BBA/B.Com/ B.

Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

SYLLABUS
ENGLISH:- 1ST YEAR

UNIT – I
1. Where the mind is without fear: Rabindranath Tagore

2. National Education: M. K. Gandhi

3. The Axe: R. K. Narayan

4. The Wonder that was India: A. L. Basham (an excerpt)

5. Preface to Mahabharata : C. Rajagopalachari

UNIT – II
Comprehension Skill: Unseen Passage followed by Multiplechoice

questions

UNIT – III
Basic Language Skills: 1. Vocabulary Building: Suffix, Prefix,Synonyms,
Antonyms, Homophones, Homonyms and One- Word Substitution.

2. Basic Grammar: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb,Prepositions,

Articles, Time and Tense.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

UNIT - 1

'Where the Mind is Without Fear' by Rabindranath Tagore

Text of the poem:

Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high Where knowledge is free
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments By narrow domestic walls
Where words come out from the depth of truth
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection Where the clear stream of reason
has not lost its way
Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit Where the mind is led forward by thee Into ever-
widening thought and action
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

Glossary:-
1. Domestic- related to family

2. Fragments-pieces

3. Tireless- without getting tired

4. Striving-to exert much efforts

5. Dreary- dull

6. Dead habit- old customs

7. Thee- you

Analysis of the poetry:

“Where the Mind is Without Fear” is an emotional prayer by Rabindranath Tagorebefore almighty
God. He is an intellectual who was also popularly known as ‘Gurudev’ & ‘Bard of Bengal’; he was

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not only a composer but a painter, a humanist, a philosopher, a novelist as well as an educator
who wrote on different subjects. This poetry is included in ‘Gitanjali’ an anthology which was
composed by him during pre-independence era of India. Initially Rabindranath Tagore authored
this poem in Bengali in 1901 written for a collection of divine prayers titled ‘Naibedya’ later
translating it in English in the year 1911 for ‘Gitanjali’. He won Nobel for ‘Gitanjali’ in the year
1913 as well as the reputation of being the first Non-European to be a Nobel laureate. He was
knighted in the year 1915, but he renounced this title in 1919 as he was anguished and as a sign
of his protest against the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre (Amritsar massacre) due to the He is the
composer of ‘Jana Gana Mana’ & ‘Amar Shonar Bangla’ the national anthems of India and
Bangladesh respectively.The original poem bears the title ‘Prarthana' i.e. prayer. The poem is a
prayer to the universal father as well as the fellow Indians presenting his vision of an
independent India. Patriotism is the core theme of this poem solely centered on the vision of
independence. The nation was under the British Rule, the society wasfull of disharmony and
social unjust. The people were eagerly waiting to get their freedom. This poem had given a lot of
strength to the people who were strugglingfor India’s independence.
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held highWhere knowledge is free

The poet prays to the Almighty that his country should be free from any kind of external
pressures and oppressive factors which would create fear. He believed that freedom from such
repressive situations would generate a sense of respect inindividuals which was crushed due to
presence of these overwhelming situations. He wants that everyone in his country should be free
to live a dignified life and hold their heads high with respect for themselves and for one another.
He dreams of a nation where knowledge or education would be free and available for all.
Education should not be restricted to the upper class only but everybody should be free to acquire
knowledge without any caste or gender distinctions.

Where the world has not been broken up into fragmentsBy narrow domestic walls
Tagore envisions a world which is not disintegrated by biases based on caste, creed, color,
religion, status or gender. He wants his people to reject any kinds of baseless superstitions and
should not endorse any kinds of social evils. He lays emphasis on the rationality of mind because

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

clear thinking would prevent people from becoming prey to such tribulations. He also stresses
on the fact that all the external forces like prejudices and superstitions as well as internal forces
like narrow-mindedness should not divide the people in groups and destroy their unity.

