INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER -1

1.1OVERVIEW

According to the international energy outlook report, the world transportation energy
usage is going to increase by 44% in 2035 (compared to 2008). Therefore, technologies related
to reducing oil consumption have one of the utmost challenges in Today’s vehicle research.
Alternative vehicle technologies to replace conventional vehicles include hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs, and EVs (also known as battery electric vehicles (BEVs)). The
dichotomy between HEVs and EVs/PHEVs is the presence of a charger in the latter group.

It is possible to incorporate more than one operation mode in a charger by allowing the
power to flow bidirectional. Usually, the bidirectional power transfer stands for two-way
transfer of active power between the charger and the grid. The general term of sending active
power from the vehicle to the grid is called V2G. The economic benefits of this operation has
been a research subject for more than a decade because of the large energy reserve of an electric
vehicle battery and the potential of thousands of these connected to the grid . This research
work presents a comprehensive implementation and control of a bidirectional power converter
for vehicle-to-grid integration, based on a bidirectional DC/DC converter followed by a full
bridge DC/AC converter.

One of the major concerns in the power sector is the day-to-day increasing power demand
but the unavailability of enough resources to meet the power demand using the conventional
energy sources. Demand has increased for renewable sources of energy to be utilized along with
conventional systems to meet the energy demand. The demand of electric power is increasing
day by day. This situation has necessitated a review of the traditional power system concepts and
practices to achieve greater operating flexibility and better utilization of existing power systems.
Governments around the world are facing a steadily rising demand on global electric power. To
face this challenge, they are striving to put in place regulatory guidelines to aid the adoption of
best practices by utilities in terms of the renewable energy applications. It provides the
consumers with the ability to monitor and control energy consumption. This is crucial because as

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the world population grows the electricity demand will also increase, but at the same time, we
will need to reduce our electricity consumption to fight “global warming” and the “Energy
crisis”.

The Sun is a direct source of energy. Using renewable energy technologies, we can
convert the solar energy into electricity. Solar powered lighting is a relatively simple concept in
a basic way the system operates like a bank account withdrawal from the battery to power the
light source must be compensated for by commensurate deposits of energy from the solar
panels. As long as the system is designed so deposits exceed withdrawals on an average daily
basis, the battery remains charged and light source is reliably powered. The ever increasing
energy consumption, high cost, limited resource of fossil fuel and the worsening global
environment has created increased interest in green power generation systems. Solar power
generation is the most promising renewable power generation technologies. The growth of
photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems has exceeded the most optimistic levels of
expectations.

1.2RENEWABLE ENERGY TRENDS ACROSS THE GLOBE

The current trend across developed economies tips the scale in favor of Renewable
Energy. For the last three years, the various continents around the globe have embraced more
renewable power capacity as compared to conventional power capacity. Renewable accounted
for 60% of the newly installed power capacity in Europe in 2015 and nearly 20% of the annual
power production.

As can be seen from the above figure, nuclear and hydro occupy a major share of the
current renewable energy consumption. Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic technology
and constant incubation of projects in countries like Germany and Spain have brought around
tremendous growth in the solar PV market as well, which is projected to surpass other renewable
energy sources in the coming years. By 2015, more than 85 countries had some policy target to
achieve a predetermined share of their power capacity through renewable. This was an increase
from around 45 countries in 2008.Most of the targets are also very ambitious, landing in the

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range of 30-90% share of national production through renewable . Noteworthy policies are the
European Union’s target of achieving 20% of total energy through renewable by 2020 and
India’s Jawaharlal Nehru Solar Mission, through which India plans to produce 20GW solar
energy by the year 2022.The infinite, renewable, clean and noiseless nature of the solar energy
makes it one of the most preferred sources of renewable energies which is increasingly finding
application areas in today`s human life.

Fig 1.1 Global Energy Consumption

The Sun is a direct source of energy. Using renewable energy technologies, we can convert the
solar energy into electricity. Solar powered lighting is a relatively simple concept in a basic way
the system operates like a bank account withdrawal from the battery to power the light source
must be compensated for by commensurate deposits of energy from the solar panels. As long as
the system is designed so deposits exceed withdrawals on an average daily basis, the battery
remains charged and light source is reliably powered.

 The sun provides a direct source of energy to the solar Panel.

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 Electronic controls are used between the light source and solar panels to control the
timing and operation of the light.

