Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11468-023-02095-2

REVIEW

Surface Plasmon Excitation: Theory, Configurations, and Applications

Muhammad Aftab1 · M. Salim Mansha2 · Tahir Iqbal2 · Muhammad Farooq2

Received: 10 September 2023 / Accepted: 12 October 2023 / Published online: 3 November 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
This review presents the theory, configurations, and various applications of plasmonics in a variety of surface plasmon–based
devices. It describes how light waves travel along the surface where metals and dielectrics meet, revealing the detailed reasons
behind the phenomenon. Here, we have used the well-known Drude optical model, a widely accepted theoretical approach, to figure
out how different materials behave by considering atoms as tiny vibrating dipoles. In this review, we have thoroughly looked at many
aspects, all wrapped up in the concept of complex dielectric functions. We used Maxwell’s equations customized for simple, non-
magnetic materials to derive the above mentioned model, with the goal of helping to better grasp how surface plasmon polaritons
are generated. In this research, we have organized the conditions needed for momentum matching by applying particular boundary
conditions. Along with, we presented different techniques required for the generation of surface plasmon polaritons. We studied
how metal and dielectric materials work together, by making comparisons to different optical devices along the way. Our main
focus on the subject highlights the significant possibilities that this theory and research offers to various plasmonic applications.

Keywords Drude optical model · Metallic interfaces · Surface plasmon polariton · Plasmon excitation methods ·
Momentum matching techniques

Introduction connects a metal to a dielectric material. These waves essen-

tially consist of light waves that become confined to the
Surface plasmon waves have captivated the interest of a boundary as a result of their interaction with the free elec-
diverse community of scientists from various disciplines trons within the conductor. In this interaction, the free elec-
[1]. These waves hold equal allure for biologists, material trons, resonating with the incident light waves, collectively
scientists, and physicists alike. The prime reason of this respond by oscillating at the metal–dielectric interface.
gravity like pull is the feasibility that allow us to design and This resonant interaction between the electromagnetic [1]
characterize the metallic structures of nanometer scale. This field of light (i.e., photons) and the oscillation of surface
has enabled us to tailor many devices for their specific appli- charges (i.e., plasmons) is responsible for the generation of
cations by controlling the properties of surface plasmons surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) and the emergence of
(SPs) [2]. The SP devices, in turn, have been extensively their unique properties. [5]
investigated for their potential applications in biosensing, One of the most captivating aspects of surface plasmons
data storage, optics, solar cells, and many more [3]. (SPs) is their ability to channel and concentrate incoming
Following Ritchie’s pioneering work on plasma losses in light efficiently through sub-wavelength structures. This
the 1950s, SPs were primarily acknowledged and explored phenomenon has the potential to enable the creation of
within the realm of surface science [4]. The SPs are infact miniaturized photonic circuits with dimensions significantly
electromagnetic waves that travel along an interface which smaller than those currently achieved. These circuits initially
convert incoming light into surface plasmons, which can
then be propagated and processed by logic elements, ulti-
* Muhammad Aftab mately being converted back into light. To fabricate such
[email protected]
a circuit, a range of components including switches, wave-
1
Department of Physics, University of the Punjab, guides, and couplers are essential [6].
Lahore 54590, Pakistan In this review, we have given a detailed mathematical
2
Department of Physics, University of Gujrat, Gujrat 50700, insight of the surface science, excitation of surface plasmons
Pakistan

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1702 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

along with different configurations helpful to induce the the penetration increases, which results into an increased
phenomena of momentum matching. Finally, we have pro- amount of dissipation. (iii) At higher values of frequency, i.e.,
vided an extensive discussion of the miscellaneous appli- ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1), the
cations of surface plasmons based devices that are being metals behave as dielectric (i.e., fully transparent) and thus
employed in various sectors of life. allow perfect propagation of incoming light. Albeit this prop-
agation depends upon the electronic structure of the metals
[9] and the level of penetration depends upon the electronic
Light Metal Interaction band structure of the metals. For example, sodium (Na) which
is an alkali metal demonstrates an ultraviolet transparency
An incredible phenomenon is used to be seen at the inter- exhibiting a free-electron-like behavior. On the other hand,
faces when an incoming light interacts with the metals. for noble metals like gold (Au), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and
Many interfaces could be possible where such excitation can aluminum (Al), the transition between the electronic bands
be observed like (i) the metal-dielectric (m-d) interface, (ii) governs the strong absorption [8, 10].
the semiconductor-dielectric (sc-d) interface, (iii) the dielec- The interaction of an electromagnetic radiation with mat-
tric-dielectric (d-d) interface, and (iv) the metal-dielectric- ter results into a partial or whole transfer of its energy into
metal (m-d-m) interface [7]. The m-d interface also known the material. Such type of interaction totally depends upon
as the strong reflector is most widely explored and studied. the nature of the target material. For example, the behavior
Maxwell’s equations are useful to understand the interaction of light is different when it interacts with a metal to that
of electromagnetic (EM) waves with metals. These equa- when it shines on an insulator. This is due to the fields gen-
tions also help to describe the metallic nanostructures of erated by the free electrons inside a metal. To understand
the order of a few nanometers. Interestingly, the optics of this mechanism some optical properties of metals need to
metals falls within the framework of classical theory and be discussed. One crucial component is the medium’s per-
most significant optical properties of metals are strongly mittivity, also referred to as the dielectric constant, which
frequency-dependent [8]. characterizes how matter interacts with an electric field [8].
It is found that metals behave differently at different fre- By definition, “it measures the ability of a substance to store
quencies: e.g., (i) at slightly lower frequency, i.e., up to the an electrical energy in an electric field.” This property of the
visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (as shown in medium depends upon the nature (metal, or non-metal) as
Fig. 1), the metals behave as a reflector and do not permit well as the frequency of the incident light [11]. The electric
the electromagnetic waves (or fields) to tunnel through them. displacement ( D��⃗ ) is another physical quantity “which meas-
This feature or behavior of metals is exploited for the fabri- ures the reaction of the medium to the applied electric field
cation of (a) resonators and (b) waveguides in microwave (E�⃗)”. Mathematically it is given by:
and far-infrared frequency regimes. This is because at lower
frequencies metals allow only miniscule fraction of incom- ��⃗ = 𝜀o E
D �⃗ + P
�⃗ (1)
ing light wave to get through them. (ii) At intermediate fre-
Here 𝜀o is the permittivity of free space (or vacuum) and P
�⃗
quency range, e.g., near infrared (NIR) and visible fraction
is the polarization of the medium. One more physical quantity
of the spectrum, metals start behaving as semi-transparent
which measures the effect of the medium against an applied
medium for the incident electromagnetic wave. Consequently,