Where words come out from the depth of truth

Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection
He wishes the people of his nation to be truthful; he is of the view that people should not distort
the truth for their personal benefits. The words spoken should be full of sincerity and not mere
empty words which come from the bottom of the heart and soul. The poet expresses his deep
desire where people of his country strive towards perfection or development free from all the
biases and superstitions without giving up or getting exhausted.
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its wayInto the dreary desert sand of dead habit
The poet visualizes that his fellow countrymen should not lose their reasoning due to baseless
superstitions and preconceived notions which is referred as dead habits as they hinder the unity
of a nation and progress of an individual. He believes that these habits are like a lifeless barren
region where no life can prevail. So he emphasizes on the fact that the every individual should
posses a clear intellect which resembles to a clear stream free from any kinds of stagnation.
Where the mind is led forward by theeInto ever-widening thought and action
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
The poet prays to the almighty to bestow his countrymen the purity of thoughts, actions and
rational intellect. He wishes that God awakens the shackled mind of the people and lead them
towards a heavenly country. He wants his natives not to be bound by any internal or external
factors which pull them back from the path of progress. Tagore makes a plea before almighty
‘Father’, to awaken his country

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

About the Author: Rabindranath Tagore

Born: May 7, 1861, in Calcutta, India.
Achievements:
First non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature (1913) for his collection Gitanjali.
Renowned poet, philosopher, musician, and artist.
A key figure in modern Indian literature, Tagore reshaped Bengali literature and music.
Founded Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan, a center for holistic education.
Key Works: Gitanjali, The Home and the World, Gora, Kabuliwala, and numerous plays and essays.
Philosophy: Advocated for a world without borders, harmony in diversity, and freedom of thought.

Writing Style of Tagore

Simplicity and Depth: Tagore’s writing often seems simple but carries deep philosophical meaning.
Lyricism: His works are highly lyrical, often merging prose and poetry to express emotions and spiritual ideas.
Universalism: Tagore’s writings reflect humanistic and universal themes, often blending Eastern and
Western philosophical ideals.
Symbolism: He uses nature and abstract ideas to represent larger concepts like freedom, spirituality, and
humanity.

Theme of the Poem

Freedom: Tagore envisions an ideal world where the mind is free from fear and oppression.
Rational Thought: Emphasizes a world where reason prevails over blind beliefs and superstitions.
Unity: Calls for a country where people are united, not divided by narrow ideas and boundaries.
Progress: Advocates for a society that moves forward in truth and integrity, abandoning deceit and stagnation.
Spiritual and Intellectual Awakening: The poem is a prayer for India’s awakening into a country of self-reliance,
dignity,
and freedom.

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Setting of the Poem

The poem reflects pre-independence India, where Tagore longs for a nation free from British rule. However, the
setting is more symbolic than physical, depicting an ideal future where individuals enjoy freedom in thought,
action, and speech. The poem transcends geographical boundaries, expressing the desire for universal freedom
and enlightenment.
Five Short Questions with Answers
1. What is the main theme of "Where the Mind is Without Fear"?
The main theme is freedom—freedom of thought, expression, and unity in a nation where people are not bound
by fear, oppression, or narrow-minded divisions.

2. What does Tagore mean by ‘where the mind is without fear’?

Tagore refers to a state of being where people can think freely, without the fear of oppression or repression,
and where their minds are not confined by limitations.

3. What is meant by ‘narrow domestic walls’?

‘Narrow domestic walls’ symbolize the divisions in society caused by caste, creed, religion, and other societal
barriers.

4. What does the poet mean by ‘tireless striving’?

‘Tireless striving’ refers to constant efforts and dedication toward achieving excellence and self-improvement.

5. How does Tagore portray reason in the poem?

Tagore emphasizes the importance of reason, urging for a world where thoughts and actions are governed by
logic and rationality rather than superstition or irrational beliefs.

Ten One-Word Questions with Answers

1. Who wrote the poem "Where the Mind is Without Fear"?
Tagore.
2. In which collection is this poem found?
Gitanjali.
3. What does ‘head is held high’ signify?
Dignity.

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4. What is ‘narrow domestic walls’ a metaphor for?

