UNIT 3-INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTER NETWORKS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
1. Build an understanding of the fundamental concepts of computer
networking.
2. Familiarize the student with the basic taxonomy and terminology of the
computer networking area
3. Understand Basic Concepts to define the Internet, URL, and WWW, and
explain their roles in digital communication and information sharing.
4. Identify and Use Internet Applications to describe and utilize key Internet
applications.
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

Interconnection forming a social network

 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

• A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected with each

other is called network .
• Some of the examples of network in our everyday life includes:
• Social network
• Mobile network
• Network of computers
• Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks
 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

• What is a Network?
• A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network
devices, or other devices connected to one another to share resources,
exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
• The simplest form of a network is two computers connected directly
together by some form of data link.
• Networks can be classified based on their size, complexity, and geographical
spread.
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

• A computer network can include different types of hosts (also called nodes) like
server, desktop, laptop, cellular phones.
• Networking devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings.

• For communication, data in a network is divided into smaller chunks called packets.

• These packets are then carried over a network.

• Devices in a network can be connected either through wired media like cables or

wireless media like air

 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

• In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can
receive, create, store or send data to different network routes is called a node.
• In the context of data communication, a node can be a device such as a modem,
hub, bridge, switch, router, digital telephone handset, a printer, a computer or a
server
 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

• Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network allows us to

exchange information simultaneously with many parties through email,
websites, audio/video calls, etc.

• Network allows sharing of resources.

• For example, a printer can be made available to multiple computers

through a network;

• a networked storage can be accessed by multiple computers.

• People often connect their devices through hotspot, thus forming a

small personal network.
EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING

Timeline showing evolution of networking

 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING

• 1960s:
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was
commissioned by the U.S. Department of Defense.
• Objective: Connect academic and research institutions for scientific
collaborations.
• 1969:
• The first message was sent between the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
• 1970s:
• Expansion of ARPANET: More organizations joined the network.
• Development of protocols for data transmission.
 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING

• 1980s:
• Introduction of TCP/IP protocols, standardizing communication across
networks.
• The term "Internet" started being used.
• National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) created, linking
supercomputing centers across the U.S.
• 1990s:
• Transition from ARPANET to the modern Internet.
• The World Wide Web (WWW) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee.Rapid
expansion of Internet access to the public.
 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING

• 2000s:
• Broadband Internet became widely available.
• Rise of wireless networking and mobile Internet.
• Introduction of social media platforms and cloud computing.
• 2010s:
• Growth of Internet of Things (IoT), connecting everyday devices to the
Internet.
• Development of 4G and 5G technologies, enhancing mobile connectivity.
• 2020s:
• Continued expansion and integration of networks.
• Advancements in artificial intelligence and machine learning, improving
network management and security.
• Increased focus on cybersecurity and data privacy.
 TYPES OF NETWORKS

• Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer
networks are broadly categorised as:
• PAN ( Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
 TYPES OF NETWORKS

• 1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

• Definition: A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a small network, typically
composed of a few personal devices, such as computers, smartphones, tablets,
and printers, within a range of about 10 meters.
• Characteristics:
• Range:Very short, typically around 10 meters.
• Devices: Includes personal devices like smartphones, laptops, tablets, and
wearable devices.
• Usage: Commonly used for personal, close-range communication and data
exchange.
• Examples: Bluetooth connections between a phone and headphones, or a
smartwatch and a smartphone.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
 TYPES OF NETWORKS

• 2. LAN (Local Area Network)

• Definition: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects
computers and other devices within a limited geographical area, such as a
home, school, or office building.
• Characteristics:
• Range: Limited to a small geographic area, typically within a building or
campus.
• Devices: Includes computers, printers, servers, and other networked devices.
• Usage: Used for sharing resources like files, printers, and internet connections
within a localized area.
• Examples: A network within a home, school, or small office.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
 TYPES OF NETWORKS

• 3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• Definition: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers a larger geographic
area than a LAN, such as a city or a large campus.
• Characteristics:
• Range: Spans a city or a large campus.
• Devices: Can include multiple LANs within a city or metropolitan area.
• Usage: Often used by city governments, large companies, and organizations to
connect multiple sites within a metropolitan area.
• Examples: A city's public Wi-Fi network, a university's campus-wide network
TYPES OF NETWORKS
 TYPES OF NETWORKS

