WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 1

Module # 10 – Component # 3

Biotic Functional Components

Objectives
To gain an understanding of and an introduction to the biotic components of an
ecosystem. This will include different levels of organisation, patterns,
interactions and species differentiation.

Expected Outcomes

? ?To be able to class different organisms on the basis of how they

gain nutrition.

? ?To be able to define and recognise a community and to indicate

different patterns.

? ?To be able to describe and differentiate between several

different animal interactions, and provide examples of them.

? ?To be able to name and define four classes of species.

Introduction
The biotic structural components which comprise the living organisms in the
ecosystem are the plants and animals. Individuals are grouped together with
other members of their species to form a population. Populations are in turn
collectively called communities comprising all the living organisms in the
ecosystem.

Another way in which the biotic components can be structured is based on the
method that the organisms use to obtain their nutrition.

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Producers

These are organisms such as plants that are able to synthesize or

manufacture their own food. This is done by the process of photosynthesis
whereby the sun’s energy is converted into a useable form of chemical energy.
The ability of plants to produce their own food in this way is called
autotropism and hence plants are called autotrophs.

Consumers

Consumers are organisms that are unable to synthesize their own food and
rely on other organisms for their nutrition. Examples include animals that feed
on plants (primary consumers) and animals that feed on the tissues of other
animals (secondary consumers)..

Decomposers

Decomposers are those organisms that are capable of breaking down existing
organic material such as dead wood or dead animal tissue. This is called
heterotrophism and animals are therefore referred to as heterotrophs These
heterotrophic organisms rely on consuming material synthesized by other
organisms for their nutrition. The means whereby decomposers obtain their
food is by absorption. Particles of food may be absorbed through the cell
membranes of bacteria or digested outside the decomposer and then
absorbed into the organism as in the case of saprophytic fungi. Other
examples of decomposers are insects such as termites and certain beetles.

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Communities

A community is a collection of all the plant and animal populations in a given

area and is inclined to have a relatively uniform appearance. An example
could be a vast forest or the community of insects and fungi found inside a
rotting tree stump. These are referred to as major communities and minor
communities respectively. A major community is generally thought of as not
requiring any input from outside the community, apart from solar
radiation. The minor community, on the other hand has to receive inputs,
other than solar radiation, from outside in order to function.

The community is named according to the dominant features found within

the community. For example a community could be named Marula-Combretum
veld. The dominant features of this community are therefore Marula trees and
bushwillows. The dominant features are determined by their abundance
(how many there are), the size of the area they occupy or the biomass (the
amount of living material). In some instances other non-living components
may be included in naming the community. An example would be a Sandveld
community. Obviously the non-dominant members of the community are also
of importance and should not be overlooked, as they play an important role in
the community. Generally the dominant species are only a few species
whilst the non-dominant species make up a greater number of species.

Species diversity

The number of species residing within a specific ecosystem is an important

characteristic of the community. Communities with a greater species diversity
(number of different species) are inclined to be more stable than
communities with a lower species diversity. If a physically controlled
community (such as a desert) is compared with a biologically controlled
community (such as a rainforest) we can see why this is so.

A biologically controlled community is dependent on the living organisms to

play a major role in the community as the species diversity is high. A tropical
forest has a high species diversity and the living organisms control
themselves more actively (for example by competition) than the physical
environment does. A desert is physically controlled by the temperatures and
low rainfall. Therefore the species in the desert need to be better adapted to
their environment to survive.

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Patterns

Patterns are frequently found in almost all communities. Patterns arrange the
members of the community in a specific way. It is the result of interactions
between organisms and their environment. Patterns may take on various
forms.

?? Stratification is the layering of members of the community, as we see

in the savanna areas where the vegetation is found in a herbaceous layer
and an overlaying woody layer.

?? Zonation is also seen, for example, where two different soil types are
found as the substrate of a single community. Plants growing on one soil
type will be different from plants growing on the other.

?? Food webs will influence the structure of communities. Vast herds of

migrating herbivores moving to preferred grazing areas will be followed
by large numbers of predators. As the herbivores move they will induce
the predators to follow suit.