Single PV cells (also known as “solar cells”) are connected electrically to form PV
modules, which are the building blocks of PV systems. The module is the smallest PV unit that
can be used to generate substantial, amounts of PV power. Although individual PV cells produce
only small, amounts of electricity, PV modules are manufactured with varying electrical outputs
ranging from a few watts to more than 100 watts of direct current (DC) electricity. The modules
can be connected into PV arrays for powering a wide variety of electrical equipment. Two
primary types of PV technologies available commercially are crystalline silicon and thin film. In
crystalline-silicon technologies, individual PV cells are cut from large single crystals or from
ingots of crystalline silicon. In thin film PV technologies, the PV material is deposited on glass
or thin metal that mechanically supports the cell or module. Thin-film-based modules are
produced in sheets that are sized for specified electrical outputs .In addition to PV modules, the
components needed to complete a PV system may include a battery charge controller, batteries,
an inverter or power control unit (for alternating-current loads), safety disconnects and fuses, a
grounding circuit, and wiring.

People select PV systems for a variety of reasons. Some common reasons for selecting a
PV system include

Cost—When the cost is high for extending the utility power line or using, another electricity-
generating system in a remote location, a PV system is often the most cost-effective source of
electricity.

Reliability—PV modules have no moving parts and require little maintenance compared to other
electricity-generating systems.

Modularity—PV systems can be expanded to meet increased power requirements by adding

Environment—PV systems generate electricity without polluting the environment and without
creating noise.

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Ability to combine systems—PV systems can be combined with other types of electric
generators (wind, hydro, and diesel, for example) to charge batteries and provide power on
demands.

Fig 1.2 Solar PV Generation Process

With the increasing demand of energy via greener methods and the gradual depletion of fossil
fuels, solar energy conversion has regained the spotlight of the global energy activities. Our
planet receives 160,000TW solar energy, while the present global energy demand is about
16TW. While the solar resource is virtually unlimited, conversion of solar energy to readily
usable form is too expensive to be commercially successful at present. Furthermore, reliable
solar technology has to be complemented by energy storage system to accommodate the daily
and seasonal variations in the solar radiation. From this perspective, many countries have
formulated their long term solar energy utilization roadmap. For instance, the Japanese roadmap
includes development of solar photovoltaic at competitive price by 2030. Large demonstrative

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projects (~MW) are underway in USA, Australia, and in several European countries. These
projects serve multiple purposes.

 First, the projects tend to reduce the overall cost of the energy technology as large scale
utilization of a particular technology, in general, tends to reduce the cost of that
technology. This has also encouraged the entrepreneurs to invest in solar energy
technologies.
 Second, the projects are serving as test platforms for large scale solar energy utilization
technologies.
 Third, these projects are engaging the academic institutions in long-term solar energy
research, development, and pedagogical activities.
 Fourth, these projects have increased the awareness of green technologies amongst the
public

All such projects and roadmaps are, however, only a part of the country-specific longterm
energy vision, with solar energy aiming to supplement conventional energy technologies. None
of these initiatives, at this stage, claim to replace the existing fossil fuel based systems
immediately.

Being a developing country with a huge burden of fuel import, the need of solar energy
research and development in India cannot be over-emphasized. The geographical location of
India is also quite favorable for solar energy implementation. However, a densely-populated
country like India, with a fragmented electricity market, poses endless challenges to the scientists
and entrepreneurs. The nature of Indian electricity market is quite unique, and cannot be
compared directly with other countries. Unlike USA or Japan, India has numerous villages and
islands unconnected from the main grid, spatial and seasonal variation in agricultural demand,
and cottage- to large-scale industrial sectors. Our country, therefore, requires solar energy
development at different scales such as, small (~W) to large (~MW), grid-connected to islanded,
supplemented with some energy-storage to no-storage capabilities. Also important is the
hybridization of solar energy with other renewable sources. Considering this socio-economic
scenario, the present state of solar energy technology in India stands far from being adequate, but
several initiatives are being planned. On 30th June 2008 the Prime minister of India, Dr.

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Manmohan Singh, announced the National Plan for Climate Change. This includes a National
Solar Mission to “significantly increase the share of solar energy in the total energy resources
while recognizing the need to expand the scope of other renewable and non-fossil options such
as nuclear energy, wind energy, and biomass”. The departments of Science and Technology
(DST) and the ministry for New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) have taken initiatives to
promote formation of networks of premier research institutes to work on solar power generation
related projects. One such scheme is DST’s Pan-IIT Solar Energy Initiative (PSI) with a goal of
delivering a 1MW solar based islanded energy grid in 5yrs. A multi-disciplinary team from four
departments of IIT Kanpur has been participating in this initiative.

To further strengthen the contribution to the National Solar Mission and the PSI, it is felt
that a broader inter disciplinary group can be formed at the institute level aiming to develop short
and long term technology in the area of power electronics component and system design, solar
energy materials, supplementary energy storage and conversion devices. An establishment of
Solar Energy Research Enclave will catalyze the accomplishing of this goal of national
importance, and this is the genesis of this proposal for Solar Energy Research Enclave (SERE).