• 4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

• Definition: A Wide Area Network (WAN) spans a large geographic area, often
a country or continent, and connects multiple LANs and MANs.
• Characteristics:
• Range: Covers a vast geographic area, such as a country, continent, or even
globally.
• Devices: Can connect thousands of devices over long distances.
• Usage: Used by large organizations, governments, and global businesses to
connect geographically dispersed locations.
• Examples: The Internet, a multinational company's global network.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
TYPES OF NETWORKS
 NETWORK DEVICES

• To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure

networks with different functionality, we require different devices like
• Modem
• Hub
• Switch
• Repeater
• Router
• Gateway
• 1. Modem (Modulator-Demodulator)
• Definition: A modem is a device that converts digital data from a computer into
analog signals that can be transmitted over telephone lines or cable systems, and
vice versa.
• Function:
• Modulation: Converts digital data to analog signals for transmission over
communication lines.
• Demodulation: Converts incoming analog signals back to digital data that
computers can process.
• Usage: Used to connect a local network to the internet.
• Example:
• DSL Modem: Connects to a phone line to provide internet access.
• Cable Modem: Connects to a cable TV line for internet access.
• The modem at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data
into analog signals.

• The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog
signals into digital data for the destination node to understand.
• 2. Hub
• Definition: A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers
or other network devices in a local area network (LAN).
• Function:
• Broadcasting: Receives data packets from one device and broadcasts them to all
other devices in the network.
• No Filtering: Does not filter data; every device receives the data, whether it's
intended for them or not.
• Usage: Simplistic, mainly in small networks where network traffic is minimal.
• Example:
• Ethernet Hub: Connects multiple Ethernet devices, such as computers and
printers, within a LAN.
• 3. Switch
• Definition: A switch is a more advanced networking device that connects multiple
devices within a LAN
• Function:
• Data Filtering: Receives data packets and forwards them only to the specific
device they are intended for, reducing unnecessary traffic.
• MAC Address Table: Uses a MAC address table to determine where to send
data packets.
• Usage: Commonly used in modern LANs to improve network efficiency and
performance.
• Example:
• Ethernet Switch: Connects multiple Ethernet devices and manages data traffic
efficiently.
• 4. Repeater
• Definition: A repeater is a device that regenerates and amplifies signals to extend
the distance over which data can travel in a network.
• Function:
• Signal Boosting: Amplifies weak signals to ensure they can travel longer distances
without degradation.
• Usage: Used in both wired and wireless networks to extend the range of
communication.
• Example:
• Wi-Fi Repeater: Extends the coverage area of a Wi-Fi network.
• 5. Router
• Definition: A router is a device that connects multiple networks and routes data
packets between them. It operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI
model.
• Function:
• Routing: Determines the best path for data packets to travel from source to
destination.
• Network Address Translation (NAT): Allows multiple devices on a local
network to share a single public IP address.
• Usage: Used to connect local networks to the internet or to other local
networks.
• Example:
• Home Router: Connects a home network to the internet and provides Wi-Fi
access.
• Enterprise Router: Connects and manages data traffic between large
organizational networks.
• 6. Gateway
• Definition: A gateway is a network device that acts as an interface between two
different networks, often operating at the application layer (Layer 7) of the OSI
model.
• Function:
• Protocol Conversion: Converts data between different protocols used in
different networks.
• Translation: Can translate data formats and protocols to enable communication
between different network types.
• Usage: Used to connect and translate between different network architectures,
such as between a local network and the internet.
• Example:
• VoIP Gateway: Converts voice signals from a traditional phone system to digital
signals for transmission over an IP network.
• Email Gateway: Translates email formats between different email systems.
 NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES

• 1. Star Topology
• Structure: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
• Advantages:
• Easy to install and manage.
• If one device fails, it doesn't affect the others.
• Disadvantages:
• If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.
• Requires more cable than bus topology.
• Usage: Common in home and office networks.
NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
 NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES

• 2. Bus Topology
• Structure: All devices share a single central cable (the bus).
• Advantages:
• Easy to implement and extend.
• Requires less cable than star topology.
• Disadvantages:
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• A break in the central cable can bring down the entire network.
• Usage: Used in small networks and early Ethernet networks.
NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
 NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES

• 3.Tree Topology
• Structure: A hybrid topology that combines characteristics of star and bus
topologies. Devices are connected in groups of star-configured networks
connected to a linear bus backbone.
• Advantages:
• Hierarchical and scalable.
• Easy to manage and expand.
• Disadvantages:
• Requires a lot of cable.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire network segment can be isolated.
• Usage: Used in large networks such as universities and corporate campuses
NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
 NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES

• 4. Mesh Topology
• Structure: Every device is connected to every other device.
• Advantages:
• Provides high redundancy and reliability.
• If one link fails, data can be routed through another path.
• Disadvantages:
• Expensive and complex to install and manage.
• Requires a lot of cabling and configuration.
• Usage: Used in critical applications where network reliability is crucial, such as
military and mission-critical systems.
NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

• Internet is a type of Wide Area Network spread over the entire glob . It
is a vary large network of thousands of smaller networks.
• Billions of computers are connected with each other and communicate
with each other and share resources.
• At present internet is the fastest mean of sending and exchanging
information and data among computers across the world.
• Computers over the internet are connected through optical fiber
cable, coaxial cable or wireless media and various networking
hardware like switch, router
• Advantages of Internet:-
• Availability of Information:- Because of Internet, we can access lots of
information within a click, gather knowledge and learn so many things
easily.
• Easy Communication:- Internet avail a facility to communicate with anyone
no matter how far the person is.
• Platform to Publish:- Internet provide a platform where anyone can
publish their book, story, web series etc.
• Valuable Resources:- Internet provide valuable resources like contacts for
various business related firms or other such information helpful for
individual as well as business. Internet provide platform to Online
shopping companies.
• Banking:- Now a days banking facilities is very easy to access just because
of Internet.
• Entertainment:- Internet provide various source of entertainment like
youtube, Netflix etc.
• Disadvantages of Internet:-

• Cyber Frauds:- People may lost their money if internet banking is not
used properly. Sometime hackers (people who use technology to
breach security protocol and perform illegal activity) may get into your
account and transfer money.

• Unsuitable Contents:- Some notorious people may publish unsuitable

material on internet which may adversely affect the moral of society.

• Computer Virus:- Internet sometimes become a channel to transmit

virus int our computer. Which may damage our files and programs.

• Depression, Loneliness and social isolation:- Now a days people are

using internet unnecessarily which causes depression.
 WORLD WIDE WEB

• World Wide Web is collection of information that can be accessed by internet

and other tools.
• This information is stored in variety formats like text, PPT, Video, Images, GIF
files, Audio files etc.
• Large computers having higher capacity to store and process data known as
server are used to store information of WWW.
• Some dedicated organisations have their dedicated data centres to store and
maintain large amount of data of WWW.
• WWW was proposed between 1989-1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. WWW become
reality with the invention of HTML and web Browser in 1990.
• While internet is collection of computers connected together with the help of
various networking devices; WW is a collection of documents, linked via
special links called hyperlinks. WWW forms a large part of internet but is not
the Internet.
 INTERNET TERMINOLOGY

• (1) Web Servers:-

• Web Server is a computer that store information in web pages and send these
web pages to users whey they request for an specific information (web page).
• A user generally make request to web server through a web browser.
• Web server store information in variety of formats like text, image, video,
audio or table etc.
• A web server uses special software to receive requests from user and process
to provide required data.
INTERNET TERMINOLOGY
• (2) URL:-
• URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator.
• A URL is an address of a website on World Wide Web.
• Each URL points to a unique website on a web server.
• We use URL to access any required website through a special software called
“Web Browser”.
• To access any website through its URL, user need to type or enter URL of
website in a tool of web browser called Address Bar.
• As soon as we type URL of a website in Address bar of web browser and press
enter key, our browser sends a request to respective web server to load a web
page on that browser.
• (a) Elements of URL:-

• A website’s URL have three main parts-

• (i) Type of server / Protocol:- This element of URL specifies that which protocol is used by that
website. Generally it is HTTP or HTTPS (here S is for security) Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.

