searchlight

Operation Searchlight (1971)

Reasons - Put down the Bengali nationalist movement.

- Put an end to Awami League’s campaign which was a threat to Pakistan's
unity.
- Eliminate opposition to Yahya’s government by taking control of major
cities.

Events - Bengali intelligentsia, academics and Hindus were treated with extreme
 harshness.
- Mujib was arrested and 1000s of Bengalis were murdered.
- Pakistani forces took control over towns and cities of East Bengal
- Press censorship was imposed and all political activity was banned

Impacts - In retaliation the Bengalis announced the formation of the ‘Sovereign

People's Republic of Bangladesh”
- Millions of Bengalis fled to India
- 1971 civil war

Outbreak of civil war (1971)

Role of india - The conflict between East and West Pakistan was an ideal opportunity
for India to gain advantage of.
- India declared its support for the people of Bengal
- India set up refugee camps for the fleeing East Pakistanis due to the
flood and bloodshed providing india an excuse to interfere
- Provided East Pakistanis money to fight West Pakistan.
- The indian army trained a rebel force ‘Mukti Bahini’

Impacts - Relations between india and West Pakistan deteriorated

- Indian high commision in Dhaka was closed and so was the Pakistan
high commision in Calcutta
- Mukhti Bahini carried out massacres and there were waves of unrest
across the country
- 1971 civil war

5.1 c) the consequences of the civil war: the establishment of Bangladesh, resignation of Yahya
Khan.

Establishment of Bangladesh (1971)

How? - Due to the support India provided to East Pakistan.

- Surrender of General Niazi on instructions of Yahya Khan despite plentiful
supplies led to demoralization of the army.
- The army lost the will to fight for a territory that didnt wanna be a part of
Pakistan.
- East pakistan was helped by indians and the Soviet Union whereas
Pakistan's allies were not interested in supporting the war

Impacts - Partition of East and West Pakistan; formation of Bangladesh

- Resignation of Yahya Khan
Resignation of Yahya Khan

Reasons - The defeat of the war brought disgrace to Yahya Khan and the people of
his own country lost trust and confidence in him.
- Rumors of an impending coup by junior military officers against President
Yahya Khan.
- Unable to handle the pressure along with increasing unrest, Yahya Khan
handed over the presidency to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

5.2 a) the contribution of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto: the 1973 Constitution, reforms in industry,
agriculture, education, health and administration, reasons for downfall

1973 constitution

Aims - Return a form of parliamentary democracy.

Reforms - Pakistan to be an Islamic Republic with Islam as the state religion.

- Prime Minister and President had to be Muslim.
- Members of armed forces to take an oath not to participate in political
activities.
- Prime Minister to be head of government.
- Equal number of members from all provinces would be present in the
senate.

Impact - Professionals, academics and specialists were able to work together.

- It safeguarded the interests of the minority provinces.
- The focal point of political power lay with the party leadership and with
Bhutto in particular, so when things went wrong he was blamed

Industrial reforms

Aims - Produce economic growth and bring inflation down from the high level of
25%
- Control industrial output and channel investment into industrialization
- Raise the workers' living and working standards
- To overcome the economic loss due to separation from East pakistan as
80% of the foriegn exchange came from East Pakistan.
- To erase the inequalities as 20 industrial houses owned 80% of Pakistan’s
large scale industries.

Reforms - He nationalized the industries in 1972; 70 major units including sugar,

cotton and rice industries along with banking and insurance centres were
placed under the control of a federal ministry of production.
- Profits from the nationalized companies were to be spent on improving
 public services
- Bhutto also established the Port Qasim, Pakistan Steel Mills and the Heavy
Mechanical Complex (HMC).

Impact - Inflation fell from 25% in 1972 to 6% in 1976

- Many foreign companies moved out; further investment stalled.
- Factory owners were replaced by civil servants with little understanding of
commerce due to the nationalization policy.
- The system often got bogged down in bureaucratic muddles as the federal
ministry had a huge job to do to coordinate nationalization across the
country.

Agricultural reforms

Aims - Introduce a new ceiling on ownership.

- Security of tenancy.
- Improve production by maintaining incomes on smaller, more productive
areas of land by improved technology and better farming methods.

Reforms - The ceiling on land ownership was 250 acres irrigated and 500 acres
unirrigated. The surplus land could be sold to smaller farmers to make
better profits.
- Tenants have the first right to buy the land they farmed.
- The peasant could not be thrown out except for specific causes.
- Land owners with less than 25 acres were exempted from taxes.

Impact - Peasant farmers were able to make better profits.

- It allowed many people to own their own farms for the first time.
- Many landowners found ways around the regulations; through bribery,
corruption or even evicting tenants.

Educational reforms

Aims - Increase literacy rate as the current rate was 25%.

- Raise academic standards .

Reforms - New schools were built .

- All private sectors were nationalized.
- Education was made free and compulsory upto primary level.
- The same syllabus was introduced in all schools.
- Private school teachers were given more salary and security.
- Adult education programme started.

Impact - Implementation of reforms became difficult as only 13% of the government

education budget was allocated to primary schools.
 - Standard of education dropped due to lack of additional trained staff.
- After 5 years, the literacy rate increased by 1% as the poor couldn't afford
the loss of earnings they faced if they sent their children to school instead
of sending them out to work.

Health reforms

Aims - Improve health facilities

- Decrease infant mortality rates
- Increase life expectancy

Reforms - He introduced Rural Health Centre (RHCs) and Basic Health Units (BHUs)
in urban areas.
- Colleges for doctors and nurses were expected to admit students on merit.
- Once qualified, doctors had to work the first year wherever the government
placed them.
- The sale of medicines under brand names was also banned.
- Medicines were made available without prescription.

Impact - Many international drug companies closed down their operations in

Pakistan as they could not make profits.
- Substandard local companies entered the market.
- Cost of medicine was reduced and more affordable.
- Income of chemists decreased .

Administrative reforms

Aims - Produce a modern and efficient civil service.

- Eradicate corruption, inefficient and unnecessary rules and regulations.

Reforms - Federal Security Force under Bhutto’s direct command.

- Civil Service of Pakistan recognized into a smaller number of levels and
unified pay scales.
- Recruitment of high quality staff.

Impact - His opponents complained that all he was doing was setting up a system of
patronage where he could reward his followers with posts in the civil
service

Bhutto's downfall

Reasons - Lack of investment due to the nationalization of the companies led to a

loss of jobs and therefore GDP of the country.
 - The focal point of political power lay with the party leadership and with
Bhutto in particular, so when things went wrong he was blamed
- The changes in education were criticised as they led to overcrowding in
existing schools whilst new ones were built which was very expensive.
- Many families resented the educational reforms because it meant a loss of
earnings for them
- Bhutto faced strong opposition in the 1977 elections from Pakistan
National Alliance (PNA).
- Allegations of rigging (the PPP had won 154 seats while PNA had won 38)
led to mass protest and violence ensued- 300 people were killed and
10,000 arrested
- Failure of the FSF to control the situation led to Bhutto having to make
concessions.
- A military coup, headed by Zia-ul-Haq (the commander-in-chief of the
army) was organized (Operation Fairplay)under which Bhutto and major
political leaders were arrested; Zia accused Bhutto of ruining the economy
and bringing Pakistan to the brink of civil war.

Impacts - Martial Law imposed

- Execution of Bhutto
- Zia-ul-haq came into power
- Assemblies were suspended

5.2 b) the contribution of General Zia ul-Haq: execution of Bhutto, Islamisation, the Afghan
miracle, amendments to the constitution, the Eighth Amendment, relations with Mohammad
Khan Junejo

Execution of Bhutto

Events - Upon being released by the end of july 1977, Bhutto revealed that he
intended to reassert his political authority due to which he was rearrested in
september.
- A two year trial resulted in Bhutto being found guilty and sentenced to
death as he was accused of murdering a political opponent by sending FSF
to kill him.
- He was hanged in 1979.

Impact - It led to Zia being seen as a capable leader by the people who may have
previously considered him to be a weak one.

Islamisation

Aims - Win the support of political parties (jamaat-e-islami).

 - introduce an excellent counter-ideology to Bhutto's belief of social measures.

Laws - A federal shariat court was set up to ensure that existing laws were keeping
up with islamic principles.
- Hudood ordinance was promulgated including different punishments for
different crimes in accordance to islam.
- The council of islamic ideology was set up to suggest ways in which the legal
framework of pakistan could be brought closer to islamic ideology.
- Islamiat and pakistan studies were made compulsory in schools and
colleges.
- Candidates who took the civil service exams were granted extra marks if they
had memorized the holy Quran.
- The Ushr Ordinance imposed a 5% tax on agricultural income which would
be used to feed the poor.
- Zakat Ordinance imposed a 2.5% wealth tax on savings over a certain
amount to be given to the poor.