Fig. 1  The electromagnetic

spectrum. Area of Interest falls
between 400 nm to 700 nm, i.e.
the visible range. Image Cour-
tesy [Science Summative]

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1703

magnetic field is known as magnetic permeability of free space combination of their real and imaginary components. That
(or vacuum). It is expressed as: is the reason they are termed complex functions. The permit-
tivity is written as:
��⃗ = 1 B
H �⃗ − M
��⃗ (2)
(10)
��
𝜇o 𝜀(𝜔) = 𝜀� (𝜔) + i𝜀 (𝜔)
Here M ��⃗ stands for magnetization of the medium in case of a The real part of permittivity (and also that of the per-
magnetic material. When dealing with non-magnetic material, meability) represents the capability of storing electric and
its value is taken to be zero. When an external electric field is magnetic energies, while the imaginary parts stand for the
imposed on a medium, it induces the alignment of microscopic loss of these energies. In a same manner, the refractive index
dipoles within the material. This electric dipole moment per can be formulated as:
unit volume inside this medium is described by polarization
(P�⃗ ). In case when it is restricted to an isotropic, linear, and ̃
n(𝜔) = n(𝜔) + ik(𝜔) (11)
non-magnetic material, the constitutive relations become: Since we are discussing about a dispersive media, all
these constants and their constituents are functions of angu-
��⃗ = 𝜀o 𝜀r E
D �⃗ (3)
lar frequency (𝜔) . Using Eq. (7), the permittivity can be
separated into its real (𝜀′) and imaginary (𝜀′′) parts as given:
�⃗ = 𝜇o 𝜇r H
B ��⃗ (4)
𝜀� (𝜔) = n2 (𝜔) − k2 (𝜔) (12)
Here 𝜀r is the relative permittivity and 𝜇r is the relative
permeability, usually 𝜇r = 1. Now, the phase velocity is the 𝜀�� (𝜔) = 2n(𝜔).k(𝜔) (13)
velocity of electromagnetic field and it depends upon the per-
mittivity and permeability of the mediums through which it Similarly, the real and imaginary parts of the refractive
propagates [11]. It can be expressed as: index can be described as follows [8]:
1 �
𝜀 (𝜔)
�� �2
c= √ 1 �
� �
(5)
√
2 �
𝜀o 𝜇 o n (𝜔) = 𝜀 (𝜔) + = 𝜀 (𝜔) + 𝜀� 2 (𝜔) + 𝜀� 2 (𝜔)
2n(𝜔) 2
(14)
The refractive index of the medium is essentially a ratio
that quantifies the speed of an electromagnetic field in the 𝜀�� (𝜔)
k(𝜔) = (15)
medium relative to its speed in a vacuum, and this relation- 2n(𝜔)
ship can be stated as follows:
Manifesting once again, the real part of the refractive index
c √ pertains to the portion of the wave that propagates through a
n = = 𝜀r 𝜇 r (6)
v medium, while the imaginary part is associated with the portion
And for an isotropic, linear, and homogenous non-mag- of the wave that gets absorbed within the medium [12].
netic media where 𝜇r = 1, it is:

(7)
√
n = 𝜀r
Drude Model of Optical Properties of Metals
When subjected to an external electric field, the bound
charges within a medium experience slight deviation from The propagation of light through an isotropic, linear, non-
their equilibrium positions, giving rise to a sequence of magnetic, and dispersive media and the optical properties of
dipole moments. This effect generates an electric polariza- metals over a large frequency range are described by plasma
�⃗ ) given by:
tion density ( P model also recognized as the Drude model. This model
depends on the following assumptions [8, 13]:
�⃗ = 𝜒𝜀o E
P �⃗ (8)
(i) The positively charged atomic cores (i.e., nuclei) in
Here 𝜒 is called dielectric susceptibility and measures the a metal are surrounded by an electron gas having
amount of polarization inside that medium. Using Eqs. (3) density (n) and effective mass (m),
and (8) in (1), and simplifying we have: (ii) In the presence of an electromagnetic field, these
𝜀r = 1 + 𝜒 (9) electrons oscillate according to:

The optical properties of metals, including permit- �⃗ = Eo e−i𝜔t

E(t) (16)
tivity, refractive index, and others, are determined by a

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1704 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

(iii) These oscillations are attenuated due to collisions at 2

�⃗ = − ( ne
P �⃗
) E(t) (21)
a characteristic rate (𝛾 = 1∕𝜏 ) where 𝜏 is the average m 𝜔2 + i𝛾𝜔
relaxation time, its typical value at room temperature
is very short of the order of 1­ 0–14 s, corresponding to Now using Eq. (21) into Eq. (1) to find the final value
𝛾 = 100THz. of electric displacement, we get:
(iv) Plasma frequencies and damping factor for some
noble metals for near infrared region (NIR) spectrum ��⃗ = 𝜀o E
�⃗ − ne2 �⃗
D )E (22)
are given in Table 1.
(
m 𝜔 + i𝛾𝜔
2

(v) The electronic gas behaves as plasma and results into

electrical conduction of metals, ( )
(vi) The main features that can be entertained through this ��⃗ = 𝜀o ne2 �⃗
D 1− ( ) E (23)
model are the permittivity, absorption, conductivity, m𝜀o 𝜔2 + i𝛾𝜔
and dispersion of light [12, 14, 15].
Now, the frequency of natural oscillation of the elec-
tronic cloud about their mean position called plasma fre-
The equation governing the motion of these electrons in a quency is defined as:
metal is expressed as follows: √
ne2
𝜕 2 x�⃗(t) 𝜕�x⃗(t)
𝜔p = (24)
m𝜀o
m + m𝛾 �⃗ = −eEo e−i𝜔t
= −eE(t) (17)
𝜕t2 𝜕t
This term will transform the Eq. (23) into following
Here 𝜔 is the angular frequency. If we assume that the
expression:
applied electric field is harmonically time dependent, then
the solution of Eq. (17) is supposed to be: 𝜔2p
( )
��⃗ = 𝜀o 1 −
D �⃗
E (25)
x�⃗(t) = xo e−i𝜔t (18) 𝜔2 + i𝛾𝜔