• (ii) The name / address of server on internet:- This element of URL specifies the unique name of
website on world wide web. Using this a user can load the home page of website on his/her web
browser. Example:- https://facebook.com here “facebook.com” is the name or address of facebook
server.

• (iii) Location of file on server:- This element of URL specifies the path of web page on a particular
web server. Generally a Web server have multiple web pages. Each web page stored on web server
has a unique path. This path is always attached to the name of URL to access a web page.
• Types of URL:- URL is of two types –
• (a) Absolute URL:-
• Absolute URL is the part of URL which does not change.
• Absolute URL specifies the name of website along with the protocol
used.
• Absolute URL is generally used to load the homepage of the
website.
• (b) Relative URL:-
• Relative URL is always used as an extension to the absolute URL.
• It generally specifies the path of different web pages linked to a
website.
• Wherever we load a web page of website by clicking on a link the
absolute URL remain unchanged but the relative URL get changed
for each web page.
•
• (3) Website:-
• A website is a collection of web pages having one home page and other web
pages.
• All these web pages are linked together through hyperlink.
• These web pages are written using HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language).
• All the web pages are stored on web server called web host. This web server
must be connected to the internet round the clock.
• A website can be accessed from any part of the world through the website
address or URL.
• Components of Website:- Following components are essential for
making a website.
• (a) Webhost:-
• Hosting is the storage space provided by web server owner to store web pages
written in HTML, program files required for that website, images, audio or
video files.
• Every website you have ever visited must have hosted on one of the web
server.
• Whenever a client access the a website through its URL (web address) the web
host will send the requested web page to the client.
• (b) Address:- The address of the website is the unique (URL)
through which user from any part of the world can access that
website.
• (c) Homepage:- A homepage is the first page that appears when a
user hit the address of that website. A Homepage also provide the
links for other web pages of that website.
• Web Pages:- A web page is a file written in HTML (hyper Text
Markup Language). It can contain any type of information such as
text, graphics, audio, video or animation.
• Components of Web Page(Content wise):- Content wise components of
web page are-
• (a) Hypertext:- Hypertext is a digital text that is used to present text
as well as hypermedia on a web page. Here Hypermedia include
various media formats-
• Text
• Graphics
• Images
• Video
• Sound
• Hyperlink
• Components of Web Page (Structure Wise):-
• Structure wise the components of web page are:-
• Page Title:- This is a small text displayed on the title bar of the web browser.
• Header:- This is the top section of a web page which show the main heading
of the entire web page. Generally this text remain constant for all the web
pages of a website. Contents below header keep changing for different web
pages.
• Body of the web page:- This section contains the main content of the web
page. This section is just below the Header of the web page.
• Navigational links:- These are hyperlinks placed in a web page to redirect user
from one web page to another web page.
• Footer:- This is the bottom section of the web page.
• Types of Web Page:- There are two types of web pages
• (a) Static Web Page:-
• A web page which contain only fixed content is called static web page.
• Here static or fixed content means a content once written and published will
remain unchanged for every user every time.
• To create a static web page simply HTML can be used no other special
technology is required.
• Advantages:-
• Static web pages are delivered faster as compare to Dynamic web pages.
• It require less resources to send a static web page from web server to a client.
• It is not dependent of type of web browsers, generally it display similar on all
web browsers.
• Static web pages are more secure than dynamic web pages.
• Disadvantages:-
• Static web pages shows only fixed type of information, it such a data set is
change it need to republish again every time.
• Static web pages does not changes according to the user’s location, or login
status and other factors.
• (b) Dynamic Web Page:-
• A dynamic web page is a web page which changes frequently and does not
retain same every time.
• The content of dynamic web page changes according to the location of user,
time, and many other criterion.
• Dynamic web pages uses scripts to first get these criterion like location, time
and browser version then customise a web page for user.
• Dynamic web page use HTML as well as some scripting language code which
get executed whenever a user request to access a web page.
• Advantages:-