Impact - Strengthened Zia’s control over the country.

- The support of religious political parties such as Jamaat-i-Islami (influential in
both army and administration).
- Sunni/Shia clashes arose- due to differences in Islamic Laws.
- Female academies formed organizations to protest about the inferior legal
status given to them which in some Circumstances said that their testimony
had only half the weight of a man.
- The Martial Law Ordinance xx restricted the activities of religious minorities.

The Afghan miracle

Events - The USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979 putting Pakistan in the frontline
against communist forces.
- Pakistan being the only potential anti-communist ally in the region, was
provided military and economic support by the US.
- Huge sums were poured into Pakistan for rehabilitation of refugees and
development of the army.

Impacts - It established Pakistan as a leading country in world politics.

- Pakistan became the second largest supplier of military manpower in the
developing world.
- Pakistan’s GNP had reached an annual growth rate of 6.2%, the highest in
the world.
- Pakistan became an important base against the Soviets
- Zia was able to use some of the funds to make economic progress and
reform the economy.
- Freely supplied guns by the West became common on the streets of
pakistan through smugglings
- Pakistan became one of the world's leading countries for drug trading.
- Killings and corruption in the society increased.
Amendments to the constitution

Aims - To ensure that the elections would not reduce Zia’s power
- To ensure that the legal system was dependent on the
government.

Amendments to the - Article 48 gave the president the ability to take any decision as
constitution “the validity of anything done by the President shall not be
called into question”
- All military decisions and actions since 1977 were legal and not
to open to inquiry or later prosecution.
- No decision taken under martial law could be changed without
the president's consent
- The president could appoint the prime minister and other senior
government officials without the need for any other consultation.

Impacts - It led to the referendum which was on whether or not people

wanted the process of islamization.
- Only 10% of those eligible to vote did vote.
- Zia won an overwhelming majority of the vote casts.

The 8th amendment (1985)

Aims - Lift martial law while still remaining firmly in control

Provisions 1. All previous acts of martial law became law

2. The president could appoint the prime minister, governor of the province
and other officials
3. The president could dismiss the prime minister and national assembly

Impact - Changed Pakistan's system of government from a parliamentary

democracy to a semi-presidential system.
- strengthened the authority of the President and also granted additional
powers to dismiss the elected Prime Minister's government which was
used to dismiss Junejo.
- Martial law was lifted.
- Zia remained firmly in control.

Muhammad khan junejo

who? - Pakistani politician

- 10th Prime Minister of Pakistan
 Relations with zia - In 1985, when Zia ul Haq won elections, he chose Muhammad
Khan Junejo as PM as he was thought to be one ‘easy to control’
- Junejo managed to form an opposition within the National
Assembly against army rule.
- Junejo tried to take action independent of Zia; he called for an
all-party Round Table Conference to discuss a proposed peace
plan in Afghanistan.
- PM Junejo announced an investigation to take place and to serve
justice to the lives lost and threatened to release the ojri camp
report.
- This angered Zia and on 29 May 1988 Junejo was dismissed and
the National Assembly dissolved under the powers given to the
President in the Eighth Amendment.

5.2 c) Pakistan in the final decade of the 20th century: the two ministries of Benazir Bhutto;
problems and dismissal from office in 1990, family feuds and economic problems in the second
ministry. the two ministries of Nawaz Sharif; the BCCI scandal, the Co-operative Scandal,
Kalashnikov Culture, relations with President Ishaq Khan, dispute over Chief Justice in the
second ministry, overthrow by Pervez Musharraf.

Benazir Bhutto’s first ministry (1988-90)

Foreign policy - Benazir took Pakistan into the Commonwealth.

- She hosted the 4th SAARC conference in December 1988.
- She made an official visit to the US in 1989 to meet with president
Bush

Political - Benazir lacked the power she needed as she did not have an
opposition overall majority. She had to accept an informal arrangement
whereby the most important decisions were taken by the President
(because of the 8th amendment that gave the President
considerable power)
- She faced opposition from the IJI led by Nawaz Sharif who
controlled the provincial government of Punjab.
- There was a deep rift between the IJI in the Punjab and the PPP
government in Islamabad which made it very difficult for the
government to run.
- The MQM were allies with the PPP at first, however, in September
1989, they sided with Nawaz Sharif, making the opposition much
stronger.
- The MQM accused Benazir of not keeping her promises that she
had made to them.
 - In 1989, opposition parties organised a parliamentary no-confidence
vote in Benazir Bhutto's leadership and it was defeated by 12 votes;
this had seriously damaged her government.

President Ishaq - He often clashed with Bhutto as he believed that appointments to

positions in the military and judiciary are the right of the president,
not the prime minister.
- He refused to agree to several appointments and dismissals she
wanted to make in the military.

Inflation and - Promised economic development programmes and social and

unemployment health reforms did not produce the effects hoped for.
- Unemployment, inflation were high.
- Rapid increase in the country’s population meant that the already
overburdened education and health systems couldn't cope.

Drug trafficking - The government failed to deal with the growing drug abuse
problem which started during Zia’s time and now the number of
heroin addicts has risen to a million.

Sindh - Well educated muhajirs opposed the special rights for Sindhis
introduced by Benazir Bhutto such as reserved posts in the
administration for Sindhis.
- Benazir Bhutto tried to gain the support of the MQM to form a
coalition government by promising to protect the interests of all the
people of Sindh but failed, increasing tensions between the
muhajirs and Sindhis.
- On 30th september,1988, gunmen(believed to be Sindhis) fired into
a crowd in hyderabad causing 250 casualties, leading to
widespread riots in karachi and the end of MQM’s alliance with
PPP.
- The Pucca Qila Massacre in Hyderabad led to 40 people including
women and children being killed.

Impact - India and Pakistan signed 3 peace-agreement as a result of

improved relations
- Relations with the US greatly improved.
- Unrest in the country including strikes
- Increase in crime rate
- Growing unemployment
- President Ishaq, using the 8th amendment, dismissed Benazir’s
government.

Benazir Bhutto’s second ministry (1993-1996)

Economic and - The privatization of industrial plants led to $20 billion of foreign
domestic policies investment, largely in the power industry.
 - She opened a series of all-female police stations, staffed with
female officers, to make women feel safer in coming forward to
report crimes.

Family feuds - Claims were made that her husband, Asif Ali Zardari, was
engaged in questionable business dealings, which was
successful in undermining her position.
- Benazir’s mother Nusrat Bhutto, preferred Murtaza Bhutto to
lead the PPP.
- Murtaza also opposed Zardari’s involvement in the PPP.
- Benazir removed her mother from a leading position in the PPP.
- Later, Murtaza Bhutto was assassinated under mysterious
circumstances in a police ambush on September 20, 1996. The
high-profile killing of her brother in her tenure damaged her
political career.

Economic problems - In 1995, Pakistan desperately needed a loan from the IMF, who
were reluctant to help. To satisfy the IMF, taxes were raised and
the rupee was devalued by 7 %. As a result, the cost of living
rose and this led to protests and strikes - inflation rose beyond
control.
- In 1996, Benazir attempted to privatize the United Bank and
raise funds for the government. However, offers made for the
bank fell short and the selling of the bank was halted due to
claims of corruption.
- Kashmir and confrontations with India caused military spending
to increase greatly - there was a 14% increase in 1995-96, and
so the government had to pay heavy interest on huge loans and
there was a large balance of payments deficit.
- Flooding and serious plant diseases affected agricultural output.
This affected the economy as Pakistan’s economy is
agricultural-based.
- Pakistan's GDP growth slowed to 4% and large-scale
manufacturing growth slowed to 2.3%

Impacts - The country entered the list of the world's top ten developing
capital markets.(privatization)
- Inflation rose
- Cost of living increased
- President Lighari -using the 8th amendment- dismissed the
government.

Nawaz Sharif’s first ministry (1990-1993)

Economic policy - He privatized the industries believing that partnership

between the government and the private sector would boost
the economy.
 - Industries such as the shipping industry, electricity supply,
airlines and telecommunications were opened to the private
sector.
- Large Scale projects such as the Barotha Hydro Power
Project and Gwadar Miniport in Balochistan were introduced
to stimulate the economy.
- He imported 1000s of taxis and provided cheap loans to buy
them to solve the unemployment problem.