?? Social and reproductive patterns are also seen in communities. An

example is the social arrangement of zebras. A dominant stallion will
defend his harem (permanent group of females and offspring) from other
stallions. Young males will be forcibly ejected from these herds when they
reach sexual maturity to join bachelor herds. These harems will remain as
distinct groupings even if they join other harems as a larger aggregation of
zebras. Other examples of social groupings are schools of fish and
flocks of birds.

?? Activity patterns will also play a role in the arrangement of members

within the community. Some members of the community will be more active
at certain times than others. Predators such as lions and leopards are
more active during the night when they catch their prey species. A species
like giraffe will be inclined to feed mainly during the day and rest at night.
Plants are likely to be most active during the summer months when
temperatures are higher and moisture is not limiting. During the winter
months deciduous trees lose their leaves, thereby changing the pattern of
the community.

The edge of a community is called an Ecotone. It is usually not a distinct

linear region separating two communities, but is a zone where the two
adjoining communities overlap. It is inclined to consist of members of both
communities. The Ecotone therefore may have a greater variety of species
than either community. This increase in species diversity is called the edge
effect.

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Populations

In this component only the interactions between different populations will

be discussed. The effect that the interaction has on the members of a
population will be mentioned. An example illustrating the interaction will be
given. The equally important study of population dynamics will be discussed
in a later module.

There are a number of important terms that describe animal interactions that
are frequently used and mis-used.

Symbiosis

This is defined as two or more species or populations living together for the
benefit of both. Their relationship is, however, compulsory. Neither species
could survive without the other.

An example of this is a ruminant and the bacteria that live inside their body.
Without the environment that the ruminant provides for the bacteria, the
bacteria could not survive. Without the bacteria to digest cellulose for the
ruminant, the ruminant could not survive. The emphasis of this kind of
relationship is on its compulsory nature.

The term symbiosis is also often misused as simply “two or more organisms
living together”. This is strictly incorrect.

Predation

Predation is an interaction between a predator and its prey species. The

predator tends to be larger than the prey species in most cases. This
interaction can also be thought of as a carnivore-herbivore interaction or
even a herbivore-plant interaction. In most cases the interaction is beneficial
to the predator and is detrimental to the prey species.

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Parasitism

Parasitism is similar to predation. One of the populations (the parasite)

benefits from the interaction, whilst the other population (the host) is usually
detrimentally affected. The difference between predation and parasitism,
amongst other things, is that the parasite is always smaller than the host
and the host may not be killed as is the case with the prey in predation.
Examples of parasitism are the interaction between an animal and a tick, a
parasitic plant growing on another plant and you and a mosquito.

An interesting behaviourism exhibited by most ticks, is the fact that should the
animal they are feeding on die, they will soon leave the carcass. This is a
result of the host’s blood becoming cold – apparently unappetising to ticks!

Antibiosis

This unusual interaction occurs where a plant gives off an inhibiting

substance into the soil that prevents other plants growing in its vicinity.
A chemical substance is released from the plant which will inhibit the other
plant. Obviously the plant releasing the inhibitor will benefit, whilst the other
plant will be negatively affected.

Mutualism
This entails the voluntary relationship where both species benefit from the
interaction. An example includes the relationship between oxpeckers and
giraffes. This benefits both parties as the giraffes have external parasites and
loose hair removed and the Oxpeckers receive a food source and nest building
material. Another example is the relationship between buck and baboon.
They both share common predators. The baboon benefits from the antelope’s
acute hearing while the buck benefits from the baboon’s superior vision.
Their mutualism is that they both benefit from a warning that one may give the
other.

This relationship, however, does not need to occur for the survival of
either species.

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Commensalism

In this interaction only one population benefits and the other is not
affected either positively or negatively. Examples include the epiphytic
orchid using a tree for an attachment substrate and birds using trees for a
place to construct nests. This may not be a true example, as the tree may be
disadvantaged by either the added weight of the nest or orchid, or either of
the two may be situated on a growing point (node) of the tree.

One further example may be of an animal such as primate which, while feeding
in a tree, inadvertently knocks food (fruit, berries) to the ground where another
animal eats it. This can only be considered commensal if the primate has
no intention of going to collect what it had dropped.

True commensal relationships are in fact very rare. The following case
however is both true and frequently seen.

The best animal example occurs between buffalo and cattle egrets
(insectivorous birds). The buffalo graze normally and in doing so scatter /
disturb insects from the grass. The egrets spend time following the buffalo
and catching the inadvertently flushed insects. The buffalo remain
completely oblivious to both insects and the egrets.