Divisions.
5.What does the poet mean by ‘clear stream of reason’?
Rationality
6. Which quality does the poet seek in his country’s citizens?
Freedom.
7. What does the phrase ‘depth of truth’ mean?
Honesty.
8. What does the word ‘heaven’ symbolize in the poem?
Ideal.
9. What is Tagore’s vision for his country’s future?
Awakening.
10. What is the mood of the poem?
Hopeful.

National Education by M. K. Gandhi

-MK Gandhi(Published in Young India, 1-
9-1921)

So many strange things have been said about my views on national education, that it would perhaps
not be out of place to formulate them before the public. In my opinion the existing system of education
is defective, apart from its association with an utterly unjust Government, in three most important
matters:

1. It is based upon foreign culture to the almost entire exclusion of indigenous culture.

2. It ignores the culture of the heart and the hand, and confines itself simply to the head.

3. Real education is impossible through a foreign medium.

Let us examine the three defects. Almost from the commencement, the text-books deal, not with things
the boys and the girls have always to deal with in their homes, but things to which they are perfect
strangers. It is not through the text-books, that a lad learns what is right and what is wrong in the home

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life. He is never taught to have any pride in his surroundings. The higher he goes, the farther he is
removed from his home, so that at the end of his education he becomes estranged from his
surroundings. He feels no poetry about the home life. The village scenes are all a sealed book to him. His
own civilization is presented to him as imbecile, barbarous, superstitious and useless for all practical
purposes. His education is calculated to wean him from this traditional culture. And if the mass of
educated youths are not entirely denationalised, it is because the ancient culture is too deeply
embedded in them to be altogether uprooted even by an education adverse to its growth. If I had my
way, I would certainly destroy the majority of the present text-books and cause to be written text-
books which have a bearing on and correspondence with the home life, so that a boy as he learns may
react upon his immediate surroundings.

Secondly, whatever may be true of other countries, in India at any rate where more than eighty per
cent of the population is agricultural and another ten per cent industrial, it is a crime to make education
merely literary and to unfit boys and girls for manual work in after-life. Indeed I hold that as the larger
part of our time is devoted to labour for earning our bread; our children must from their infancy be
taught the dignity of
such labour. Our children should not be so taught as to despise labour. There is no reason, why a
peasant's son after having gone to a school should become useless as he does become as agricultural
labourer. It is a sad thing that our schoolboys look upon manual labour with disfavour, if not contempt.
Moreover, in India, if we expect, as we must, every boy and girl of school- going age to attend public
schools, we have not the means to finance education in accordance with the existing style, nor are
millions of parents able to pay the fees that are at present imposed.

Education to be universal must therefore be free. I fancy that even under an ideal system of
government, we shall not be able to devote two thousand million rupees which we should require for
finding education for all the children of school-going age. It follows, therefore, that our children must
be made to pay in labour partly or wholly for all the education they receive. Such universal labour to be
profitable can only be (to my thinking) hand-spinning and hand- weaving. But for the purposes of my
proposition, it is immaterial whether we have spinning or any other form of labour, so long as it can be
turned to account. Only, it will be found upon examination, that on a practical, profitable and extensive

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scale, there is no occupation other than the processes connected with cloth-production which can be
introduced in our schools throughout India. The introduction of manual training will serve a double
purpose in a poor country like ours. It will pay for the education of our children and teach them an
occupation on which they can fall back in after-life, if they choose for earning a living Such a system must
make our children self. reliant Nothing will demoralize the nation so much as that we should learn to
despise labour.