The motorway project - $989 000 000 000 was spent on Pakistan's first motorway, the
M2.
- It provided a fast transport system and efficient link between
rural and urban areas.

The BCCI scandal - Followed by an investigation by the British team of

accountants which concluded that BCCI had engaged in
widespread fraud and manipulation, BCCI -the 7th largest
bank in the world- collapsed in 1991.
- Many accusations that Pakistani businessmen and politicians
had made huge profits from the bank’s illegal activities.
- Pakistan also refused to eradicate the bank’s founder, Agha
Hasan Abedi, to face charges in the USA as Nawaz Sharif
-through the bank- had transferred millions of dollars to the
UK for his own personal family business.

Co-operative scandal - Mismanagement of the cooperative societies led to a major

collapse in which millions of Pakistani's lost money.
- In Punjab 700,000 people, mostly poor, lost all their savings
when the state's cooperative societies went bankrupt.
- Soon discovered that these societies had granted billions of
rupees to Nawaz Sharif’s family business ‘the Ittefaq group’ .

Kalashnikov culture - As a result of the increased support for Afghan warlords

fighting the Soviet Union, Russian kalashnikovs were sold
cheaply and easily available.
- Terrorism, kidnappings and murder increased.
- Not even foreigners were safe from these attacks.
- Drug addiction increased and Pakistan had 4 million drug
addicts.
- Pakistanis were ordered to turn in their weapons but few of
them did and the Government passed the twelfth amendment
to the constitution to dispense summary justice (execution of
a person upon their being accused of a crime, without a full
trial). The opposition criticized the law as suppressing
fundamental rights.

Relations with - Nawaz Sharif disagreed with the President over the
president Ishaq appointment of a new army chief of staff after the death of
General Asif Nawaz Janjua
 - Ishaq used the Eighth Amendment to dismiss Sharif and his
government.

Nawaz Sharif’s second ministry (1997-99)

dispute over Chief - Sajjad Ali Shah became a critic of Nawaz Sharif
Justice - In 1997, when sharif was defending himself in the supreme
court, a mob stormed into the court, forcing the chief justice to
adjourn the case
- Hundreds of Sharif supporters broke through the police
cordon on the order of Nawaz Sharif and the chief justice had
to flee for his safety.
- In December, both the chief justice and President Leghari
resigned

Reasons why he was - Musharraf accused him of setting up a parliamentary

overthrown by Pervez dictatorship through 3 constitutional amendments such as the
Musharraf 13th amendment stripping the President of Pakistan of his
reserve power to dissolve the National Assembly and the
14th amendment which gave party leaders unlimited power to
dismiss any of their legislators from Parliament if they spoke
or voted against their party preventing the switching of parties
to form a strong coalition government or to become a strong
opposition.
- Repression had increased greatly as journalists who wrote
critical articles about Sharif were arrested and tax inspections
were carried out.
- In 1997, Sharif’s secret police attacked the home of a leading
critic of the government, Najam Sethi.
- Dispute with the chief justice of Pakistan.
- He did a conspiracy against General Musharraf when he was
returning from Sri Lanka, his plane was not allowed to land
(plane conspiracy case) which made the elite officers of the
army agitated and they retaliated by planning the removal of
Nawaz from the office.
- For the Kargil operation, after early successes, kashmiri
forces were driven back. Nawaz Sharif blamed Musharraf and
accused the military that he was not involved in the planning
or the operation. The Kargil operation and its aftermath
created serious conflict between the military and civil
government, and it led to the military coup.
- Musharraf overthrew nawaz sharif and charged him with the
attempt to murder, hijack and kidnap.
- He was exiled to Saudi Arabia as he was found to be guilty of
the plane conspiracy case.
5.3 a) the linguistic and literary background of Muslims.

Language background of Muslims

History of Urdu - It first originated in North-West India when Persian, Turkish and
Punjabi interacted with the local dialects of Delhi and the
surrounding areas.
- The language origin is older than the arrival of the Mughals,
popularly spoken by Muslims from the subcontinent with a
Persian or Arab descent.
- Urdu was initially a combination of Hindi dialect spoken around
Delhi and Meerut with Persian, Punjabi, Arabic and Turkish. This
made a language that evolved in its own style, grammar and
vocabulary. It was spoken by many Hindus and Muslims in the
Sub-continent.
- While it developed in the Doab region of India, it assumed its
literary form in the Deccan Peninsula.

Promotion of Urdu - Urdu has been the widely used language in the national media
including newspapers, radio, and television. Media plays a crucial
role in the development of Urdu since people use it for
information and entertainment.
- Urdu is taught till Ph.D. level in various institutions allowing
extensive scholar research and exploring different aspects of
poetry and prose.
- It is a compulsory subject till class 12th promoting the interest of
students in its literature.
- Urdu mushairas also play an integral role in the promotion of
Urdu.
- Remixes of Amir Khusro’s Urdu Qawwali were made.
- Mir Taqi’s Urdu poetry has been compiled.

5.3 b) the importance of Urdu: reasons for its choice as the national language of Pakistan,
advantages and disadvantages of Urdu as the national language.

Urdu as the national language of Pakistan

Reasons for its - It was seen as an idiom which had kept Muslim nationalism alive
choice throughout the period of colonization.
- It was widely used in the mughal period and dates as far as the
sultans of Delhi.
- Muslim armies also used it in its early stages.
- It was spoken and understood in many parts of the subcontinent
and thus it was well-known.
 - Finest poets including Amir Khusrou wrote in Urdu.
- Sir Syed Ahmes’s school became a center for Urdu study.
- Many religious books including the Quran were translated into Urdu
and thus it was considered to be a language with a rich literary
tradition.
- It was closely associated with the Pakistan movement.
- Sir Syed Ahmed supported it in his Hindi-Urdu controversy.
- Muslim League formed not only for the protection of muslim rights
but for the protection of urdu aswell.
- Quiad-e-azam saw it as a unifying force.

Advantages - United the muslims; kept the muslim nationhood intact.

- It became the media of expression
- It helped muslims understand their religion, culture and civilization
a great deal.

Disadvantages - Decline of promotion of other regional languages.

- The selection of Urdu later became the building block for the
separation of East Pakistan (Bangladesh).
- It was considerably new to Pakistan and considering the people, it
was a language only for 8% of the population.

5.3 c) the promotion of regional languages since 1947: Sindhi, Baluchi, Punjab and Pashto,
overview of the literary achievements of the national and regional languages since 1947.

Promotion of regional languages of pakistan

Reasons - Preserve the work done by the famous writers and poets
- Works like of Munir Niazi, Atta Shad, Ashfaq Ahmad and others in areas of
regional languages should be protected
- Some languages played an important role in the history of Pakistan. For
example, Pashto literature had played a very important part in creating
opposition to British rule and in the movement for independence.
- At the time of partition, there were some languages that were at the brink of
decline. Like Balochi, which was at its decline at the time of partition

Sindhi - In 1948, Sindhi literacy board was set up which printed many books and
magazines in Sindhi
- Several books have been written on sindhi folk literature.
- The Bazm –e –Talib –ul –Maula also helped in the promotion and
development of Sindhi by attracting more readers.
- In Sindh University, Jamshoro, Sindhi is taught till M.A level helping
students take more interest in the language.
- A sindhology department has been established at Sindh university
Jamshoro.
- Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai’s poetry has been compiled.
- As a tribute to Sachal Sarmast, the Dramatist Academy was founded that
 helped in the promotion of Sindhi by printing Sachal Sarmast’s writings.

Baluchi - The Balochi Literary Association was founded which produced monthly and
weekly magazines in baluhi.
- News and entertainment programs are broadcasted in Quetta and Karachi
televisions for the promotion of the language.
- Radio Pakistan also broadcasted programs in Balochi to promote it.
- The Quetta Television Station broadcasts in Baluchi

Panjabi - Novels, short stories and dramas were published in Panjabi.

- It is a popular language in theaters, radio and film industry.
- It is taught till M.Phil, developing an interest in students; It also helped in
modernizing the language.
- Panjabi literature is now taught at MA level in the university of punjab.
- Remixes of Bulleh Shah’s poetry have been made.
- Waris Shah’s tragedy of Heer Ranjha has been re-written.

Pushto - Peshawar University was established to promote the language within the
first three years after independence.
- It has been taught till M.A level in Peshawar University to help develop an
interest of students and scholars in its literature research. It helped in
modernizing the language.
- In 1954, an Academy was established to promote the language. It
assembled a Pashto dictionary to help more people understand the
language better.
- Rahman Baba’s poetry has been compiled.
- Akhund Dardeeza’s work has been compiled and rewritten.