Using Eq. (18) to solve Eq. (17), we get: Comparison of Eq. (3) with Eq. (25) gives the dielectric
e function of the metals as:
x�⃗(t) = �⃗
) E(t)
(
m 𝜔2 + i𝛾𝜔 (19)
𝜔2p
𝜀(𝜔) = 1 − (26)
The electrons that have been displaced in relation to the 𝜔2 + i𝛾𝜔
atomic nuclei subsequently induce a polarization, which is Now putting 𝛾 = 1∕𝜏 , Eq. (26) becomes:
quantified by the following expression:
𝜔2p 𝜏 2
�⃗ = −ne�x⃗(t)
P (20) 𝜀(𝜔) = 1 − (27)
𝜔2 𝜏 2 + i𝜔𝜏
Here n is the electronic charge density (gas density).
Separating this relation into its real and imaginary
Inserting Eq. (19) into Eq. (20), we get:
components (after rationalizing Eq. 27), we get:

𝜔2p 𝜏 2
Table 1  Plasmonic frequencies (𝜔p ), damping factors (𝛾) and 𝜀� (𝜔) = 1 − (28)
relaxation time (𝜏) of some of the noble metals for Drude optical
1 + 𝜔2 𝜏 2
model [16–18]
Material (metals) Plasma Damping Relaxation 𝜔2p 𝜏
(29)
��

frequency(𝝎p ) factor(𝜸) time(𝝉) 𝜀 (𝜔) =

𝜔(1 + 𝜔2 𝜏 2 )
(1015 Hz) (1012 Hz) (10−15 s)

Silver 2.180 4.353 229.8 Now solving Eq. (27) by focusing on the product 𝜔𝜏
Gold 2.183 6.460 154.8 which leads to some interesting phenomena. Let us solve
Copper 1.914 8.340 119.9 when the product 𝜔𝜏 ≫ 1. The real part of permittivity
Platinum 1.244 16.73 59.77 will dominate over imaginary part i.e., 𝜀� (𝜔) ≫ 𝜀�� (𝜔) and
Aluminum 3.570 19.79 50.53 the damping term i𝜔𝜏 ≈ 0 , consequently, the dielectric
function can be formulated in the following way:

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1705

𝜔2p 3. When the applied frequency is less than the plasma fre-
𝜀(𝜔) = 1 − (30) quency. i.e. 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔p, the solution of Eq. (32) provides:
𝜔2
𝜔p
This can be considered as the dielectric function of an k(𝜔) = i (35)
c
undamped free electron plasma. Now the dispersion rela-
tions are to be determined. Dispersion relation is a relation   This means that the wave purely becomes imaginary
between wave vector k(𝜔) and angular frequency (𝜔) in a and exponentially decays into the medium giving rise to
medium. This is defined as: an evanescent wave. Such evanescent waves pierce into
the medium up to a certain depth called the skin depth
2𝜋 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔√
k(𝜔) = = = n= 𝜀(𝜔) (31) (δ) or the optical skin depth (discussed in Fig. 4) and is
𝜆 v c c
given by:
Inserting the Eq. (30) into Eq. (31) and simplifying, we have:
1
√ 𝛿= (36)
𝜔2p kspp
𝜔 1 (32)
√
k(𝜔) = 1− 2 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔2p
c 𝜔 c   This also means that the skin depth is inversely pro-
portional to the wave vector ( kspp) of the SPPs.
This study can now be further divided into three cases:

1. When the applied frequency surpasses the plasma fre-

quency, i.e. 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔p, the incoming wave generates col- Transverse Electric and Transverse
lective plasma oscillations (i.e., surface plasmons), as Magnetic Waves
shown in Fig. 2(a) and thus Eq. (32) becomes:
Before delving into the derivation of dispersion relations, it is
𝜔 customary to establish clear definitions for transverse electric
k(𝜔) = (33)
c (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) waves [19]. Surface waves
  This means that the oscillation of the incoming elec- are generated when a resonance condition is met, specifically
tromagnetic field is so elevated that the electrons inside when a component of the wave vector (k) of the incident light
metal cannot detect it and thus the medium becomes parallel to the metal surface aligns with the propagation wave
transparent for this radiation, shown as Bulk wave in vector of the electron density oscillations traveling along the
Fig. 2(b). The interface shown in Fig. 2(a) is metal– metal’s surface [20]. This condition is satisfied when the fol-
dielectric interface having 𝜀m and 𝜀d as the relative per- lowing wave vectors are in alignment: (i) component of the
mittivities of each medium respectively. propagation wave vector of electron density oscillations, and
2. When both the frequencies are equal i.e., 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔p, again (ii) wave vector of the oscillations in the electron gas density
Eq. (32) provides: that propagate along the metal’s surface.
When this condition is met, which occurs at specific angles
k(𝜔) ≈ 0 (34) of incident light and wavelengths, photons become coupled
with the oscillations in electron charge density, leading to the
  The corresponding wavelength of propagation
emergence of polaritons. A surface plasmon polariton is a
becomes infinity and the electrons throughout the
propagating transverse magnetic [19] mode characterized by
medium collectively oscillate at the rate of plasma fre-
electric field components both parallel and perpendicular to
quency, shown as a horizontal dotted line (for 𝜀 = 0) in
the direction of propagation. This implies that the incident
Fig. 2 (b) represents this sort of behavior.

Fig. 2  a A schematic illustrat-

ing the oscillations of charge at
the interface between the metal
and dielectric for a transverse
magnetic [19] wave. b The
dispersion plot as a function of
angular frequency ω. The blue
dashed line represents the light
line in air. Bulk wave represents
𝝎 ≫ 𝝎p [18]