One word only as to the education of the heart I do not believe, that this can be imparted through books.
It can only be done through the living touch of the teacher. And, who are the teachers in the primary
and even secondary schools? Are they men and women of faith and character? Have they themselves
received the training of the heart? Are they even expected to take care of the permanent element in the
boys and girls placed under their charge? Is not the method of engaging teachers for lower schools an
effective bar against character? Do the teachers get even a living wage? And we know that the teachers
of primary schools are not selected for their patriotism. They only come who cannot find any other
employment

Finally, the medium of instruction. My views on this point are too well known to need re-stating. The
foreign medium has caused brain-fag, put an undue strain upon the nerves of our children, made them
crammers and imitators, unfitted them for original work and thought, and disabled them for filtrating
their learning to the family or the masses. The foreign medium has made our children practically
foreigners in their own land. It is the greatest tragedy of the existing system. The foreign medium has
prevented the growth of our vernaculars. If I had the powers of a despot, I would today stop the
tuition of our boys and girls through a
foreign medium, and require all the teachers and professors on pain of dismissal to introduce the
change forthwith. I would not wait for the preparation of text-books. They will follow the change. It is
an evil that needs a summary remedy.

My uncompromising opposition to the foreign medium has resulted in an unwarranted charge being
leveled against me of being hostile to foreign culture or the learning of the English language. No reader
of Young India could have missed the statement often made by me in these pages, ,that I regard English
as the language of international commerce and diplomacy and therefore consider its knowledge on the

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part of some of us as essential. As it contains some of the richest treasures of thought and literature, I
would certainly encourage its careful study among those who have linguistic talents and expect them
to translate those treasures for the nation in its vernaculars. Nothing can be farther from my thought
than that we should become exclusive or erect barriers. But I do respectfully contend that an
appreciation of other cultures can fitly follow, never precede an appreciation and assimilation of our
own. It is my firm opinion, that no culture has treasures so rich as ours has. We have not known it, we
have been made even to deprecate its study and deprecate its value. We have almost ceased to live it.
An academic Grasp without practice behind it is like an embalmed corpse, perhaps lovely to look at but
nothing to inspire or ennoble. My religion forbids me to belittle or disregard other cultures, as it insists
under pain of civil suicide upon imbibing and living my own.

Glossary:-
Pedagogic – related to teaching Repudiated – to reject
Capitalism – economic system based on the private ownership Counterfeit – fake
Pseudo – artificial Descendant – successor Archetype – example
Paradox – a statement that contradicts itself Deplore – express strong disapproval of
somethingContemptuous – expressing deep hatred
Layman – a person without professional or specialized knowledge in a particularsubject
Scrapped – discard
Promptness – doing something quickly Imbecile – stupid

Wean – to detach from a source of dependenceThree

R’s – reading, writing and arithmetic

About the Author: Mahatma Gandhi

Full Name: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948)

Popularly Known as: Mahatma Gandhi, Father of the Nation (India)

Philosophy: Gandhi was a proponent of non-violence, truth (Satyagraha), and self-reliance
(Swadeshi). His approach to education was deeply influenced by his belief in moral and spiritual
development.

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Contributions to Education: Gandhi's ideas on education centered around "Nai Talim" or basic
education, which advocated for learning through manual work, character building, and self-
sufficiency.

Writings: Gandhi wrote extensively on social, political, and economic issues. His educational
philosophy is expressed in his numerous speeches, letters, and articles, with "National Education"
being a key piece of writing in this domain.

Theme of "National Education"

Self-Reliance: The essay advocates for an education system that promotes self-reliance and
independence. Gandhi believed that national education should focus on building a nation that can
stand on its own.

Practical Knowledge: Education should not be limited to bookish knowledge; instead, it should include
practical skills that are useful for everyday life.

Moral Development: Gandhi stressed that education should be focused on moral and ethical
development, promoting values like truth, non-violence, and respect for all living beings.

Decolonization: Gandhi criticized the colonial education system imposed by the British, which he
believed was alien to Indian culture and tradition. He advocated for a system that reflected Indian
values and the needs of rural India.

Character Building: Education, according to Gandhi, should cultivate qualities like discipline,
responsibility, and simplicity in individuals, which will contribute to the nation's development.

Setting

The setting for this essay is colonial India, where the British education system was dominant. Gandhi’s
ideas were part of a larger movement to decolonize India’s institutions, including its education
system. He argued for an indigenous approach to education that reflected Indian realities, such as the
predominance of rural life, the need for self-sufficiency, and the importance of moral education.