Literary achievements since 1947.

National language - The Academy of letters promotes urdu in islamabad.

- Spoken by 7% of the total population of Pakistan

Regional languages - The Academy of letters promotes specific languages according

to the provinces
- They're all promoted in yearly Folk exhibitions
- Sindhi is spoken by 15% of the total population of Pakistan
- Baluchi is spoken by 3% of the total population of Pakistan
- Panjabi is spoken by 39% of the total population of Pakistan
- Pashto is spoken by 18% of the total population of Pakistan

5.4 a) the contribution of Pervez Musharraf: the Third Way, the restoration of the constitution,
the Legal Framework Order, modernisation programme, the State of Emergency, resignation
and exile

The Third Way

 What? - During Ayub Khan’s ‘Decade of Development’, Pakistan’s economy
grew at an average annual rate of over six per cent.
- It was the same during Ziaul Haq’s 11-year rule.
- And this was repeated a third time during President Musharraf’s
regime.
- The edifice was erected on all three occasions due to concessional
borrowing from multilateral and bilateral sources
- By the time the three went home, the country’s economy on each
occasion went into a decline

Developments - Even though the economy increased by almost 50 per cent, GDP per
capita increased at nearly twice the rate of growth of population, the
poor did not benefit as much from the pick up in the rate due to the
fact that growth came from the sectors which did not provide much
employment to lower income groups such as the sectors which
returned high rewards to the investors
- Domestic savings declined from 17.8 to 16.1 percent of GDP leading
to the economy being dependent on foreign flows
- Although 81 new universities including Degree Awarding Institutions
were opened, the educational standards remained low.
- There had been an increase of about 20,000 registered doctors,
3,000 registered dentists, 15,000 nurses and 56,000 lady health
workers but despite this, the standards of health facilities remained
low

Outcomes - Unrest
- Increase in poverty
- Public protests

Restoration of the constitution

Aims - Provide himself and the military blanket immunity for all actions taken
during emergency rule.
- End political opposition of lawyers.
- Keep him in power and remove challenges to his presidency.

Amendments - The power to review all governmental actions for which he, his
to the government or the military may be responsible, had been withdrawn
constitution from the Pakistani court, since the imposition of emergency rule on
November 3.
- Hearings before special military courts will not be public,
investigations will be conducted by military officers, and the standard
rules of evidence and procedures for criminal trials will not apply.
- Television discussions on anything deemed to be “false or baseless”
by the regulatory authorities have also been banned. Geo TV, the
 country’s largest private television network, remains off the air in
Pakistan, and the media have been prohibited from any live
broadcasts related to the upcoming elections or call-ins by viewers
- Independence of the Bar Associations had ended and given the
government new powers to disbar lawyers involved in
anti-government activities
- allowed the incumbent president to seek re-election for a fresh term of
five years, notwithstanding any bar in the Constitution
- He issued the NRO granting amnesty to politicians, political workers
and bureaucrats who were accused of corruption, and wanted to
leave country for their own profit embezzlement, money laundering or
murder.
- Musharraf issued Oath of Judges Order No. 2000, which required judges
to take a fresh oath of office.
- Reduce the minimum age limit for appointment as a high court Judge
from 45 years to 40

Impacts - It gave the army immunity for detaining people.

- Allowed the military to arrest opponents with impunity.
- Enabled the judges to remain in service for a longer period after
minimizing age limit for appointment as a high court judge

Legal framework order (2002)

Aims - Have absolute sweeping powers to rule

Features - The President could dismiss the national or provincial assemblies

- The work of the civilian cabinet was supervised by a National Security
Council which was dominated by military officers.
- After elections, elected representatives had some powers but the final
power rested with military officers and General Musharraf himself.
- To revive the 1973 constitution of Pakistan.​
- Terminated the 13th amendment which gave the president power to
dismiss the prime minister and his cabinet.(he had the power to
- Appoint judges)
- To assume total dictatorship of Pakistan

Impacts - Elections were held to the national and state assemblies

- Musharraf had absolute sweeping powers to rule
- No one could question his laws or amendments to the constitution.

Modernization programme
Aims - Rejected extremism
- Correcting a wrong perception about Pakistan being an extremist state
- Projecting Pakistan’s moderate culture through electronic and print media.
- Musharraf stated: "We must reject extremism and Westernization and
develop a moderate culture of both extremes"

Works - Sufi teachings were emphasized upon to counter extremism

- In 2006, the National Sufism Council was set up
- The curriculum of religious schools was modernized
- $50 million was allocated to pay the salaries of teachers of non-religious
subjects
- Sectarian violence was attempted to be reduced

State of emergency (2007)

Reasons - Clash with judiciary; differences of opinion regarding judging.(chaudhry

iftikhar)+protests
- Remain firmly in control
- Civil service was out of control
- Suicide bombings as a result of Pakistan’s support to the US in the war of
terror

Events - On 3 November 2007 Musharraf declared emergency rule across

Pakistan.
- Musharraf controversially held both positions of President and Chief of
Army Staff
- He suspended the Constitution, imposed a state of emergency, and fired
the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court again.
- In Islamabad, troops entered the Supreme Court building, arrested the
judges and kept them detained in their homes.
- Independent and international television channels went off air.

Impacts - Resignation of Musharraf

- Public protests were mounted against Musharraf.

Resignation and exile

Reasons - The ruling coalition government was moving to impeach him.

- His allies were fast fading away and he had virtually no support
- He was under pressure at home and abroad to quit.
- Zardari and Nawaz Sharif threatened to impeach him.

Events - On 18 August 2008, Musharraf announced his resignation. On the following

day, he defended his nine-year rule in an hour-long televised speech.
 - However, public opinion was largely against him by this time. A poll
conducted a day after his resignation showed that 63% Pakistanis
welcomed Musharraf's decision to step down while only 15% were
unhappy with it.
- On 23 November 2008 he left for self imposed exile in London.

5.4 b) the contribution of Asif Ali Zardari: controversy over his appointment, the National
Reconciliation Order, economic crisis, suspension and reinstatement of Chief Justice, Iftikhar
Chaudry, 18th and 19th Amendments, the work of Yousaf Raza Gillani, the 2013 election

Controversy over his appointment

The National Reconciliation Order (2007)

Reasons for - Grant amnesty to politicians, political workers and bureaucrats who
formation were accused of corruption, money laundering and terrorism between
two states of martial law in Pakistan

What? - Corruption charges were dropped against Asif Ali Zardari

- It was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in
2009​

Impacts - The NRO impacted 8,041 people, including 34 politicians and 03

ambassadors​.
- The country was thrown into a political crisis

Economic crisis

Reasons - Pakistan faced default on its payments

- Saudi Arabia, Britain, China, the United States, and the UAE all refused to
provide aid
- Saudi distrust of Zardari and preference for Sharif
- Inflation decreased from 25% to 7% in 2007
- Share prices at Karachi Stock Exchange had collapsed
IMF - In 2008, Zardari's government sent a letter to the IMF regarding a bailout
to help increase its foreign exchange reserves
- In a $11.3 billion multi-year loan package, Pakistan received a $7.4 billion
loan for 2008–10
- The IMF stipulated stringent reform conditions, which included rebuilding
the tax structure and privatizing state enterprises.
- The World Bank and Asian Development Bank withheld a combined $3
billion aid in 2010–11 period and the IMF withheld the last segment of its
aid package

Impacts - Economic crisis couldnt fully come to an end

Suspension and reinstatement of Chief Justice, Iftikhar Chaudry

Suspension - In 2007, Musharraf suspended Iftikhar Chaudary on allegations of

misconduct and misuse of authority

Reinstatement - After Zardari dismissed the Punjab provincial government, Nawaz

Sharif defied house arrest and rallied with thousands of his
supporters to join forces with the Lawyers' Movement in the ‘Long
March’
- Till now Iftikhar Chaudhry hadn't been reinstated
- Due to increased pressure, Prime Minister Gilani promised to
reinstate Iftikhar Chaudhry by 21 March, 2009

18th amendment (2010)

Reasons it - Counter the sweeping powers amassed by the presidency

was passed - Ease political instability in Pakistan

Provisions - The President of Pakistan couldnt dissolve the Parliament unilaterally

- NWFP was renamed to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
- It removed the limit on a Prime Minister serving more than two terms
- Courts will no longer be able to endorse suspensions of the constitution
- A judicial commission will appoint judges
- The president will no longer be able to appoint the head of the Election
Commission
- The President will no longer be able to declare emergency rule in any
province unilaterally.