It is also interesting to note, that the ‘a commensal’, is literally – one who eats
at the same table – and thus the word Commensalism.

Competition
Some degree of competition exists between most species that live close
together. Generally speaking one of the species will benefit from the
interaction whilst the other may be detrimentally affected.

An example is the feeding relationship between bushbuck and nyala. Both

species occupy the same habitat and eat the same resource (leaves). As the
nyala is taller than the bushbuck, the nyala is able to browse more effectively
than the bushbuck as it has a height advantage. This could cause the
numbers of bushbuck to become reduced as they cannot compete with the
nyala.

Another example is the shading effect of one plant on another. A taller plant
will shade the smaller plant, thereby preventing it from receiving sunlight. This
could mean that the smaller plant could die off. In extreme conditions
competition could lead to the loss of one species. These examples
demonstrate the competitive exclusion principle.

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The Competitive Exclusion Principle is defined as follows:

When two or more species compete for the same

LIMITED RESOURCE, one species will outcompete the
other. The outcompeted species will either die out, move
away or continue to exist in association with its competitor
species, but in a stunted form.

Not only does this form the corner stone of a sub–discipline of ecology known
as competition ecology / competition theory, but it also has enormous
relevance for Darwinism and its Natural Selection (Survival of the fittest)
paradigm.

Individuals

An individual is a single member of a population. The characteristics of an

individual are therefore different to those of a population. Here the life cycle
and behaviour of the organism are of greater importance. Sometimes the
words “species” or “organism” are used instead of individual.

Two important concepts need to be understood.

?? The first is the ecological niche or simply niche. This is the specific
location and /or role that the organism plays in the ecosystem.

This could be seen from a couple of points of view. There is the functional
role the organism plays in the community. For example a hyaena plays the
role of a scavenger. There is also the trophic role. The hyaena for example is
considered a secondary consumer as it feeds on other organisms.

The trophic role of an organism is the position it holds in a food chain; that
is, whether it is eaten or eats others. The niche can also be thought of as the
physical, chemical and biological conditions a species requirements, in
order to live and reproduce in an ecosystem. A further perspective is based on
the role the organism plays as a result of the adaptations, physiology and
behaviour it possesses.

?? The second important concept is habitat. The organism’s habitat is the

place where the organism lives. For example a wildebeest’s habitat is
open grasslands while a hippo’s habitat is a river or large dam.

On the ‘individual ‘ level of organisation four main types of species are

recognised.

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?? Native species are those species which are normally found in a particular
habitat, where they thrive and reproduce successfully.

?? Alien species are those species which are not normally found in a
particular habitat. Acacia longifolia (The Australian Black wattle) is an
example of an alien plant species that has invaded South Africa (from
Australia), displacing native species of plants.

?? Indicator species are species which can be used as a warning that

something is amiss in the ecosystem. Frogs are good indicators of water
quality. Therefore as the water quality becomes poorer, the numbers of
frogs will also become reduced. The silver cluster leaf is a tree that
serves as an indicator of where a seep-line begins. See more about seep-
lines in the next module.

?? Keystone species are those species which may affect the future of other
species in the ecosystem. Examples of a keystone species include a
species of wasp that pollinate the flowers of fig trees indigenous to South
Africa. Should all of these wasps die off for any reason, such as the misuse
of pesticides, the fig trees would be without a pollinator and would also
eventually die off.

Species can also be broadly classified as being specialist species or generalist

species.

?? Specialist species are those species which have a narrow niche. An

example could be the sable antelope which requires specific
environmental conditions, such as sufficiently long grass to hide its new-
born calf and suitable grass species for grazing. If these conditions are not
met the sable will be forced to leave the area to find a more suitable habitat
or simply die out.

?? The impala is an example of a generalist species. It can adapt well to

most conditions, as even overgrazed conditions will be suitable. It can feed
on a wide variety of grasses and browses on trees and shrubs.

Ecological Equivalents

These are two species which occupy different geographical regions

naturally, but which have the same or similar niche. Examples of
ecological equivalent species are the impala and the springbok. These two
antelope are found in totally different habitats (under natural conditions) and
both play a similar role in the regions they are found.

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