Important Points from "National Education"

1. Critique of British Education: Gandhi opposed the British education system for promoting servitude
and undermining Indian values. He argued that it produced clerks and bureaucrats rather than self-
reliant citizens.

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2. Vernacular Languages: Gandhi advocated for education in the mother tongue, believing that
language plays a crucial role in connecting students to their culture and heritage.

3. Handicrafts and Manual Work: Gandhi believed in integrating vocational training, especially
handicrafts, into the curriculum to promote self-sufficiency.

4. Education for All: He stressed the need for universal education, with a focus on making it accessible
to the rural masses.

5. Character over Literacy: Gandhi valued character-building over mere literacy. He wanted education
to instill virtues like honesty, hard work, and respect for others.

6. Education and Economics: Gandhi's vision was for an education system that contributed to the
economic development of the country by promoting locally relevant skills and trades.

7. Holistic Development: Gandhi’s idea of education focused on the development of the body, mind,
and soul, incorporating physical education, moral education, and intellectual education.

Short Questions and Answers

Q1: What was Gandhi’s primary critique of the British education system?
A1: Gandhi believed the British education system created clerks and bureaucrats rather than
independent, self-reliant citizens. It promoted servitude and lacked relevance to India’s culture and
needs.

Q2: What kind of education did Gandhi advocate for?

A2: Gandhi advocated for an education system that emphasized moral development, practical skills,
self-reliance, and was delivered in vernacular languages.

Q3: Why did Gandhi believe in teaching students handicrafts?

A3: Gandhi believed handicrafts and manual work would make students self-sufficient and provide
practical skills that could contribute to the economy.

Q4: What was Gandhi’s view on character building in education?

A4: Gandhi prioritized character building over mere literacy, stressing that education should instill
values like truth, non-violence, honesty, and discipline.

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.Q5: How did Gandhi view education's role in economic development?

A5: Gandhi viewed education as a tool for economic development, advocating for skills-based learning
that would allow students to contribute to their communities and the country's self-sufficiency.

The Axe by R. K. Narayan

An astrologer passing through the village foretold that Velan would live in a three-storeyed house
surrounded by many acres of garden. At this everybody gathered round young Velan and made
fun of him. For Koppal did not have a more ragged and godforsaken family than Velan’s. His father
had mortgaged every bit of property he had, and worked, with his whole family, on other people’s
lands in return for a few annas a week . . . A three-storeyed house for Velan indeed! . . . But the
scoffers would have congratulated the astrologer if they had seen Velan about thirty or forty
years later. He became the sole occupant of Kumar Baugh—that palatial house on the outskirts
of Malgudi town.
When he was eighteen Velan left home. His father slapped his face one day for coming late with
the midday-meal, and he did that in the presence of others in the field. Velan put down the basket,
glared at his father and left the place. He just walked out of the village, and walked on and on till
he came to the town. He starved for a couple of days, begged wherever he could and arrived in
Malgudi, where after much knocking about, an old man took him on to assist him in laying out a
garden. The garden existed only in the mind of the gardener. What they could see now was acre
upon acre of weed-covered land. Velan’s main business consisted in destroying all the vegetation
he saw. Day after day he sat in the sun and tore up by hand the unwanted plants. And all the
jungle gradually disappeared and the land stood as bare as a football field. Three sides of the
land were marked off for an extensive garden, and on the rest was to be built a house. By the time
the mangoes had sprouted they were laying the foundation of the house. About the time the
margosa sapling had shot up a couple of yards, the walls were also coming up.
The flowers—hibiscus, chrysanthemum, jasmine, roses and canna—in the front park suddenly
created a wonderland one early summer. Velan had to race with the bricklayers. He was now
the chief gardener, the old man he had come to assist having suddenly fallen ill. Velan was proud
of his position and responsibility. He keenly watched the progress of the bricklayers and
whispered to the plants as he watered them, ‘Now look sharp, young fellows. The building is going
up and up every day. If it is ready and we aren’t, we shall be the laughingstock of the town.’ He