Impacts - It turned Pakistan from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary republic

- Provincial autonomy was enhanced
- It opened the way for Nawaz Sharif to rule again
19th amendment (2011)

Reasons - Reduce the likelihood of future clashes between Judiciary and the
president
- Strengthen the power of the chief justice in deciding the judicial
appointments

Provisions - The President will now carry out the appointments on the
recommendation of the Judicial Commission of Pakistan
- The Tribal Areas are declared to be part of FATA.
- Name of the High court of Islamabad was changed to Islamabad High
Court.
- The Prime Minister was included in the appointment procedure of judges.
- Committee meetings will be held in camera and a record of its
proceedings shall be maintained

Impacts - FATA came into being

- Committee meetings became more secure

Yousuf Raza Gillani (incomplete)

2013 election

Elections - General elections were held in Pakistan in 2013 to elect the members of
the National Assembly and the four provincial assemblies.
- Prior to the elections, the ruling Pakistan Peoples Party formed an
alliance with the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) and Awami National Party,
while the main opposition party, the Pakistan Muslim League (N) allied
with the Pakistan Muslim League (F) and Baloch parties.
- The Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf led by Imran Khan, also emerged as a
key-player

Results - The PML-N received the most votes and won the most seats, but fell six
seats short of a majority
- 19 independent MPs joined the PML-N, allowing it to form a government
with Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister
- PPP was in majority in Sindh.
- The PTI won the most seats in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
- The PML-N emerged as the largest party in Punjab and Balochistan
 - The elections were the first civilian transfer of power following the
successful completion of a five-year term by a democratically elected
government

5.4 c) Pakistan and the wider world 1999–2013: relations with USA, India and Afghanistan, the
war against terror, the nuclear issue.

Relations with USA

Forgiveness of loans - In 2003, the US forgave $1 billion worth of loan granted to

Pakistan in appreciation for Pakistan’s cooperation in the war
against terror improving relations between the two

Purchasing military - In 2004, President George Bush declared Pakistan as a

equipment non-Nato ally granting it the authority to purchase advanced
military equipment which improved relations

Drone strikes - Since 2004, the US army has launched drone strikes aiming to
target Pakistani Taliban and supporters of al Qaeda
- The strikes have also resulted in large civilian deaths and
caused much opposition from Pakistanis.

Airstrike - In 2008, an airstrike by the US Army killed 11 soldiers of the

Pakistan Army and 8 Taliban.
- Mutual trust and cooperation were shattered

Kerry-Lugar Bill - President Musharraf confessed that the billions of dollars of aid
that Pakistan received from the US, for being a partner in war
against terror, were used to build better defence mechanisms
against India.
- The Kerry-Lugar Bill was passed in 2009, granting $7.5 billion
of non-military aid, if the country accepted certain conditions.
- The bill clearly showed US’s distrust in Pakistan’s military
command, deteriorating relations

Osama bin Laden’s - In 2011, Osama bin Laden was killed in an operation
death conducted by US Navy Seals in Abbottabad, Pakistan.
- Relations were deteriorated as the americans killed him within
Pakistani territory without permission

NATO attack - In 2011, US-led NATO forces engaged Pakistani security forces
at two Pakistani military checkposts along the
Afghanistan–Pakistan border
- Both sides later claimed that the other had fired first.
- The Pakistani government ordered the US army to evacuate
Salalah air base which was being used to launch offensive
attacks on Taliban and militants.
 - The government also halted Nato supplies for the US

Restoration of NATO - In 2012, political parties along with the military met and held
supplies discussions on restoring Nato supplies.
- Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani said that the supplies were
blocked without any pressure and will be restored with
consensus.

Relations with India

Lahore declaration - In 1999, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee met Nawaz
Sharif and the Lahore Declaration which was a bilateral
agreement and governance treaty was signed between India and
Pakistan
- Under the terms of the treaty, a mutual understanding was
reached towards the development of atomic arsenals and to
avoid accidental and unauthorized operational use of nuclear
weapons.

Tensions along the - In 2001, tensions along the LOC remained high
LOC - 38 people were killed in an attack on the Kashmiri assembly in
Srinagar
- Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari
Vajpayee met for a summit in the Indian city of Agra which
collapsed after two days, with both sides unable to reach
agreement on the issue of Kashmir.
- Relations were severely deteriorated

Ceasefire - In 2003, Musharraf called for a ceasefire along the LOC during a
UN General Assembly meeting
- The two countries reached an agreement
- Tensions were cooled

Troops in Kashmir - Although in 2004, India announced that it will be reducing its
deployment of troops in Kashmir, in 2006, India redeployed
5,000 troops from Jammu and Kashmir

Bomb attack - In 2008, India blamed Pakistan for a bomb attack on the Indian
embassy in Kabul killing 58
- Tensions grew

Trade routes - President Asif Ali Zardari and Indian Prime Minister Singh
announced the opening of several trade routes between the two
countries in 2008
- Tensions were cooled

Mumbai attacks - In 2008, an attack made in Mumbai killed 160 people

 - In 2009, the Pakistani government admitted that attacks may
have been partly planned on Pakistani soil
- Relations took a steep downfall

Tension in Kashmir - In 2003, India and Pakistan accused each other of violating the
ceasefire in Kashmir, with Islamabad accusing Indian troops of a
cross-border raid that killed a soldier and India charging that
Pakistani shelling destroyed a home on its side.
- The prime ministers of India and Pakistan meet in New York on
the sidelines of the UN General Assembly agreeing to end
tension between the armies of both sides in disputed Kashmir.

Relations with Afghanistan

American drone - The Durand Line border has been used as the main supply route for
attacks NATO-led forces in Afghanistan as well as by Taliban insurgents
who stage attacks inside Afghanistan.
- The American government decided to rely on drone attacks, which
began to negatively affect the relations of Afghanistan and Pakistan

The capture of the - In 2007, Afghan intelligence captured Muhammad Hanif -the
Taliban spokesman Taliban spokesman- who claimed that the Taliban leader was
being kept in Quetta under the protection of the ISI.
- Pakistan denied the claims but relations worsened

The ISI - The Afghan government began openly accusing Pakistan of

using its ISI spy network in aiding the Taliban and other militants.
- This leads to tensions between the two states, especially after
hearing reports of civilian casualties.

Assassinations - After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many
prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including
Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmad Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad
Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi and Burhanuddin Rabbani

The skirmishes - The skirmishes intensified in 2011 and many large scale attacks
by the Pakistani-based Haqqani network took place across
Afghanistan

The war against terror

Reasons - In response to the events of 9/11

- To eradicate international terrorism
 Pakistan’s - Pakistan provided its airbase to the US to carry out attacks in
involvement Afghanistan

Outcomes - Relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan deteriorated

- Widespread suicidal attacks spread in Pakistan

The nuclear issue

Pakistan’s role in world affairs (1947–1999)

6.1 a) disputes in 1947 and the drift to war: the impact on relations of communal violence in
1947, the influx of refugees into Pakistan, arguments over the split of assets, the dispute over
Kashmir and Jammu, the 1965 war

Communal violence (1947)

Reasons - When the Boundary Award was announced, millions of people found
themselves in the wrong country and became victims of communal attacks
- Hindus saw partition as the disrespect of ‘mother india’
- Hindus expected to remain dominant over india after the British left and
seeing Muslims dominating over Muslim-majority areas was unacceptable
- Hindus and Sikhs organized Muslim-massacre plans

Impacts - Millions of men, women and children died

- Feelings of hostility rose between Hindus and Muslims
- It eventually led to the 1965 war

Influx of refugees into Pakistan

Reasons - When the Boundary Award was announced, millions of people found
themselves in the wrong country and fled.
- Muslim knew that they would become victims of violence if they remained
in india as minorities and their rights would never be recongnized.

Impacts - 10 million people moved from India to Pakistan and in the other direction
 - 20 million people found themselves to be homeless and became victims of
poverty
- Violence and crime spread rapidly
- The Liaquat-Nehru Pact (Minorities Pact) was signed between the prime
ministers of the two countries providing protection the minorities in order to
encourage the minorities to remain where they were and stop the tide of
refugees

Arguments over the splitting of assets

Events - After paying 200 million out of the 750 million promised to Pakistan, india
refused to pay the rest claiming that Pakistan would use it to buy arms to
fight against India which was followed by Gandhi's threat of a hunger strike
which persuaded the government to pay the remaining 500 million
- In 1948, India cut the water supply from all the headworks that it controlled
to hinder the development of Pakistan which remained a problem till 1959
when the Indus Water Treaty was signed guaranteeing a 10-year water
supply.