• Changes quickly and easily republished.
• Dynamic web page display viewer specific content.
• Dynamic web pages display conditionally.
• Dynamic Web pages are more user friendly, attractive and interactive.
• Disadvantages:-
• Since dynamic web page require script code to execute first so it need more
time to load that page from server.
• Dynamic page require more security features to secure that web page.
• Special software is required to create design or develop a dynamic web page.
• Difference Between a Website and a Webpage
• Website:
• A collection of multiple web pages.
• Can include various types of content and functionalities.
• Example: www.example.com
• Webpage:
• A single document on the internet, part of a website.
• Displays content like text, images, and videos.
• Example: www.example.com/about.html
• Chat:-
• Chatting is a functionality which enable people to send and receive text
messages by typing through their devices.
• In other words we can say that communication using text messages is called
chatting.
• Now a days their are many sites which provide chatting facility online through
a chat room.
• A Chat Room is a platform provided by some website where you can create
your profile and identity using which you can chat with other people
connected with the same platform.
• Commonly used Types of Chat:-
• (a) Instant Messaging:- Instant Messaging is a method to communicate
with someone over internet at real time. Users need to install
Instant messaging software to use IM online. One can send and
receive message to or from multiple users at a time. One can
download and install this instant messaging software freely and
set his/her nick name which can be seen by other people connected
on internet with same software.
• (b) ICQ (“I Seek You”):- ICQ is also an online messaging service which
provide a facility to chat on cross platform environment. i.e. users
need not to have same operating system to be connected with each
other through ICQ. ICQ was the first widely adopted instant
messaging platform.
• (c) IRC (Internet Relay Chat):- IRC is also a online chatting platform. It
provide facility to have group communication called channels.
Now a days IRC is not used widely because of other alternatives
available in the market with more user friendly environment.
• (d) Web Based Chat:- Web based chats are the functionality provided
by various websites to communicate online with one person or in
groups. It provide facility to share text message as well as files.
Now a days this platform is very popular. some most popular web
based chat software / websites are- (a) Facebook (b) Whatsup (c)
yahoo messanger.
• Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP):-
• Voice over internet protocol provide facility to make audio and video phone
calls over internet instead of traditional method (PSTN) Public switch
telephone network.
• Any two or more devices connected to the internet can transmit audio or
video between each other just like they transmit other data (information).
• IP (internet Protocol) is responsible for breaking a message into multiple
packet and transmit them over internet and reassemble these packets at
destination end.
• VoIP is also based on IP (Internet Protocol) which break audio and video into
packets and transmit these packets over internet towards destination device.
• Transmission of audio or video in the form of packets makes the transmission
easy and fast.
• In a regular phone the voice is transmitted in telephone signal (analog signal)
where as phone calls made VoIP are transmitted in digital signal which
enhance the quality of voice or video.
• It require a high speed internet connection to us VoIP to transmit audio or
video.
• Example of VoIP based software are- Skype, Google Duo, Google meet,
Whatsapp etc.
• Advantages:-
• This technology is very cost effective since it does not require any extra cost as
long as you have a device with an internet connection.
• Quality of VoIP calls are better than quality of calls over analog signal
(Tradition phone).
• Easily available – now a days every smart phone support VoIP technology and
apps like Whatspp, skyp etc are widely used.
• Disadvantages:-
• VoIP require special hardware and software at both sender and receiver end.
• It may not work for emergency services.
• It require high speed internet connection otherwise the quality of voice or
video will badly affected.
• Hosting of a Website
• Definition: Web hosting is the service of providing storage space and access
for websites on the internet.
• Types of Hosting:
• Shared Hosting: Multiple websites share the same server resources.
• Virtual Private Server (VPS): A server divided into virtual servers, each acting
as an independent server.
• Dedicated Hosting: A single server dedicated to one website.
• Cloud Hosting: Websites hosted on a network of interconnected servers.
• Factors to Consider:
• Performance: Speed and uptime.
• Security: Protection against cyber threats.
• Scalability: Ability to handle growing traffic.
• Support: Technical assistance availability.
 WEB BROWSERS