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heaped manure, aired the roots, trimmed the branches and watered the plants twice a day, and
on the whole gave an impression of hustling nature; and nature seemed to respond. For he did
present a good-sized garden to his master and his family when they came to occupy the house.
The house proudly held up a dome. Balconies with intricately carved woodwork hung down from
the sides of the house; smooth, rounded pillars, deep verandas, chequered marble floors and
spacious halls, ranged one behind another, gave the house such an imposing appearance that
Velan asked himself, ‘Can any mortal livein this? I thought such mansions existed only in Swarga
Loka.’ When he saw the kitchen and the dining room he said, ‘Why, our whole village could be
accommodated in this eating place alone!’ The house-builder’s assistant told him, ‘We have built
bigger houses, things costing nearly two lakhs. What is this house? It has hardly cost your master
a lakh of rupees. It is just a little more than an ordinary house, that is all . . .’ After returning
to his hut Velan sat a long time trying to grasp the vision, scope and calculations of the builders
of the house, but he felt dizzy. He went to the margosa plant, gripped its stem with his fingers and
said, ‘Is this all, you scraggy one? What if you wave your head so high above mine?I can put my
fingers around you and shake you up like this. Grow up, little one, grow up. Grow fat. Have a trunk
which two pairs of arms can’t hug, and go up and spread. Be fit to stand beside this palace;
otherwise I will pull you out.’
When the margosa tree came up approximately to this vision, the house had acquired a
mellowness in its appearance. Successive summers and monsoons had robbed the paints on the
doors and windows and woodwork of their brightness and the walls of their original colour, and
had put in their place tints and shades of their own choice. And though the house had lost its
resplendence, it had now a more human look. Hundreds of parrots and mynas and unnamed birds
lived in the branches of the margosa, and under its shade the master’s great-grandchildren and
the (younger) grandchildren played and quarreled. The master walked about leaning on a staff.
The lady of the house, who had looked such a blooming creatureon the inauguration day, was
shrunken and grey and spent most of her time in an invalid’s chair on the veranda, gazing at the
garden with dull eyes. Velan himself was much changed. Now he had to depend more and more
upon his assistants to keep the garden in shape. He had lost his parents, his wife and eight
children outof fourteen. He had managed to reclaim his ancestral property, which was now being

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looked after by his sons-in-law and sons. He went to the village for Pongal, New Year’s and
Deepavali, and brought back with him one or the other of his grandchildren, of whom he was
extremely fond.
Velan was perfectly contented and happy. He demanded nothing more of life. As far as he could
see, the people in the big house too seemed to be equally at peace with life. One saw no reason
why these good things should not go on and on forever. But Death peeped around the corner.
From the servants’ quarters whispers reached the gardener in his hut that the master was very
ill and lay in his room downstairs (the bedroom upstairs so laboriously planned had to be
abandoned with advancing age). Doctors and visitors were constantly coming andgoing, and
Velan had to be more than ever on guard against ‘flower-pluckers’. One midnight he was
awakened and told that the master was dead. ‘What is to happen to the garden and to me? The
sons are no good,’ he thought at once.

And his fears proved to be not entirely groundless. The sons were no good, really. They stayed
for a year more, quarreled among themselves and went away to live in another house. A year
later some other family came in as tenants. The moment they saw Velan they said, ‘Old gardener?
Don’t be up to any tricks. We know the sort you are. We will sack you if you don’t behave yourself.’
Velan found life intolerable. These people had no regard for a garden. They walked on flower
beds,children climbed the fruit trees and plucked unripe fruits, and they dug pits on thegarden
paths. Velan had no courage to protest. They ordered him about, sent him on errands, made him
wash the cow and lectured to him on how to grow a garden.He detested the whole business and
often thought of throwing up his work and returning to his village. But the idea was unbearable:
he couldn’t live away from his plants. Fortune, however, soon favoured him. The tenants left. The
house was locked up for a few years. Occasionally one of the sons of the late owner came round
and inspected the garden. Gradually even this ceased. They left the keys of the house with Velan.
Occasionally a prospective tenant came down, had the house opened and went away after
remarking that it was in ruins—plaster was falling off in flakes, paint on doors and windows
remained only in a few small patches and white ants were eating away all the cupboards and
shelves . . . A year later another tenant came, and then another, and then a third. No one remained
for more than a few months. And then the house acquired the reputation of being haunted.