Impacts - Pakistani government became suspicious of Indian motives

- Relations between the two countries were soured

The dispute over Jammu and Kashmir

Reasons - It has a great strategic importance due to boundaries with Tibet, China,
Afghanistan and Russia
- Pakistan was angered that India retained the largest area of kashmir
- The Muslim-majority wanted to join Pakistan but the Hindu maharaja was
not in favour of this

Events - In september, 1947, the maharaja started a campaign to drive the

Muslims out of Kashmir
- Muslims sent their troops
- As both sides were in no position to fight, there was an agreed ceasefire
in 1949
- In 1954 and 1955, , India tried to integrate Indian-occupied Kashmir into
India
- In 1957, UN declared the area as ‘disputed territory’ and states that its
future would be settled by a vote of the people of Kashmir

Impacts - Protests were provoked from Pakistan

- Till today it has remained a source of tension
- Lack of trust between the two countries
- 1965 war
1965 war

Reasons - Pakistan was inspired by the forcible move of China of going

to war with India over the positioning of the border
- Dispute over sharing of river waters. In 1948 India stopped
water from these rivers.
- Muslim majority being forcibly shipped with India due to the
Hindu maharaja
- Strategic importance of Kashmir
- Unfair division of assets

Events - In August 1965, armed guerrillas were infiltrated into

occupied Kashmir
- Indian troops retaliated by attacking across the border
(Lahore)
- A second attack was launched in the Sialkot sector
- After three weeks of fighting, both sides agreed to a ceasefire

Reasons why Pakistan - Britain and the US placed an embargo on selling weapons to
was unsuccessful both the countries and as Pakistan was entirely dependent
on weapons from the west,it was hit harder.
- India was more determined than Pakistan had realized as
they began a rearmament programme after the war with
China
- India had a larger army
- India was supported by the Soviet Union but China was
unable to support Pakistan

Outcomes - Tashkent agreement was signed

- Decline of Ayub

6.1 b) relations 1971–99: the East Pakistan issue and the 1971 war, improved relations with
India, the Siachen Glacier and the Kargil Conflict

East Pakistan issue and the 1971 war

Reasons - India saw the difficulty of Pakistan caused by civil war as an opportunity

Events - The Indian army attacked East Pakistan in 1971

- The war led to the downfall of Dacca and the subsequent surrender of the
Pakistani forces

Outcomes - 90,000 Pakistani soldiers were taken prisoners

- Yahya Khan was replaced by Bhutto as president
 - The Simla agreement was signed between the two countries according to
which the prisoners were released and it was agreed for the issue of
Kashmir to remain between the two countries

Improved relations with India

Afghan support - In 1977 (during Zia-ul-Haq’s reign), Pakistan began receiving aid
from the US to oppose the Soviet Union policy in Afghanistan
- Zia’s main priority being supporting Afghanis enabled peaceful
relations between India and Pakistan

Zia’s visit to India - Indian army began ‘exercises’ in the Rajasthan desert as a result
of the increased tensions between India and Pakistan caused by
the claim that Pakistan had a role in the Sikh seperalist movement
which caused the assasination of Mrs Gandhi
- In 1987, Zia visited India supposedly to watch a cricket match
between the two countries but was able to ease the tensions
between the two by meeting with Indian leaders including Rajiv
Gandhi.
- The ‘exercise’ was called off

The Siachen Glacier (1981)

Reasons - Pakistan was concerned that India might try to take possession over the
area

Events - Pakistani troops were sent to prevent such an attempt

- 300 Indian troops were already stationed there

Impacts - Till today, the two sides have dug in and refuse to compromise.
- Both sides spend more than USD 500 million annually to prevent
occupation by enemy forces
- Regular fighting costing upto 5000 soldiers' lives

The Kargil Conflict (1999)

Reasons - Infiltration of Pakistani soldiers of the Line of Control

Events - Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the LOC and captured Kargil and Drass
- India launched a counter attack by firing 250,000 shells and rockets
- Two of India’s aircrafts crossed into the Pakistani airspace of which one
was shot down
 - Sharif was persuaded by the US government to withdraw Pakistani forces
from the territory

Outcomes - Heightened tensions between the two nations

- India claimed to have killed 4000-6000 troops
- Decline of Nawaz Sharif
- Martial law by Pervez Musharraf

6.1 c) the impact of nuclear weapons: the nuclear-testing race and its impact on relations, failure
to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, the decision to stop testing in 1998.

Nuclear-testing race

Reasons - Bhutto felt that it was needed for Pakistan’s survival

- India’s nuclear tests in 1974 became a huge cause of concern

Development - Pakistan refused to sign the Non-proliferation Treaty which prevents

programmes the spread of nuclear weapons and technology
- The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was set up
- Engineering Research Laboratories were set up

Events - In 1998, India tested 5 nuclear devices

- A few weeks later Pakistan tested its own devices in the Ras Koh Hills

Impact on - Tensions increased significantly as both rivals were now nuclear

relations powers

Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty

Reasons - Concern in the entire world raised as two great rivals now had nuclear
powers

Events - The UN Secretary-General asked both the countries to sign the

Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty
- India refused to sign it and thus Pakistan refused too

Decision to stop testing in 1998

Reasons - Pressure from the entire globe

- Threat of US sanctions which would have lead to the deterioration
of the economy
 Announcements - Both countries announced in late 1998 that they were to stop testing

6.2 a) the Cold War: Pakistan and the decision to establish relations with the USA rather than
the Soviet Union, Liaquat Ali Khan’s visit to the USA

Pakistan and the decision to establish relations with the USA rather than the Soviet
Union

Reasons - America wanted Pakistan to join an Anti-communist Pact in return for which
they would be given military and economic aid, something Pakistan was in
desperate need of.

Events - USA’s keen interest to establish good relations with India, encouraged the
Soviet Union to invite Liaqat Ali Khan to visit Moscow to gain alliance in the
Cold War
- USA was alarmed and immediately invited Liaqat Ali to visit Washington to
prevent the alliance of Pakistan and the Soviet Union and ensure that
Pakistan allied with the USA in the Cold War
- Liaqat Ali chose to go to the USA

Impacts - Relations between Pakistan and the Soviet Union suffered for some time

Liaquat Ali Khan’s visit to the USA (1950)

The visit - Liaqat Ali Khan visited the USA in 1950

Outcomes - A Pakistani Embassy was established in the USA

- An anti-communist pact was signed in 1954 after which aid from the USA
began to flow into Pakistan
- In 1954, Pakistan and the USA signed the Mutual Defense Assistance
Agreement
- In 1954, Pakistan joined the South East Asia Treaty Organization
- In 1955, Pakistan joined the Central Asia Treaty Organization

6.2 b) varying relations 1950–79: American approval of Pakistan’s alliances, Pakistan’s concern
at American failure to provide support in wars against India, American reaction to military rule
under Zia

American approval of Pakistan’s alliances

 Reasons - Pakistan seeing India being reluctent in taking in the aid by signing
anti-communist alliance with USA took it as an opportunity an d signed
the alliance

Alliance -

Outcomes - As a result aid started flowing in Pakistan.

-

American failure to provide support in Wars against India

Reasons - The Pressler Amendment stated that the USA can aid only those
countries that are not Nuclear power and are not trying to be one.

Wars - During the 1965 war -between India and Pakistan- the USA joined the UK
in an arms embargo on both countries and as Pakistan was almost
entirely supplied by the USA, the embargo damaged it quite a lot.
- During the 1971 civil war, the US didn't help Pakistan against India;
though it did send a fleet to warn India not to attack Pakistan

Pakistan’s -
concern

Ayub and bhutto

Military rule under Zia

Zia comes into - Zia came into power in 1977

power

American concern - Americans did not approve of military regimes and thus didn't
want to form an alliance with Zia

Outcomes - In 1979, the US embassy in Islamabad was burnt down

- The USA accused Zia of complicity in the attack and recalled
many of its senior officials
- All aid programs were cancelled

6.2 c) the Afghan Miracle: impact of the Soviet invasion 1979, impact of Pakistan’s nuclear
programme and issue of terrorism 1980–1993, improved relations under President Clinton
1993–1999.