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1706 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

light used to stimulate a plasmon wave should possess electric �⃗

��⃗ = 𝜀 𝜕 E
��⃗ × H (42)
field components that are both perpendicular and parallel to ∇
𝜕t
the direction of propagation. This is why p-polarized light, also
known as transverse magnetic [19] polarization, is commonly
��⃗
employed for this purpose [21, 22]. Conversely, s-polarized �⃗ = −𝜇o 𝜕 H
��⃗ × E
∇ (43)
light, often referred to as transverse electric (TE) polarization, 𝜕t
features an electric field component parallel to the interface, Solving Eqs. (37) and (39) using Eq. (41) individually, we get:
and as a result, it does not induce any charge displacement
on the surface. Moreover, this polarization remains consistent k1x
E1y = E
k1y 1x (44)
regardless of the angle of incidence [23]. A schematic diagram
of both of such modes in given in Fig. 3
And,
Surface Plasmon Polariton–Dispersion Relations k2x
E2y = − E
k2y 2x (45)
To derive the dispersion relations of surface plasmon waves,
Maxwell’s equations are solved for an incident electromag- Now solving Eqs. (38) and (40) using Eq. (42) and compar-
netic wave as shown in Fig. 2(a). A transverse magnetic wave ing the x-components, we get:
propagates in the positive x-direction and it does not depend
𝜀1
on z-axis. The electric and magnetic fields for both media can H1z = 𝜔E (46)
be expressed as follows at an interface where y < 0 k1y 1x

�⃗1 = E1x , E1y , 0 exp[i(k1x x − k1y y − 𝜔t)]

E
( )
(37) And,
𝜀2
And H2z = 𝜔E
k2y 2x (47)
��⃗1 = 0, 0, H1z exp[i(k1x x − k1y y − 𝜔t)] (38)
( )
H
The boundary conditions, we need to set are: electric
Likewise, for an interface where y > 0 field along x-axis is uniform: i.e., E1x = E2x and magnetic
field along y-axis is uniform: i.e., H1z = H2z. Applying these
�⃗2 = E2x , E2y , 0 exp[i(k2x x + k2y y − 𝜔t)] (39) boundary conditions on Eqs. (46) and (47), we get after
( )
E
simplification:
And
k1y 𝜀1
��⃗2 = 0, 0, H2z exp[i(k2x x + k2y y − 𝜔t)] = (48)
(40)
( )
H k2y 𝜀2

Maxwell’s equations for “non-magnetic media” are given We can also interpret this equation in terms of relative per-
by [24]: mittivity as:

∇. �⃗ = 0
��⃗ E (41) k1y 𝜀1 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
= = o r1 = r1 (49)
k2y 𝜀2 𝜀o 𝜀r2 𝜀r2

Now the solution of Eq. (43), and comparison of z-com-

ponents gives:
k1x E1y + k1y E1x = 𝜔𝜇o H1z (50)

Inserting Eqs. (45) and (46) into Eq. (50), and then using
equation of continuity (k1x = k2x = kx ) and 𝜀1 = 𝜀o 𝜀r1, we get:
( )2
1 𝜔
2
kx2 + k1y = 𝜔2 𝜀 = 𝜀r1 (51)
c2 r1 c
One can also interpret this equation in a simple form as
Fig. 3  TE and TM modes. Magnetic flux lines appear as continuous follows:
loops. Electric flux lines appear with beginning and end points

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1707

kx2 + k1y
2
= ko2 𝜀r1
𝜔 The real part of this wave vector ( kx′ ) deals with its prop-
∴ko = (52)
c agation whereas the imaginary part (kx′′) governs the internal
Similarly, absorption. This sort of absorption is due to the genera-
tion of electron–hole pairs inside a medium and is named
kx2 + k2y
2
= ko2 𝜀r2 (53) as “ohmic or intrinsic loss.” The amplitude of SPP drops as
per its interaction with the medium whereas its length drops
As 𝜀r1 and 𝜀r2 (the relative permittivities of two consecutive exponentially (1/e) and is named as “propagation length,”
mediums) are unitless, these equations are dimensionally mathematically defined as:
consistent. Now inserting Eq. (49) into Eq. (52), we get: )2
)3∕2 (
𝜀�m + 𝜀d 𝜀�m
(
1 1
(
𝜀r2
)2
𝜀2r2 lspp = �� = (60)
kx2 + k2y
2
= ko2 (54) 2kx ko 𝜀�m 𝜀d 𝜀��m
𝜀r1 𝜀r1
There is another loss mechanism known as the radiative
Subtracting Eq. (54) from Eq. (53), and then taking square energy loss and is caused by the scattering of SPP to light
root of both sides, we get: and contributes when SPPs starts travelling. We will denote
√
𝜀r1 𝜀r2 the real part of the wave vector as kx rather than other nota-
kx = ko (55) tions, for the sake of simplicity. Now, the components of the
𝜀r1 + 𝜀r2
wave vector along y-axis can also be obtained in a similar
Here 𝜀r1 is the relative permittivity of the metal and 𝜀r2 is the manner and are given by:
relative permittivity of the dielectric. For simplicity, one can √
write these as: 𝜀r1 = 𝜀m and 𝜀r2 = 𝜀d . Another point needs 𝜀2m
ky1 = ko (61)
to discuss here is that since 𝜀m is frequency-dependent thus 𝜀 m + 𝜀d
kx will also be frequency-dependent. Thus, Eq. (55) takes a
final form as desired: √
𝜀2d
√
𝜀m 𝜀 d ky2 = ko (62)
kx = ko (56) 𝜀 m + 𝜀d
𝜀m + 𝜀d
Remarkably, the interaction between the electric field of
This is a well-known propagation relation which describes light and the oscillating electrons leads to an amplified elec-
the wave vector of surface plasmon polariton. We can also tric field that governs the behavior of surface plasmon polar-
rewrite the above equation in terms of SPP as follows: itons (SPPs). This enhanced electric fields decays in both
√
𝜀m 𝜀d medium connected at the interface in an exponential man-
kspp = ko (57) ner. Although this decay is quick for metals (blue region) as
𝜀m + 𝜀d
compared to the dielectrics (green region), as shown in right
This is obvious from this equation that kspp > ko i.e., the side of the Fig. 4. Indeed, this phenomenon occurs because
wave vector of a surface plasmon polariton always exceeds free electrons in metals align themselves more effectively to
the wave vector associated with ordinary light (the light counteract the externally applied electric field, surpassing
line). Now since we know that the permittivity of a metal is the response of dielectric materials. Due to this phenom-
a sum of its real and imaginary parts: 𝜀m = 𝜀�m + i𝜀��m and if enon, the decay length of evanescent wave in metals (repre-
the imaginary part of the permittivity is greater than its real sented by 𝛿m ) is less than the decay length in dielectrics (𝛿d )
part. In that case, the real and imaginary components of the depicted again in Fig. 4. The decay length in both medium
surface plasmon polariton (SPP) wave vector are defined as can be approximated by:
follows [22, 24]: √
1 1 𝜀 m + 𝜀d
√ 𝛿m = = (63)
𝜀�m 𝜀d ky1 ko 𝜀2m
kx� = ko (58)
𝜀�m + 𝜀d
√
1 1 𝜀 m + 𝜀d
)3∕2 𝛿d = = (64)
�
ky2 ko 𝜀2d
( ��
�� 𝜀m 𝜀d 𝜀m
kx = ko (59)
𝜀�m + 𝜀d ( � )2
2 𝜀m