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Even the owners dropped the practice of coming and seeing the house. Velan was very nearly
the master of the house now. The keys were with him. He was also growing old. Although he
did his best, grass grew on the paths, weeds and creepers strangled the flowering plants in the
front garden. The fruit trees yielded their load punctually. The owners leased out the whole of
the fruit garden for three years.
Velan was too old. His hut was leaky and he had no energy to put up new thatch. So he shifted
his residence to the front veranda of the house. It was a deep veranda running on three sides,
paved with chequered marble. The old man saw no reason why he should not live there. He
had as good a right as the bats and the rats.

When the mood seized him (about once a year) he opened the house and had the floor swept
and scrubbed. But gradually he gave up this practice. He was too old to bother about these
things.
Years and years passed without any change. It came to be known as the ‘Ghost House’, and
people avoided it. Velan found nothing to grumble about in this state of affairs. It suited him
excellently. Once a quarter he sent his son to the old family in the town to fetch his wages. There
was no reason why this should not have gone on indefinitely. But one day a car sounded its
horn angrily at the gate. Velan hobbled up with the keys.
‘Have you the keys? Open the gate,’ commanded someone in the car.
‘There is a small side-gate,’ said Velan meekly. ‘Open
the big gate for the car!’
Velan had to fetch a spade and clear the vegetation which blocked the entrance. The gates
opened on rusty hinges, creaking and groaning.
They threw open all the doors and windows, went through the house keenly examining
every portion and remarked, ‘Did you notice the crack on the dome? The walls too are
cracked . .
. There is no other way. If we pull down the old ramshackle carefully we may still be
able to use some of the materials, though I am not at all certain that the wooden portions

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are not hollow inside . . . Heaven alone knows what madness is responsible for people
building houses like this.’ They went round the garden and said, ‘We have to clear every bit of
this jungle. All this will have to go . . .’ Some mighty person looked Velan up and down and
said, ‘You are the gardener, I suppose? We have not much use for a garden now. All the trees,
except half a dozen on the very boundary of the property, will have to go. We can’t afford
to waste space. This flower garden . . . H’m, it is . . . old-fashioned and crude, and apart from
that the front portion of the site is too valuable to be wasted . . .’
A week later one of the sons of his old master came and told Velan, ‘You will have to go back
to your village, old fellow. The house is sold to a company. They are not going to have a
garden. They are cutting down even the fruit trees; they are offering compensation to the
leaseholder; they are wiping out the garden and pulling down even the building. They are going
to build small houses by the score without leaving space even for a blade of grass.’
There was much bustle and activity, much coming and going, and Velan retired to his old hut.
When he felt tired he lay down and slept; at other times he went round the garden and stood
gazing at his plants. He was given a fortnight’s notice. Every moment of it seemed to him
precious, and he would have stayed till the last second with his plants but for the sound of an
axe which stirred him out of his afternoon nap two days after he was given notice. The dull
noise of a blade meeting a tough surface reached his ears. He got up and rushed out. He saw
four men hacking the massive trunk of the old margosa tree. He let out a scream: ‘Stop that!’ He
took his staff and rushed at those who were hacking. They easily avoided the blow he aimed.
‘What is the matter?’ they asked.
Velan wept. ‘This is my child. I planted it. I saw it grow. I loved it. Don’t cut it down . . .’
‘But it is the company’s orders. What can we do? We shall be dismissed if we don’t
obey,
and someone else will do it.’
Velan stood thinking for a while and said, ‘Will you at least do me this good turn? Give me a
little time. I will bundle up my clothes and go away. After I am gone do what you like.’ They
laid down their axes and waited.
Presently Velan came out of his hut with a bundle on his head. He looked at the tree-cutters
and said, ‘You are very kind to an old man. You are very kind to wait.’ He looked at the margosa

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and wiped his eyes. ‘Brothers, don’t start cutting till I am really gone far, far away.’
The tree-cutters squatted on the ground and watched the old man go. Nearly half an hour later
his voice came from a distance, half-indistinctly: ‘Don’t cut yet. I am still within hearing. Please
wait till I am gone farther.’