One of the major concerns in the power sector is the day-to-day increasing power demand
but the unavailability of enough resources to meet the power demand using the conventional
energy sources. Demand has increased for renewable sources of energy to be utilized along with
conventional systems to meet the energy demand. Renewable sources like wind energy and solar
energy are the prime energy sources which are being utilized in this regard. The continuous use
of fossil fuels has caused the fossil fuel deposit to be reduced and has drastically affected the
environment depleting the biosphere and cumulatively adding to global warming.

Solar energy is abundantly available that has made it possible to harvest it and utilize it
properly. Solar energy can be a standalone generating unit or can be a grid connected generating
unit depending on the availability of a grid nearby. Thus it can be used to power rural areas
where the availability of grids is very low. Another advantage of using solar energy is the
portable operation whenever wherever necessary.

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In order to tackle the present energy crisis one has to develop an efficient manner in
which power has to be extracted from the incoming solar radiation. The power conversion
mechanisms have been greatly reduced in size in the past few years. The development in power
electronics and material science has helped engineers to come up very small but powerful
systems to withstand the high power demand. But the disadvantage of these systems is the
increased power density. Trend has set in for the use of multi-input converter units that can
effectively handle the voltage fluctuations. But due to high production cost and the low
efficiency of these systems they can hardly compete in the competitive markets as a prime power
generation source.

The constant increase in the development of the solar cells manufacturing technology
would definitely make the use of these technologies possible on a wider basis than what the
scenario is presently. The use of the newest power control mechanisms called the Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms has led to the increase in the efficiency of operation of
the solar modules and thus is effective in the field of utilization of renewable sources of energy.

Photovoltaics (PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of
solar cells for energy by converting sun energy (sunlight, including sun ultra violet radiation)
directly into electricity. Due to the growing demand for clean sources of energy, the manufacture
of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has expanded dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaic
production has been doubling every 2 years, increasing by an average of 48% each year since
2002, making it the world’s fastest-growing energy technology. At the end of 2008, the
cumulative global PV installations reached 15,200 Megawatts. Roughly 90% of this generating
capacity consists of grid tied electrical systems. Such installations may be ground-mounted (and
sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building,
known as Building Integrated Photovoltaic or BIPV for short. Net metering and financial
incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar generated electricity; have supported solar
PV installations in many countries including Australia, Germany, Israel, Japan, and the United
States.2

1.3 LITERATURE SURVEY

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Electric Vehicles (EVs), represents a new concept in the transports sector around the world.
Consequently, the interest in technologies for EVs has significantly increased in the last years,
resulting in several scientific publications concerning this subject . It is expected that the market
share of EVs will exponentially grow comprising 24% of the light vehicle fleet in 2030,
representing 64% light vehicle sales in this year. In this context, the EVs battery charging
process (Grid-to-Vehicle, G2V) must be regulated to preserve the power quality in the power
grids [1,3,4].

Nevertheless, with the proliferation of EVs a considerable amount of energy will be stored in
their batteries, arising the opportunity of the energy flow in opposite sense (Vehicle-to-Grid,
V2G) [6][7][8]. In the future smart grids, the interactivity with the EVs will be one of the key
technologies, contributing to the power grid autonomous operation [2,5,6].

Nowadays, several projects related with smart grids are under development around the world
[15]. Regarding this new approach, especially in homes equipped with charging points for EVs,
besides the G2V and V2G operation modes the EVs can also operates as voltage source capable
to feed the home loads. This technology begins to be denominated in the literature as Vehicle-to-
Home (V2H). As example of this new approach, Nissan presented the “LEAF-to-Home” system.
is a technology that uses energy from the Nissan Leaf batteries to supply the home loads through
the “EV Power Station” unit [16]. Effectively, smart homes with energy management and
efficiency solutions will be the first step to the smart grid evolution . However, solutions like the
“LEAF-to-Home” only allows deliver the stored energy in the batteries back to the home in the
place where the equipment is installed. In this paper is proposed an on-board battery charger that
enables the V2H operation mode in the place where the EV is parked. This battery charger
allows receive energy from the power grid (G2V), and deliver back to the power grid part of the
stored energy in the batteries (V2G), or provide energy to any load connected to the EV (V2H),
in an isolated island mode [8,10,13].

In this sequence of ideas, the EVs can bring benefits to the home energy management, especially
to feed priority loads during power outages and other emergencies. From the point of view of the
power grid, EVs can bring benefits to ancillary services, compensation of the renewable energy

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sources intermittency (providing both backup, storage and load-shift). This new approaches are
more relevant when looking that private vehicles are parked on average 93-96% of their
lifetime , and most of the vehicles are at home between 8 pm and 7 am . The concept of the on-
board bidirectional charger with V2G and V2H technologies is introduced. When the EV is
connected to the power grid the energy can flow to or from the EV batteries (G2V and V2G). In
the absence of power grid or power outages, the EV can operates as voltages source to feed the
desired loads. The system is not intended for a real-time energy backup, but has an auxiliary
energy storage system. Thus, the transitions between the modes can be seamless [11,12,14].