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1708 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

Conversely, as the angular frequency approaches zero, the

wave vector of surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) converges
toward the wave vector of dielectrics. This behavior arises from
the periodic motion of electrons and ions traversing multiple
crystal planes. In this region, the wave propagates in proximity
to the light line within the dielectric, exhibiting linear dispersion.
Between these two extremes, there exists a hybrid mode known
as a surface plasmon polariton (SPP). The conclusion drawn
Fig. 4  A schematic representation illustrating the transverse magnetic from Fig. 5 is that a surface plasmon polariton (SPP) possesses
nature of a surface plasmon polariton (SPP) and the corresponding a greater momentum than the light line at the same frequency.
oscillations in charge density at the metal–dielectric interface [19]. Under typical circumstances, this discrepancy in momentum is
The blue and green colors in the illustration symbolize the extent of
penetration of the electromagnetic evanescent wave inside the metal
why ordinary light does not readily couple with plasmons to
and dielectric, respectively. [9] generate surface plasmon polaritons. Consequently, in order to
successfully couple light and surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs),
a specialized momentum matching technique is indispensable.
Since the signs of 𝜀m and 𝜀d are opposite so is the
case with ky1 and ky2 and consequently for 𝛿m and 𝛿d .
It is expressed in Fig. 5 that as 𝜔 approaches to zero
kspp → k = 𝜔∕c, whereas when 𝜔 approaches 𝜔spp, kspp → ∞ Methods to Excite Surface Plasmons
asymptotically. This specific region is of particular interest
to us because it signifies the plasmonic nature of surface As shown in Fig. 5, the dispersion curve of surface plasmon
plasmon polaritons (SPPs), making it highly conducive for (SPs) consistently falls below the light line in free space within
plasmon excitation. A substantial density of surface plas- the dielectric, resulting in a scenario where kssp > ko. In essence,
mon modes can be triggered when light impinges over a this implies that direct excitation of surface plasmon polaritons
wide range of incident angles within the plasma frequency (SPPs) using a light beam is not achievable without the applica-
range. Furthermore, within this range, the group velocity of tion of specific techniques that ensure the fulfillment of phase
surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) reaches zero because of matching conditions. Now some of the most crucial techniques
the synchronized vibration of all conduction electrons and employed to excite surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) are [25]:
heavy ions in adjacent crystal planes.
the grating coupling,
the near-field excitation and,
by using the highly focused optical beams
the prism coupling (further divided into Kretschmann and
Otto configuration) [8] etc.

Each of these excitations has its own merits and demerits.

Here, only two of these techniques which are very significant
are elaborated. These two plasmon excitation schemes are also
referred to as attenuated total internal reflection (ATR). These
techniques entail the coupling of surface plasmons with the eva-
nescent electromagnetic field generated as a result of the total
internal reflection of a light beam at the surface of an optically
dense medium [25]. This type of coupling can give rise to a couple
of distinct geometries, namely, the Kretschmann configuration
(simple and double layer), and the Otto configuration. A bunch
of different techniques used to generate SPPs is given in Fig. 6

Kretschmann Configuration
Fig. 5  Behavior of light for different range of frequencies [6]. Here k1
represents the wave-vector for incoming light; k2 represents the wave
In the Kretschmann configuration, the metallic film
vector of SPP at the same frequency. Additional momentum that is
equivalent to 𝚫kx and is found by this grating coupling to match with (usually Au of about 50 nm) is layered over a glass
kspp . prism with refractive index (n) and permittivity (𝜀) ,

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1709

Fig. 6  SPP excitation configurations: a Kretschmann geometry, b two-layer Kretschmann geometry, c Otto geometry, d excitation with a metal
tip, e diffraction on a grating, f diffraction on surface features

shown in Fig. 7. In this configuration, a thin metal- of transmission spectra at varying angles of incidence. The
lic film is illuminated through a prism at an incident change in the intensity of reflected light is plotted against
angle that exceeds the critical angle ( 𝜃c ) of total inter- these angles of incidence to observe any variation in the
nal reflection. In an optically dense medium, the wave refractive index of the analyte. Under such a resonant con-
vector of light becomes greater. At a specific angle of dition, sharp resonance dips emerge in the reflection and
incidence, denoted as 𝜃i , the in-plane component of the transmission spectra of the signal from the prism interface
photon’s wave vector within the prism aligns with the when light couples with the surface plasmons. The cou-
wave vector of the surface plasmon at the metal–dielec- pling efficiency can be maximized, but as the thickness
tric interface. This phenomenon leads to the tunneling of the metallic film increases, the efficiency of exciting
of resonant light through the metal film, enabling the surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) through this technique
coupling of light with the surface plasmon giving rise decreases. This is attributed to the increase in the tun-
to surface plasmon polaritons [26]. neling distance.
√
kspp = nk = ko 𝜀sin𝜃i (65)

Here in this equation, kspp is the wave-vector of the sur-

face plasmon polariton, n is the refractive index of the mate-
rial, k is the wave-vector of the incident light and 𝜃i is the
incident angle of imposing wave.
In such configurations (Fig. 7), an incident light,
typically generated by a laser or LED source, is directed
through a convex lens to achieve p-polarization before
illuminating the metal–dielectric interface at a speci-
fied incidence angle ( 𝜃i ). A gold film, primarily 50 nm
in thickness, is deposited onto the prism to enable analyte
detection within the approximate 500 nm detection range.
After momentum matching of incoming light with sur-
face plasmons, an evanescent wave is produced with expo-
nential decay in both the respective media. A detector is Fig. 7  Experimental settings to visualize the resonance condition of
employed to capture the reflected light for the observation Kretschmann configuration [27, 28]