• Definition: A browser is a software application that helps us to view web

pages.
• Function:
• It allows us to view data or information retrieved from various web servers on
the Internet.
• Commonly Used Browsers:
• Google Chrome
• Internet Explorer
• Mozilla Firefox
• Opera
• Primary Functionality:
• Displays HTML documents.
 EVOLUTION OF WEB BROWSERS

• Early Web Browsers:

• Initial browsers like Mosaic supported only HTML documents with plain
text (static websites).
• Modern Web Browsers:
• Support interactive and dynamic websites.
• Advanced Features:
• Wide range of visual effects.
• Use of encryption for advanced security.
• Ability to store browser settings and data using cookies.
 WEB BROWSERS

• A web browser is a software application used to access information on the

World Wide Web. When a user requests a web page from a particular website,
the web browser retrieves the necessary content from a web server and then
displays the page on the user's device.
• Key functions of a web browser:
• Retrieving data from web servers using the HTTP/HTTPS protocols.
• Rendering HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to display web pages.
• Interpreting and executing scripts and plug-ins.
• Content Displayed:
•Text
•Images
•Audio
•Video
•Navigation:
•Hyperlinks in web pages enable navigation from one page to another.
• Commonly Used Browsers
1. Google Chrome: Known for its speed, simplicity, and extensive extension
library. Developed by Google.
2. Mozilla Firefox: Renowned for its focus on privacy and open-source nature.
Developed by Mozilla Foundation.
3. Microsoft Edge: The default browser for Windows 10 and later, built on
Chromium, offering integration with Microsoft services.
4. Safari: Default browser for macOS and iOS, known for its energy efficiency
and seamless integration with Apple devices.
5. Opera: Features a built-in VPN and ad blocker, along with a user-friendly
interface.
6. Brave: Focuses on privacy and speed by blocking ads and trackers by default.
 BROWSER SETTINGS

• Definition: Browser settings define the behavior of the browser.

• Common Settings:
• Privacy
• Search engine preferences
• Download options
• Auto signature
• Autofill and autocomplete features
• Themes
• Customization:
• Each browser allows users to change or customize settings in a user-friendly
manner.
 BROWSER SETTINGS

• Browser Settings
• Web browsers offer a variety of settings to customize the user experience.
Common settings include:
• Privacy and Security: Manage cookies, site permissions, and tracking
prevention.
• Appearance: Customize themes, font size, and toolbar layout.
• Default Search Engine: Choose which search engine to use for address bar
searches.
• Home Page: Set the page that opens when the browser starts.
• Extensions/Add-ons: Manage browser extensions and plug-ins.
• Advanced Settings: Control settings like proxy configuration, hardware
acceleration, and developer tools.
 ADD-ONS AND PLUG-INS

• Add-ons (or extensions) and plug-ins enhance browser functionality:

• Add-ons/Extensions: Small software programs that customize the browsing
experience by adding new features or modifying existing ones. Examples
include ad blockers, password managers, and themes.
• Installation: Typically installed from a browser's web store (e.g., Chrome
Web Store, Firefox Add-ons site).
• Management: Can be enabled, disabled, or removed through the
browser's settings menu.
• Plug-ins: Software components that add specific capabilities to the browser,
such as playing multimedia content. Examples include Adobe Flash Player and
Java. Modern browsers have moved away from plug-ins in favor of HTML5 for
better security and performance.
 COOKIES

• Cookies are small pieces of data stored by the browser on the user's device while
browsing websites. They serve various purposes:
• Session Management: Maintain user session data (e.g., login status).
• Personalization: Store user preferences and settings.
• Tracking: Monitor user behavior across websites for analytics and advertising
purposes.
• Types of Cookies:
• Session Cookies: Temporary cookies that are deleted when the browser is
closed.
• Persistent Cookies: Remain on the user's device for a set period or until
manually deleted.
• First-party Cookies: Set by the website being visited.
• Third-party Cookies: Set by external websites (e.g., advertisers) embedded in
the site being visited.
 COOKIES

• Managing Cookies:
• Browsers allow users to view, block, or delete cookies through the settings
menu.
• Users can configure their browser to block third-party cookies or prompt
before accepting cookies.