This paper presents in which the mathematical equation of the PV sell is presented in a
sequential manner. A single diode model is taken in to account and all the mathematical equation
are presented step by step using the matlab/simulink software. A single module having 36
numbers of series cell and single parallel cell with a capacity of 36 watt power is chosen and by
using the software the I-V and P-V curve with different irradiation and temperature will be
plotted[15].

In recent year’s energy, environment and cost problems have delayed the construction of
generation facilities, while the demand for electric power has continued to grow. This situation
has necessitated a review of the traditional power system concepts. Day by day all over the world
the demand of electric power is increasing. To face this challenge, all countries are striving to
adopt utilities in terms of renewable energy applications.

Here the mathematical equation of the PV sell is presented in a sequential manner. A single
diode model is taken in to account and all the mathematical equation are presented step by step
using the matlab/simulink software. A single module having 36 numbers of series cell and single
parallel cell with a capacity of 36 watt power is chosen and by using the software the I-V and P-
V curve with different irradiation and temperature will be plotted.

This paper proposes a solar power assisted battery balancing system .The Solar Balancing mode
charges the battery module with the lowest SOC using the solar power ; When the solar power is
low, the Storage-Balancing mode will be selected to charge the battery module with the lowest
SOC using energy stored in the storage cell.

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1.4 MOTIVATION

 The long-lasting instability in many fossil fuel-producing countries increases the price of
energy and reinforces the need to find alternatives. As a consequence, a paradigm shift
has arisen in the global energy sector, foreseeing a sustainable and environmentally
friendlier development .

 There is not a single solution for the problem of energy in the World, but an increasing
utilization of distributed energy resources (DER), mainly based on renewable energy
sources (RES) allowing the organization of the energy infrastructure in to micro grids,
can give a very important contribution to it. A micro grid is a local grid integrating DER,
energy storage devices and dispersed loads, which may operate in utility grid connected
mode, enhancing the power generation capability, or in islanded mode, allowing a
reduction of the actual stress of the transmission power systems and contributing to the
electrification of remote areas .

 The EVs battery charging process (Grid-to-Vehicle, G2V) must be regulated to preserve
the power quality in the power grids . Nevertheless, with the proliferation of EVs a
considerable amount of energy will be stored in their batteries, arising the opportunity of
the energy flow in opposite sense (Vehicle-to-Grid, V2G) .

 Photovoltaic power control is one of the burning research fields these days. Researchers
are round the clock to develop better solar cell materials and efficient control
mechanisms. The challenge of the project and the new area of study were the motivations
behind the project.

1.5 PROBLEM FORMULATION

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There are a couple of technical problems which must be considered prior to the installation of a
device, such as the topology to be used, location and impedance sizing. These features will
potentially influence the effects of a controller on system voltage, power and frequency as well
as the impact on protection systems. Various problems related to the research work is

 Energy security
 Air pollution
 Greenhouse emission concerns
 Energy storage capability
 Integration with the electrical grid
 Optimization of the assets utilization
 Smoothing the output
 Manageable backup power device
 Variability of RES
 Bidirectional power

1.6 OBJECTIVE

 This research presents a bidirectional power converter topology and the implemented
control strategy, for the integration of the battery of an electric vehicle in a small PV
based micro grid.

 The electric vehicle is called IPB ECO Buggy and it was developed for demonstration
purposes and widespread dissemination of electric vehicles.

 The bidirectional power topology for G2V/V2G integration.

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

This thesis is compiled eight chapters as per the details given below:

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The Chapter 1 highlights the brief introduction, summary of work carried out by various
researchers .The objective of the work is also identified and the outline of the thesis is also given
in this chapter.

The Chapter 2 explains the general theory of solar PV power generation technology.

The Chapter 3 discusses design principle & the general theory of DC-DC converter topology.

The Chapter 4 discusses battery topology and battery balancing logics applicable to the
proposed system.

The Chapter 5 discusses inverter topology and its control logics applicable to the proposed
system.

The Chapter 6 explains the general theory of Bidirectional Battery Charger with Grid-to-
Vehicle, Vehicle-to-Grid. Discusses the basics and steady state power flow analysis in detail and
outlines the control technique used in the simulation of test system.

The Chapter 7 presents the simulations and results for various operating conditions.

The Chapter 8 Conclusions and the scope of further work are presented.

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