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1710 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

onto a glass substrate. This additional layer enhances the

momentum of the incident electromagnetic wave, leading
to the excitation of surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs). In
this technique, an electromagnetic wave is directed onto a
periodically structured surface, as illustrated in Fig. 9. As a
result of the interaction between this electromagnetic wave
and the metallic surface at the interface, two distinct modes
emerge: (i) the forward–backward diffraction modes that
propagate away from the metal–dielectric interface, (ii) the
evanescent modes that exist right at the edge of the interface.
Later modes then couple with the SPs at the interface to
generate to SPPs, as shown by green and blue exponential
regions in Fig. 4. The excitation is possible only when both
wave vectors i.e. k1 and k2 match (referred to Fig. 5) and that
Fig. 8  Otto configuration, a plasmon excitation technique. Here, L is found after getting extra momentum (Δkx ). This mecha-
stands for the Lamp (or laser light), D for detector, M is the metal and
right arrow shows the direction of surface plasmon wave (also called nism is explained in by using Bragg’s law:
surface plasmon polariton SPP)
m𝜆o
sin𝜃m − sin𝜃i = ± (66)
Λ
Otto Configuration where 𝜃i and 𝜃m are the angles of incidence and diffraction,
m is the order of diffraction,𝜆o is the incident wavelength,
For thicker metallic films, where Kretschmann configura-
and Λ is the periodicity of the structure. After multiplying ko
tion cannot be applied, Otto configuration can excite SPPs
on both sides, this equation can also be written as:
(as shown in Fig. 8). In this configuration a prism and
metallic film are separated by a thin air film (air gap). The m𝜆
ko sin𝜃m − sin𝜃i = ±ko o (67)
( )
tunneling of light occurs through this “air-gap” between Λ
prism and metal. The working conditions applied here are
the same as that in the Kretschmann configuration. Such 2𝜋 m𝜆o 2𝜋
(68)
( )
type of configuration is preferred when the direct contact ko sin𝜃m − sin𝜃i = ± = ±m = ±mkg
𝜆o Λ Λ
with metallic film is undesirable, for example while study-
ing the surface quality. Here kg = 2𝜋Λ
is the wave-vector of free space. In case of
1D (one-dimensional) periodic grating, the resonance condi-
tion for surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) is elucidated by
Grating Coupling rewriting Eq. (68) as follows:

The grating coupling is an alternative technique for the

ko sin𝜃m = ko sin𝜃i ± mkg (69)
excitation of SPPs. This technique is comparatively more
efficient and effective than the ones discussed earlier. In this kx = kspp = ko sin𝜃i ± mkg (70)
method, a metallic film with surface roughness is deposited

Fig. 9  Schematic of the grating

coupling technique to excite
SPPs at the surface of 1D
plasmonic grating. Blue vertical
arrows show the reflection,
green arrows to incident, and
red one to transmission at the
metal–dielectric interface

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1711

Here ko sin𝜃m = kx = kspp . This equation offers insights Applications of Plasmonic Material
into the angle of incidence (𝜃i ) and the resonant wavelength
for a specific periodicity ( Λ ) of the structure. This method There is a huge possibility and feasibility of the applications
serves as an efficient coupling technique for excitation of of surface plasmonics in different major areas of practical
surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) at the metal–dielectric sciences like biophysics, physical chemistry, and solid-state
interface. For an incoming EM wave and at a fixed perio- physics. Surface plasmon resonance-based tools, gadgets,
dicity, the coupling efficiency relies on the film thickness devices, and state-of-the-art instruments have wide applica-
( t) and the slit-with ( w ) in nanometers. Such a coupling tions in almost all sectors of life. These include biomedical
schemes are the basic configurations on which numerous and healthcare, pharmaceuticals, material science, and nano-
research papers are based and are utilized to design a one- technology, in environmental monitoring and food and bev-
dimensional plasmonic grating as a refractive index gas and erage industry, chemical analysis, and optics and photonics
liquid sensors to study different analytes [26, 25]. After devices, etc. (A map of such applications is given in Fig. 10).
miniaturization, Eq. (70) by keeping different polarizations
in mind can be written as follows:
Plasmonics in Biomedical and Healthcare
(71)
√
kspp = ko 𝜀d sin𝜃i 𝛿q ± mkg

In this equation; 𝛿q = 1 for p-polarized and 0 for In biosensing technology, surface plasmon–based nanostruc-
s-polarized light. This method provides information tures are being extensively used as biosensors for the detec-
about the resonant wavelength and the incident angle for tion of biomolecular interactions, such as antigen–antibody
a fixed periodicity in the grating structure. Then m is binding, DNA hybridization, and protein–protein interac-
the order of diffraction [29]. A detailed schematic fig- tions [40, 41]. Such devices can serve as ultra-responsive
ure diagram illustrating the grating coupling technique sensors, by revealing even a minute change in their own
is presented in Fig. 9. In simulations and various related electronic structure, density, temperature, or geometry, and
works on plasmonic devices, different computational even that of their surroundings, through the energies and
software, such as COMSOL Multiphysics, is frequently widths of their plasmonic resonance peaks [42, 43]. This
employed for the application of the grating coupling property of plasmonic materials can be used for biosensing
techniques. This approach is also utilized in the design as well, and the initial commercial applications of plasmon-
of numerous operational models for various projects, ics include the pregnancy strip used to sense the elevated
enabling the optimization of various physical parameters concentration of human chorionic gonadotropin hormone
involved in the study, thereby conserving valuable time [44]. In addition to this, noble metal nanoparticles have been
and resources. A comprehensive list of various plasmonic widely employed as plasmonic components to augment their
devices, emphasizing their distinct characteristics, is pro- biosensing capabilities, capitalizing on their optical and
vided below in Table 2. electrical characteristics. Now, as these nano-sensors are

Table 2  Salient performing features of plasmonic sensors based on Kretschmann configuration

Sensing film (metal) Refractive index range Wavelength range (nm) Refractive index sensi- Structure (nature) Ref
Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) etc tivity (RIS)

1D Au grating 1.333–1.385 400–700 668 nm ­RIU−1 Nanostructured [25]

