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CIE IGCSE Physics Your notes

4.3 Electric Circuits & Electrical Safety

Contents
4.3.1 Circuit Diagrams & Circuit Components
4.3.2 Current in Circuits
4.3.3 EMF & Potential Difference in Circuits
4.3.4 Combined Resistance
4.3.5 Potential Dividers
4.3.6 Electrical Safety

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4.3.1 Circuit Diagrams & Circuit Components

Your notes
Circuit Components
The diagram below shows the circuit symbols that could be used in circuit diagrams
You will be expected to know what each component is and how it behaves in a circuit

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Your notes

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Power supplies
Your notes
Cells, batteries, power supplies and generators all supply current to the circuit
Resistors
Potential dividers, fixed and variable resistors, thermistors and light-dependent resistors (LDRs) are all
used to control current
Meters
Ammeters and voltmeters are used to measure the current and potential difference
Ammeters are always connected in series whilst voltmeters are always connected in parallel
Electromagnetic Components
Magnetising coils, relays and transformers use electromagnetic effects
Relays use a small current in one circuit to switch on a much larger current in another
Transformers 'step up' and 'step down' current and potential difference
Fuses
Protect expensive components from current surges and act as a safety measure against fire
Thermistors
A thermistor is a non-ohmic conductor and a temperature-dependent resistor
The resistance of a thermistor changes depending on its temperature
As the temperature increases the resistance of a thermistor decreases and vice versa

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The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on the temperature of it

Light-dependent Resistors Your notes
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a non-ohmic conductor and sensory resistor
Its resistance automatically changes depending on the light energy falling onto it (illumination)
As the light intensity increases, the resistance of an LDR decreases

Resistance of an LDR depends on the light intensity falling on it

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Diodes
EXTENDED Your notes
In addition to the above, you should be able to recognise and draw the circuit symbol for a diode:

A diode is a component that only allows a current in one direction

(Note: diodes are occasionally drawn with a horizontal line running through the middle of them)

If a diode is connected to an a.c. (alternating current) power supply, it will only allow a current half of the
time
(This is called rectification)

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A diode can be used to rectify an alternating current

Your notes

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4.3.2 Current in Circuits

Your notes
Current in Series Circuits
In a circuit that is a closed-loop, such as a series circuit, the current is the same value at any point
This is because the number of electrons per second that passes through one part of the circuit is
the same number that passes through any other part
This means that all components in a closed-loop have the same current

The current is the same at each point in a closed-loop

The amount of current flowing around a series circuit depends on two things:
The voltage of the power source
The resistance of the components in the circuit
Increasing the voltage of the power source drives more current around the circuit
So, decreasing the voltage of the power source reduces the current
Increasing the number of components in the circuit increases the total resistance
Hence less current flows through the circuit

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Your notes

Current will increase if the voltage of the power supply increases, and decreases if the number of
components increases (because there will be more resistance)

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Current in Parallel Circuits

A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the circuit Your notes

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel

The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
If one component stops working the others will continue to function
In a parallel circuit, the current splits up - some of it going one way and the rest going the other
This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current from the power supply

EXTENDED
At a junction in a parallel circuit (where two or more wires meet) the current is conserved
This means the amount of current flowing into the junction is equal to the amount of current flowing
out of it
This is because charge is conserved

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Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more current in some branches
than in others
The current in each branch will only be identical if the resistance of the components along each Your notes
branch are identical
Current behaves in this way because it is the flow of electrons:
Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or destroyed
This means the total number of electrons (and hence current) going around a circuit must remain
the same
When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will go one way and the rest will go
the other

Current is split at a junction into individual branches

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Worked example
Your notes
In the circuit below, ammeter A0 shows a reading of 10 A, and ammeter A1 shows a reading of 6 A.

What is the reading on ammeter A2?