The Afghan Miracle

 Soviet invasion - In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan
1979 - Pakistan was on the frontline against Communalism

Impact - USA’s attitude to Zia’s government changed overnight

- In return for supporting the Afghan rebels against the Soviet Union,
the USA offered economic and military aid
- In 1981, USA agreed to a $1.6 billion aid package over 5 years loans
at low rates of interest to enable Pakistan to buy modern US
weapons
- It enabled rapid economic development in Pakistan
- Pakistan became a leading military nation in the region
- In 1986, an aid programme provided $4.2 billion worth of military and
economic aid

End of the - In 1988, Afghanistan and the Soviet Union signed an agreement to
miracle end their war
- Pakistan lost its strategic importance to the USA and military aid
dropped dramatically
- It caused serious problems to the government of Benazir Bhutto

Pakistan’s nuclear programme

Events - Due to American concern, in 1980, they tried to get Pakistan to sign the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Benazir Bhutto made a speech saying that the country had no nuclear
weapons but had the right to continue its nuclear programme for defence
purposes
- In 1985, the Pressler Amendment stated that US could only provide aid to a
country if it had no nuclear weapons and was not developing them either
- After the end of the Afghan crisis, President Bush refused to declare that
Pakistan was nuclear-free

Impacts - Aid was blocked to the country

- The sale of 28 F-16 fighter jets which Pakistan had ordered and aid for was
stopped
- Benazir Bhutto’s government’s downfall began
- The relationship between Pakistan and the US deteriorated

Issue of terrorism (1980-93)

Reasons - The number of drug addicts increased from 10,000 to 4 billion

Events - The USA complained that Pakistan was becoming a major centre for illegal
drug distribution and home produced weapons
 - The weapons were falling into the hands of terrorists and being used
against the USA

Impacts - In 1992, the USA declared Pakistan as a state sponser of terrorism

- Economic sanctions were placed on the country

Improved relations under President Clinton (1993-99)

Reasons - President Clinton was keen to restore relations between the two countries
- He believed that the Pressler Act led to unfair treatment

Events - President Clinton agreed to the sales of the F-16s if Pakistan stopped
producing weapon-grade uranium
- In 1995, the Defence Secretary -Willian Perry- visited Pakistan and
declared that the Pressler Act had been a mistake
- In 1996, Benazir Bhutto visited the USA
- In 1996, Hilary Clinton and her daughter visited Pakistan

Impacts - Followed by Benazir Bhutto’s visit The Brown Amendment authorized the
US government to repay Pakistan for the F-16s and provide $388 million in
military equipment
- Relations between the two countries were improved

6.3 a) the Soviet Union: changing relations, Ayub Khan’s visit to Moscow, impact of improved
relations with China on Pakistan-Soviet relations, Bhutto’s visit to Moscow, the impact of the
invasion of Afghanistan

Changing relations

Liaqat Ali Khan - In 1949, due to the indifference of the US, Liaqat Ali accepted
an offer to visit the USSR which was followed by an invitation
to visit the US
- Relations between Pakistan and the USSR deteriorated when
Liaqat chose to visit the USA

Position on Kashmir - By 1950, the Soviets shifted from a neutral position on the
Kashmir issue to a more pro-Indian stance
- In December 1955, the Soviet leaders visited India and openly
declared their support for India and also started a programme
of economic and technical assistance with India

Support for Afghans - The USSR declared their support for Pakhtoonistan

Refusal of aid - In 1956, the Pakistani government refused an offer of

Soviet-aid which included the establishment of a steel mill
American spy plane - In 1960, an American spy plane (U-2) was shot down while
(U-2) flying over the USSR and was found to have taken off from an
airbase in Peshawar
- Although the Pakistani government denied any knowledge of
the plane’s purpose but the Soviets threatened to destroy the
base if any future missions were launched

Oil exploration - In 1961, the USSR agreed to undertake oil exploration in

Pakistan

Indo-Chinese war - As the relations between Pakistan and the USA deteriorated
(1962) due to the provision of aid to India during the Indo-Chinese war
along with the antagonization of the USSR upon India’s
acceptance of aid, relations between Pakistan and the USSR
were improved

Loan - In 1963, the Soviets agreed to give Pakistan a €11 million loan

Ayub Khan’s visit to Moscow (1965)

Aims - Improve relations

- Sign treaties to bring about economic development

Outcomes - Agreements on oil exploration and trade were signed

- A better understanding between the two sides was reached

The Tashkent Conference (1966)

Soviet appeals - During the 1965 war with India, the Soviets appealed to both sides to
stop fighting
- After the war ended, both sides agreed accepted the Soviet offer for
a peace conference to be held at Tashkent
- The Tashkent Conference was held in 1966 and so was the Tashkent
agreement signed

Impacts - Soviet prestige in Asia was raised

- Pakistan-Soviet ties were improved
- The USSR dropped its support for Pakhtoonistan
- Economic assistance to Pakistan increased

Pakistan’s improved relations with China

 Events - Pakistan arranged a China-US agreement in 1971, implying a special
relation between the US, Pakistan and China

Outcomes - USSR and India signed a Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation
with India which guaranteed Soviet help if India went to war with Pakistan
- Relations between the USSR and Pakistan deteriorated

Bhutto’s visit to Moscow (1972)

The visit - In 1972 Bhutto visited the Soviet Union

Outcomes - It was agreed that the Soviets would build a steel mill in Pakistan
- Relations improved

Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

Invasion - The USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979

- Pakistan accepted aid from the US to support the mujahideen rebels

Impact - Relations between Pakistan and the USSR deteriorated

- Later that year, the USSR bombed raids on Pakistan as they disapproved
of the nuclear programme
- Zia -upon visiting the USSR in 1984 for the funeral of andropov- got a cold
reception

6.3 b) Britain and the Commonwealth: Pakistan’s membership issues, the impact of the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan

Britain and the Commonwealth; Pakistan’s membership issues

The - Commonwealth is an organization for all the former British colonies

Commonwealth including the UK.
- In 1972, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto withdrew Pakistan from the
Commonwealth
- Pakistan remained cut off from the Commonwealth from 1972-1988.
- In 1989, Benazir Bhutto rejoined Pakistan in the Commonwealth.

Impact - The Commonwealth has also supported Pakistan with aid including
countries like Australia, New Zealand and Canada.
- Pakistan received substantial aid for the Mangla Dam, Warsak
Project and the development of irrigation and railway system.
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Britain's role - The British government fully supported Pakistan

- Britain defended the decision of the US to resume military aid to
Pakistan

Impact - Margaret thatcher and other British officials visited Pakistan

- British gave £30 million to Pakistan to assist the Afghan refugees
- Relations were greatly improved

6.3 c) China: good relations in the 1960s, trade agreements, support for Pakistan in Kashmir,
loans in 1970s, Karakoram Highway, nuclear cooperation treaty.
Afghanistan: border disputes, attempts by Iskander Mirza, Bhutto and Zia to improve relations,
impact of Soviet invasion, Benazir Bhutto’s support for the Taliban
Bangladesh: the legacy of the 1971 war, the establishment of better relations, the Organisation
of Islamic countries, Bhutto’s visit to Bangladesh, trade agreements and disaster relief
Iran and other Muslim countries: the establishment of good relations, trade deals and the receipt
of aid.

Pakistan’s relations with China

Good relations in the - In 1962, China went to war with India over the border dispute
1960s - USA supported India against Communist China pushing
China and Pakistan into a closer understanding

Trade agreements - A series of trade agreements were signed in the 1960s.

- China granted $600 million interest free loan
- China became the world's largest importer of Pakistani
cotton.
- Pakistan developed the Heavy Mechanical Complex at Texila
and imported industrial machinery.
- Pakistan International Airline started regular flights to China
which resulted in increased business.

Support for Pakistan in - In 1964, China made a statement supporting Pakistan’s

Kashmir policy in Kashmir
- During the 1965 war with India, China supplied military aid to
Pakistan along with diplomatic assistance.

Loans in 1970s - In 1972, Bhutto visited Pakistan and it was agreed that many
of the loans provided by China to Pakistan should become
grants

Karakoram Highway - In 1978, the Karakoram highway was opened

 - It was largely financed by chinese money and built by
chinese engineers
- It resulted in increased trade and tourism between the two
countries

Nuclear cooperation - In 1986, Zia visited China after taking power and the two
treaty countries signed a nuclear cooperation treaty.
- China gave the Chashma Nuclear Power Plant to Pakistan,
constructed near Mianwali and which started operation in
1999.