Au, Ag 1.33–1.34 400–800 100–300 deg ­RIU−1 Typical sensor [30]
Au Up to 1.35 500–1000 7500 nm ­RIU−1 Typical sensor [31]
Ag, Au layer 1.33–1.34 632.8 7.85 × ­10−6 RIU Over layer [32]
Au nanorod Up to 1.33 1200–1300 30,000 nm ­RIU−1 Nanostructured [33]
Au, SI and Z­ rO2 1.325–1.335 632.8 50–230 deg ­RIU−1 Over layer [34]
Metal-dielectric grating 1.33–1.36 633 120 deg ­RIU−1 Nanostructured [35]
Dielectric over layer 1.33–1.34 550–1150 5 µg/mL Multichannel [36]
Silver (Ag), low index prism 1.328–1.332 1310 500 deg ­RIU−1 Typical sensor [37]
Au nano cylindrical array 1.330–1.335 632 10−7 ­RIU−1 Nanostructured [38]
Angle Polished Prism 1.444–1.450 500–900 2710 nm ­RIU−1 Multichannel [39]

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1712 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

Fig. 10  State of the art applications of Plasmonics in different departments of daily life and bioengineering. Image courtesy Ref. [2]

integrated with flexible features, they open up possibilities biosensors and (ii) electric biosensors. Numerous “in vivo”
for the development of a wide range of healthcare devices, and “in vitro” applications of such gadgets are given in
including body temperature trackers, blood glucose moni- Fig. 11. Here, “in vivo” means research conducted on a liv-
tors, and wrist pulse tracers, impacting various aspects of ing organism, while “in vitro” refers to research performed
daily life [45, 46]. in a scientific research center on a laboratory dish or test
In drug discovery, plasmonic biosensors aid in study- tube. Medical researchers use both of these methods when
ing binding kinetics and affinity between drug candidates developing drugs or studying diseases.
and their targets, enabling efficient drug development
[47]. While in medical diagnostics, SPR-based arrays are
employed for the detection of diseases, including cancer Plasmonics in Data Storage Devices
markers, pathogens, and allergens [48], shown in Fig. 10. and Display Technology
For pharmacokinetics, they are used to monitoring drug lev-
els in blood and tissues to optimize dosing and reduce side Another domain where plasmons play a facilitating role is in the
effects [49, 50]. Furthermore, researchers have developed field of data storage [2]. As an illustration, the intense near fields
solution-phase plasmonic sensors for the real-time, label- generated by plasmonic particles find application in heat-assisted
free detection of protein binding. [51, 52]. The localized magnetic recording (HAMR), a technology used for achiev-
surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) sensors, renowned as ing exceptionally high data densities in magnetic data storage
flexible plasmonic biosensors, have multiple applications in [54]. HAMR operates by locally heating a single memory bit,
our daily life. LSPR biosensors are of two types: (i) optical which typically has dimensions of 30 nm [55]. By incorporating

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1713

Fig. 11  Plasmonic biosensors as

biomedical and healthcare tools.
Image courtesy Ref. [53]

plasmonic nanoparticles onto a magnetic write head, it becomes surpassing over 1 Tb/in2 (terabytes per square inch) limit associ-
feasible to target an individual memory bit using photo-ther- ated with conventional magnetic recording methods [56]. A map
mal effects, thereby enabling data writing with areal densities of other relating applications is given in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12  Temperature‐related concepts and applications of metal nanostructures. Image Courtesy Ref. [57]

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1714 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

Plasmonics has also enhanced the direct storage of infor- shapes. The small insets in the lower left and lower right
mation in photons [58]. While compact discs (CDs) store corners show the concepts of surface-plasmon resonances in
information in two-dimensional (2D) space using light-sen- a metal nanosphere and a metal nanorod. These resonances
sitive glass, plasmons have been employed to store optical happen when the cloud of electrons in the metal moves in
bits in five-dimensional space, encompassing three spatial response to an electromagnetic wave. The arrow represents
dimensions, one dimension of wavelength, and an additional the direction of the electric field [64]. The part (b) depicts the
dimension of polarization [59]. enhanced interactions between light and matter due to sur-
In prototype demonstrations, plasmonic optical recording face-plasmon resonances in metallic nanoparticles (MNPs).
was accomplished by altering the shape of metallic nano- The part (c) represents the storage of optical data in multiple
sphere and metallic nanorods of gold suspended within a dimensions by using gold nanoparticles, which were obtained
dielectric host material in response to light [60], as shown using three different wavelengths (λ1, λ2, λ3) and polarizations
in Fig. 13. When exposed to a sufficient amount of opti- (shown with white arrows). By utilizing the right polariza-
cal power, the rods undergo heating and alter their shape tion and wavelength, we can read the distinct patterns. The
[61]. This change in shape change their absorbance level part (d) corresponds to the improved resolution of micros-
with respect to wavelength and serves as a means of storing copy when observing gold nanoparticles by using the satu-
information in a nonvolatile fashion and can be read using rable scattering effect. The green arrow shows two particles
low-intensity light, similar to the way conventional CDs that are approximately 100 nm apart. In the regular scatter-
operate [62]. The method of data storage is more efficient ing image at the top, we cannot distinguish the two particles,
and versatile and novel. but in the super-resolution image obtained with saturation at
The part (a) of Fig. 13 shows the surface-plasmon reso- the bottom, the two nanoparticles are clearly separated and
nances and absorption spectra of metal particles of various visible. However, when it comes to particle clusters (pointed

Fig. 13  Metallic nanomaterials for optical data storage. Image Courtesy Ref. [63]

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1715

Moreover, the development of tunable plasmonic color

filters, with dimensions in the range of a few hundred nanom-
eters, offers the potential for high-resolution displays and
hyperspectral imaging. Beyond two dimensions, holography
stands out as an emerging technology for three-dimensional
(3D) displays [68]. Recently, plasmonic metasurfaces, formed
using arrays of gold nanorods, have been employed to gener-
ate holograms with expansive fields of view and high pixel
density [69]. Each individual pixel was constructed using a
single nanorod measuring 150 nm in length and 75 nm in
width, with the holographic data encoded based on the orien-
tation of this nanorod [70], as shown in Fig. 14. A 3D image
(measuring 330 μm × 232 μm × 48.2 μm) was generated over
a wide range of wavelengths by harnessing the phase interfer-
Fig. 14  Three-dimensional optical holography using a plasmonic
metasurface ence of an incident circularly polarized beam [71]. While this
nanorod holographic display is passive in nature, ongoing
research is actively exploring reconfigurable holograms [72].
out by the white arrows), the intensity is significantly reduced A detailed summary of the standard parameters for optical
when using saturation compared to when it is not used [65]. data storage in inorganic nano-materials is given in Table 3.
Plasmonics has the potential to bring about a revolution
in both mobile and static display technologies [66]. As illus-
trated in Fig. 14, resonant plasmonic hole arrays have been Plasmonics in Solar Energy and Solar Cells
incorporated into 2D complementary metal oxide semicon-
ductor (CMOS) image sensors. This integration holds the In solar energy cells, the surface plasmon–based materials
promise of reduced fabrication complexity and cost when can enhance light absorption in solar cells, increasing their
compared to traditional dye-filter technologies, such as liq- effective efficiency. They are also used in the development
uid crystal displays (LCDs) [67], as shown in Fig. 14. of resourceful catalysts and sensors for fuel cells [73].