Step 1: Recall that at a junction, the current is conserved

This means that the total amount of current flowing into a junction is equal to the total amount
flowing out
Step 2: Consider the first junction in the circuit where current splits
The diagram below shows the first junction in the circuit

Step 3: Calculate the missing amount of current

Since 10 A flows in to the junction (the total current from the battery), 10 A must flow out of the
junction
The question says that 6 A flows through ammeter A1 so the remaining current flowing through
ammeter A2 must be:

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10 A − 6 A = 4 A
Therefore, 4 A flows through ammeter A2 Your notes

Exam Tip
The direction of current flow is super important when considering junctions in a circuit.You should
remember that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell / battery. This
will help determine the direction current is flowing 'in' to a junction and which way the current then
flows 'out'.

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4.3.3 EMF & Potential Difference in Circuits

Your notes
Potential Difference in Series Circuits
When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to the sum of their
individual EMFs

The total EMF of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs

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Potential Difference in Series Circuits

EXTENDED Your notes
In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total EMF of
the power supply

In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply

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Potential Difference in Parallel Circuits

EXTENDED Your notes
A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the circuit

The advantages of this kind of circuit are:

The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
If one component stops working the others will continue to function
The potential difference across each component connected in parallel is the same
This is the opposite of the current, which is different in each branch

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel where the potential difference through them is the
same as the total potential difference in the circuit

VTotal = V1 = V2 = V3...

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4.3.4 Combined Resistance

Your notes
Resistors in Series & Parallel
Resistors in Series
When two or more components are connected in series:
The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual resistances

When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal to the sum of
their individual resistances

Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and is less than the
resistance of any of the individual components
If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined resistance will halve

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Your notes

The above resistors will have a combined resistance of 2 Ω − half the value of each resistor

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Determining Resistance in Parallel

Extended Your notes
More generally, to determine the combined resistance of any combination of two resistors, you must
use the equation:

The above equation is not the same as R = R1 + R2 – a common, incorrect simplification that is made

To calculate the resistance:

First find the value of 1/R (by adding 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Next find the value of R by using the reciprocal button on your calculator (labelled either x-1 or 1/x,
depending on your calculator)

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4.3.5 Potential Dividers

Your notes
Variable Potential Dividers
EXTENDED
When two resistors are connected in series, the potential difference across the power source is shared
between them

A potential divider splits the potential difference of a power source between two components

The potential difference across each resistor depends upon its resistance:
The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference than the other one
If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of the potential
difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share

EXTENDED
A potentiometer is a single component that (in its simplest form) consists of a coil of wire with a sliding
contact, midway along it

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Your notes

A potentiometer is a kind of variable resistor

EXTENDED
The sliding contact has the effect of separating the potentiometer into two parts – an upper part and a
lower part – both of which have different resistances

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Your notes

Moving the slider (the arrow in the diagram) changes the resistances (and hence potential differences)
of the upper and lower parts of the potentiometer

If the slider in the above diagram is moved upwards, the resistance of the lower part will increase and so
the potential difference across it will also increase

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Resistors as Potential Dividers

EXTENDED Your notes
When two resistors are connected in series, through Kirchhoff’s Second Law, the potential difference
across the power source is divided between them
Potential dividers are circuits which produce an output voltage as a fraction of its input voltage
Potential dividers have two main purposes:
To provide a variable potential difference
To enable a specific potential difference to be chosen
To split the potential difference of a power source between two or more components
Potential dividers are used widely in volume controls and sensory circuits using LDRs and thermistors
Potential divider circuits are based on the ratio of voltage between components. This is equal to the
ratio of the resistances of the resistors in the diagram below, giving the following equation:
EXTENDED

Potential divider diagram and equation

Where:
R2 is the numerator and the resistance of the resistor over Vout

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R1 is the other resistance in series

Vout is the output potential difference
Vin is the input potential difference Your notes
The potential divider equation can also be written:
R1
V out = V in
R1 + R2
Where this time:
R1 is the numerator and the resistance of the resistor over Vout
R2 is the other resistance in series
Whichever notation you use you will obtain the same answer
The numerator has to be the resistance of the resistor over Vout
EXTENDED
The input voltage Vin is applied to the top and bottom of the series resistors
The output voltage Vout is measured from the centre to the bottom of resistor R2
The potential difference V across each resistor depends upon its resistance R:
The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference than the other one
from V = IR
If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of the potential
difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share
In potential divider circuits, the p.d across a component is proportional to its resistance from V = IR

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Worked example
Your notes
The circuit is designed to light up a lamp when the input voltage exceed a preset value.
It does this by comparing Vout with a fixed reference voltage of 5.3 V.