Pakistan’s relations with Afghanistan

Border disputes - Afghans argued that ‘Pakhtoons’ living in the NWFP

wanted to join Pakistan and form Pakhtoonistan
- Dr Khan Sahib and Abdul Ghaffar Khan (the two powerful
leaders of the NWFP) originally supported the idea of
Pakhtoonistan but changed their aim to achieving
complete regional autonomy for the NWFP
- Jinnah ordered for the old British military posts along the
old border with afghanistan to be taken down (to prevent
giving the impression of forceful loyalty due to military)
hoping that the people of NWFP would naturally feel like a
part of Pakistan
- The Afghan government remained hostile and

Attempts by Iskander - In 1956, Iskander Mirza visited Afghanistan

Mirza to improve relations - The government of Afghanistan was not interested in
formal ties such as alliances

Attempts by Bhutto to - When Bhutto came into power, he emphasized an ‘Islamic’

improve relations foreign policy and relations with Afghanistan began to
improve
- After taking office, Bhutto visited Kabul
- Access to India through Pakistan was granted to the
Afghan traders
- Pakistan made contributions to a fund to deal with an
earthquake in Afghanistan in 1976

Attempts by Zia to - 1n 1977, Zia visited Kabul and soon afterwards the visit
improve relations was returned by the Afghan prime minister (Daud) who
made speeches in Pakistan on improving relations

Impact of Soviet invasion - Pakistan paid a heavy price Afghan and Russian planes
bombed Pakistan’s territories several times.
- Since Pakistan gave shelter to 3 million afghan refugees,
clashes with the local people took place
 - Illegal activities affected Pakistan as well such as drug
trafficking and smuggling of weapons.

Benazir Bhutto’s support - Benazir Bhutto believed that the Taliban was the only
for the Taliban force strong enough to establish stability and allow
Pakistan to trade with the Central Asian Republics
- Her government provided military and financial support
for the Taliban and even sent a small army unit to help
them
- The Taliban came into power and religious
fundamentalism grew in Pakistan leading to islamic
militancy
- In 2007 Bhutto stated that the support offered to the
Taliban was a ‘critical, fatal mistake’ and she also stated
that if she had to do things over, that was a decision she
wouldn't have made

Pakistan’s relations with Bangladesh

The legacy of the - After the establishment of Bangladesh (1971), Bangladesh

1971 war claimed that it had the right to many of the assets of West
Pakistan

The Organisation of - In 1974, Sheikh Mujib was invited to a meeting of the

Islamic countries Organization of Islamic Countries in Lahore
- This was the first time Pakistan recognized Bangladesh as an
independent state
- The two countries agreed to view eachother as Muslim friends
and try to resolve their differences

Bhutto’s visit to - In 1974, Bhutto payed a visit to Bangladesh and the division of
Bangladesh assets was discussed
- Bangladesh asked for over half of the assets Pakistan owned in
1971 and for Pakistan to take all non-Bengalis from
Bangladesh, whether or not they wished to leave
- Bhutto rejected these demands as unreasonable
- However, the two countries agreed on establishing friendly
relations

Trade agreements - Under Khondekar Mushtaq’s rule (the new leader of Bangladesh
after the death of Sheikh Mujib in 1975), the two countries
exchanged ambassadors and reached an agreement to
cooperate on trade, tourism and media
- By 1986, trade goods moving between the countries reached a
value of $40 million

Disaster relief - In 1985 and 1988, Bangladesh was hit by severe weather
- On both occasions, Pakistan was the first country to contribute
Pakistan’s relations with Iran and other Muslim countries

The establishment - The Baghdad Pact contained mostly Muslim-countries

of good relations - The RCD brought Iran Turkey and Pakistan closer together as it
encouraged the countries to develop trade links and help each
other with industrial projects
- Iran and Turkey tried to persuade other countries to send aid to
Pakistan after the 1965 war
- The OIC brought unity amongst many Muslim countries

Trade deals - Libya, Qatar and Saudi Arabia invested heavily to boost
Pakistan’s economy in areas such as shipping and banking
- Pakistan exported its military expertise in Islamic states
- Military agreements were signed with Muslim states in the 1970s

The receipt of aid - Saudi Arabia sent funds to help the Afghan refugees after the
Soviet invasion

Loans - Following the Islamic Summit after the Arab-Israeli war(1973),

Iran gave a $730 million loan to Pakistan; UAE £100 million and
Libya gave $80 million

6.4 a) Pakistan’s role and membership of the United Nations: reasons for UN’s involvement in
Jammu and Kashmir, the Canal Water Dispute, the Indo–Pakistan Wars

Pakistan’s role and membership of the United nations

Membership - Pakistan joined the UN on 30th September 1947

- It participated fully and contributed soldiers to peacekeeping
forces
- It had members elected to the Security Council 3 times

Reasons for UN’s - Its committed towards working for international cooperation to
involvement in maintain peace in the world
Jammu and Kashmir - It works towards establishing respect for human rights and
liberties
- It opposes to illegal occupation of land (e.g Palestinian lands)

Canal Water Dispute - UN played a significant role to resolve the Canal Water
disagreement
- When the President of the World Bank made recommendations
of financial and technical support, the basis of the Indus Water
Treaty were formed and it was signed in 1959
- The World Bank provided finance to help establish
hydro-electricity and soil reclamation programmes
 Indo-Pakistan wars - During the 1965 war, the UN intervened to bring about a
cease-fire and create good relations through the Tashkent
agreement
- Following Bhutto’s plea to the UN during the 1971 war, the UN
considered its role to end the war rather than accept the justice
of Pakistan’s case. This was followed by the quick recognition
of Bangladesh by the UN which became a cause for concern
- The UN’s response to these wars left Pakistan unsatisfied

6.4 b) Pakistan and the wider world: Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) – formerly known as
the Baghdad Pact, SouthEast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), Regional Cooperation for
Development (RCD), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), South East Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).

Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)

Reasons for - Stop Soviet expansion in the Middle East

formation - Foster peace in the Middle East
- Mutual cooperation

What? - It was signed in 1955

- It was formerly known as the Baghdad Pact
- Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Britain and Pakistan were all part of the pact
- It came to be known as the Central Treaty Organization

Dissolution - Despite regular meetings, a structure for troop-raising was never

developed
- Iraq left the pact in 1959
- By 1979, the alliance quietly dissolved

SouthEast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

Reasons for - Prevent communism from gaining ground in SouthEast Asia

formation - To provide the opportunity to appeal to others for military assistance if
an attack was made

What? - In the United States, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the
Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan formed the Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization
- The decision of the foreign minister -Zafarullah Khan- to sign the treaty
was was initially contested by the Pakistani government as it applied to
communist aggression; Pakistan couldnt use it for its wars with India
- In 1955 the government of Pakistan finally agreed to ratify the treaty
 - Pakistan was unsuccessful in pushing for a permanent military force to
be established to protect all member states

Reasons for - Failure to support Pakistan in both its wars with India
Pakistan’s - Failure to support Pakistan in the Bangladesh crisis (1971)
withdrawal

Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD)

Reasons for - Strengthen the socio-economic development of members

formation - Unease with the politico-military aspects of CENTO

What? - In July 1964 the Regional Cooperation for Development was set up by
Iran, Turkey and Pakistan
- RCD could not provide an effective military substitute

Outcomes - In January 1985, Turkey, Iran and Pakistan established a new

organisation called the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

Reasons for - Muslim solidarity

formation - Protecting the Islamic holy sites
- Assisting the Palestinian cause
- Eradicating racial discrimination
- Improving economic cooperation.

What? - In 1969, Pakistan along with 24 Muslim countries formed the

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- They agreed upon the Palastinian Cause being a concern for all Islamic
countries
- The 1973, Arab-Israeli war led to an islamic summit hosted by Pakistan

Outcomes - The summit showed that Pakistan had many friends in the Muslim-world
- Bhutto received aid-offers from many of the wealth countries that
attended the summit
- It kept the Muslim-world united

South East Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Reasons for - Strengthen ties

formation - Improve relationships
- Increase trade
What? - It was founded in 1985
- The first meeting was held in Dacca, Bangladesh
- Its member states are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka
- Special actions were taken to combat drug abuse, increase tourism and
poverty reduction

Problems - After the Uri terrorist attack, India boycotted the summit, alleging
Pakistan's involvement in the attack.
- Later, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Maldives also
pulled out of the summit. culminating in an indefinite postponement of
the summit.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

Reasons for - Avoid the polarized world of the Cold War between Communist and
formation capitalist states
- To ensure national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and
security of non-aligned countries in their struggle against imperialism,
racism and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation or domination

What? - It was established in 1961

- It's a forum of 120 developing world states that are not formally aligned
with or against any major power bloc
- Pakistan has put the Kashmir issue on the NAM agenda
- By 2018,120 countries were a part of the NAM