Table 3  A summary of the benchmark parameters for optical data storage in inorganic nanomaterials
Inorganic Optical data Capacity (GB per Speed Mbit/s Repeatability Backward Thermal Power Ref
nanomaterial storage technique disc) Compatibility stability (K)

Semiconductor Photoisomeriza- 10 0.33 × ­10−4 Yes Yes 12 (write) [88]

quantum dots tion (write) 0.2 × ­10−6
(read)
Photo-induced 540 1 × ­10−4 (write) No Yes 600–1200 40 (write) [89]
chemical (melting 4 (read)
changes temperature
for 1.5–4 nm
quantum dots)
Rare Earth– Spectral hole- 20 20 (write and Yes No 4 (working 1 (write) [90]
doped burning (in read) temperature) 1.4 (read)
nanocrystals bulk crystal)
Lifetime multi- 0.0075 to 1.00 No Yes [91]
plexing
Graphene and Photoreduction 290 1 × ­10−4 (write) No Yes 473 (reduction 5 (write) [92]
graphene oxide temperature
of graphene
oxide)
Metallic nanopar- Photothermal 1600 100 (write) No Yes 373–523 60 (write) 0.1 [93]
ticles reshaping (reshaping (read)
tempera-
ture of gold
nanorods)

GB gigabytes, Mbit/s megabits per second, K kelvin, mW milliwatt

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1716 Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719

Scientists have applied these methods to enhance the

efficiency of thin-film solar cells made of silicon, organic
materials, and dye-sensitized materials [75]. This helps these
cells capture more light in their thin active layer and boosts
the short-circuit current they can generate [76]. As an exam-
ple, using plasmonic techniques can allow for a significant
30-fold reduction in the thickness of silicon wafers used in
solar cells, all while retaining 85% of the initial efficiency
[77]. Furthermore, plasmonic materials can also play a role
in developing advanced electrodes for the future, replacing
the conventional transparent conducting oxides [78].
Fig. 15  A schematic illustration of plasmonic solar cell Researchers have discovered that silver nanowires, which
are created through solution processing, can come together
to create connected networks. This happens because of a
Using plasmonic techniques to focus and redirect, the process called light-induced plasmonic nano-welding, where
light has the potential to make thin-film solar panels work localized fields focus the light and generate heat, causing
better. A simple illustration of the working of a plasmonic the nanowires to fuse and connect [79]. To make these elec-
solar cell is given in Fig. 15. In the past, these panels trodes, you only need a regular tungsten-halogen lamp that
did not capture light very well in their active layer, but emits white light with a power of 30 W/cm2. This elimi-
this method can change that [74]. There are three main nates the need for energy-intensive high-temperature baking,
shapes that researchers have suggested for adding plas- which is typically necessary for the entire system [80].
monic structures: One way is to place tiny structures on
the top surface that scatter light in a way that guides it into
the solar cell. Another approach involves creating patterns Miscellaneous Applications
on the back electrode to change the direction of incoming of Plasmonic Materials
light and generate waveguide modes within the absorbing
layer. The third method is to place nanoparticles inside For thin films characterizations, surface plasmon resonance
or close to the active layer. This way, they can utilize the is used to study thin film properties, thickness, and refrac-
strong, concentrated fields of light that are produced [75]. tive index, which is crucial in microelectronics and optical

Fig. 16  Miscellaneous applica-

tions of plasmonics [84]

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Plasmonics (2024) 19:1701–1719 1717

coatings. In nanoparticle analysis, it helps in characteriz- parameters before embarking on the fabrication of plasmonic
ing nanoparticles, including size, shape, and concentration, devices. This approach helps to streamline the design and
which is essential in nanomaterial research [81]. Likewise, development process, leading to more efficient and effective
for the detection of pollutants in environment like air, soil, gadgets. In such cases, mathematical and numerical solutions
or water, plasmon-based sensors can detect various envi- indeed emerge as powerful triumph card, enabling research-
ronmental pollutants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, and ers to make pretty accurate and well established decisions
chemical contaminants in water and air [82]. A map of many and achieve successful outcomes in the realm of plasmonic
miscellaneous applications of plasmonic based tools is given tools development. This review study is tailored especially for
in Fig. 16. Another application is the food safety, where the young scholars who aspire to venture into the field of plas-
plasmonic devices can be applied to detect contaminants, aller- monics, offering them a solid foundation and comprehensive
gens, and pathogens in food products. In quality control, they insight into the fundamental principles of this field. It is indeed
are used for assessing the freshness and quality of food products, true that this field is determined to significantly influence the
including oils, beverages, and dairy products [19]. In analytical advancement and research in integrated data storage devices,
chemistry, different plasmonic tools are employed in chemical optical communication, imaging technology, and, most notably,
analysis for the quantification of analytes in complex mixtures, optical sensing devices. This field holds great promise for shap-
such as in chromatography and liquid chromatography [83]. ing the future of various technological domains.
In optics and photonics, the principles of surface plas-
mon are used in the development of plasmonic devices for
Author Contribution The authors M. Aftab and Tahir Iqbal made equal
controlling light at the nanoscale, which has applications contributions in editing, collecting, arranging, analyzing data, infor-
in optical communication and information processing [85]. mation, and findings. M. Salim Mansha and M. Farooq assisted in
For chemical and biological threat detection, the plasmonic revision of the article and incorporated additional applications related
sensors can be employed for the rapid detection of chemical to the subject.
and biological agents in security and defense applications Data Availability The data and information that support the findings
[86]. And above all, for fundamental studies, the plasmonic of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reason-
materials are used in various fields of academic research, able request.
including physics, chemistry, biology, and material sciences, to
explore numerous fundamental interactions and phenomena [87]. Declarations
This review paper is an attempt to give a simple, straight- Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.
forward, and overall a complete overview of the subject
which could be helpful for young researchers and new com-
ers to the field. New areas of study could be explored.
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