Vout is equal to 5.3

Calculate the input voltage Vin.

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Exam Tip
Your notes
When thinking about potential dividers, remember that the higher the resistance the more energy it will
take to 'push the current through' and therefore the higher the potential difference.
This means that if a component (often shown as a voltmeter in questions) needs to be switched on by a
change such as increased light or temperature, then the resistor it is in parallel with needs to become
larger compared to the other resistor.

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4.3.6 Electrical Safety

Your notes
Electrical Hazards
Mains electricity is potentially lethal – potential differences as small as 50 volts can pose a serious
hazard to individuals

The risk of electrocution is indicated by hazard signs but other risks which would not be signposted are
listed below

Common hazards include:

Damaged Insulation – If someone touches an exposed piece of wire, they could be subjected to a
lethal shock

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Overheating of cables – Passing too much current through too small a wire (or leaving a long
length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire overheating. This could cause a fire or melt the
insulations, exposing live wires Your notes
Damp conditions – If moisture comes into contact with live wires, the moisture could conduct
electricity either causing a short circuit within a device (which could cause a fire) or posing an
electrocution risk
Excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads, single and multiple sockets when
using a mains supply - If plugs or sockets become overloaded due to plugging in too many
components the heat created can cause fires

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Mains Circuits
Mains Electricity Your notes

Mains electricity is the electricity generated by power stations and transported around the country
through the National Grid
Everyone connects to the mains when plugging in an appliance such as a phone charger or kettle
Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.) supply
In the UK, the domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz and a potential difference of about
230 V
A frequency of 50 Hz means the direction of the current changes back and forth 50 times every
second
Mains electricity, being an alternating current, does not have positive and negative sides to the power
source
The equivalent to positive and negative are called live and neutral and these form either end of the
electrical circuit
Three-pin Plug & Earth Connection

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Your notes

The plug socket and inside of a three-pin plug showing the three wires and their connections. The live
and neutral wires deliver the electricity to the device. The Earth wire is for safety
In order to protect the user or the device, there are several safety features built into domestic appliances,
including:
Double insulation
Earthing
Fuses
Circuit breakers

Insulation & Double Insulation

The conducting part of a wire is usually made of copper or some other metal
If this comes into contact with a person, this poses a risk of electrocution
For this reason, wires are covered with an insulating material, such as rubber

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Your notes

The conducting part of a wire is covered in an insulating material for safety

Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk of them becoming electrified
Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have two layers of insulation:
Insulation around the wires themselves
A non-metallic case that acts as a second layer of insulation
Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire or have been designed so that the earth wire
cannot touch the metal casing
Earthing
Many electrical appliances have metal cases
This poses a potential safety hazard:
If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case would become
electrified and anyone who touched it would risk being electrocuted

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The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk
If this happens: Your notes
The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
It causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live wire
The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe

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Fuses & Trip Switches

A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if the current Your notes
becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)

The circuit symbol for a fuse - take care not to confuse this with a resistor
Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire.
If the current in the wire becomes too large:
The wire heats up and melts
This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
A trip switch, found in the Consumer Box (where the electricity enters the building) does the same job
as a fuse
When the current is too high the switch 'trips' (automatically flicks to the off position)
This stops current flowing in that circuit
Choosing Which Fuse to Use
Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) - in order to select the right fuse for the job,
you need to know how much current an appliance needs
If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the current can be calculated using
the equation:

The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by the appliance,
without being too high - always choose the next size up
Example:

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Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps

A 3 amp use would be too small - the fuse would blow as soon as the appliance was switched on
A 13 amp fuse would be too large - it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass through the appliance Your notes
before it finally blew
A 5 amp fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next size up

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