About the Author

R.K. Narayan (1906-2001) was one of the most celebrated Indian novelists writing in English. He was
born in Madras (now Chennai), India.
Narayan's works are known for their simplicity, humor, and portrayal of Indian life, often set in the
fictional town of Malgudi.
His writing style is marked by gentle irony, realistic portrayal of common people, and a deep
understanding of human nature.
Major works include "Swami and Friends," "The Guide" (which won him the Sahitya Akademi Award),
and "Malgudi Days."

Writing Style
Language: Simple, clear, and accessible.
Humor: Subtle, often arising from everyday situations.
Characterization: Vivid and lifelike, often focusing on the lives of ordinary people.
Themes: The intersection of tradition and modernity, human emotions, and social realities in India.
Setting: Most stories are set in the fictional town of Malgudi, which acts as a microcosm of India.

Summary of "The Axe"

Plot: "The Axe" tells the story of Velan, a poor gardener who works for a wealthy landlord. The story
explores Velan's life from his humble beginnings to his deep connection with the land and the trees he
tends. His life takes a dramatic turn when the landlord orders the felling of a massive tree, which Velan
has grown emotionally attached to.
Theme: The main theme is the connection between man and nature, symbolized by Velan's bond with
the tree. The story also reflects on the impact of modernization and the insensitivity of those in power.
Setting: The story is set in a rural Indian village, capturing the simple, yet profound life of the villagers.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Character Sketch
Velan: A hardworking, humble gardener. He is deeply connected to the land he works on and has a
profound attachment to the trees, particularly the one he planted and nurtured. Velan is a representation
of the rural, uncomplaining Indian worker, dedicated to his work despite facing hardships.
The Landlord: A wealthy, indifferent man who represents authority and modernization. His decision to
cut down the tree symbolizes the disregard for nature and tradition in the face of progress.

Themes
Man vs. Nature: The story highlights the bond between Velan and the tree, illustrating the conflict
between man's emotional connection to nature and the destructive forces of modernization.
Tradition vs. Modernity: The landlord’s decision to cut down the tree represents the clash between
traditional values and modern progress.
Isolation and Loneliness: Velan's attachment to the tree also reflects his loneliness and the sense of
belonging he finds in his work.

Important Points
Velan’s emotional connection to the tree symbolizes his entire life’s work and identity.
The landlord's indifferent attitude showcases the power dynamics and lack of empathy between the rich
and the poor.
The story subtly critiques the impact of modernization on traditional lifestyles and values.

Short Question and Answers

1. Who is Velan in "The Axe"?
Velan is the protagonist, a poor gardener deeply connected to the land and trees he tends.

2. What does the tree symbolize in the story?

The tree symbolizes Velan's life, identity, and his connection to nature. It also represents tradition and
stability.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

3. What is the significance of the landlord's decision to cut down the tree?
The decision represents the insensitivity of modernization and the disregard for nature and tradition.

4. How does the story "The Axe" reflect the theme of man vs. nature?
The story reflects this theme through Velan's deep bond with the tree and his helplessness when it is cut
down, showing the conflict between human emotions and the forces of change.

5. What message does R.K. Narayan convey through "The Axe"?

Narayan conveys the message that progress and modernization often come at the cost of destroying
nature and traditional values, leading to emotional loss and disconnection.

MCQs.:

Q.01. Who foretold that Velan would live in a big house?

(a) Father
(b) Villagers
(c) An astrologer
(d) A friend
Ans: (c) An astrologer
Q.02. At what age did Velan leave home?
(a) Sixteen
(b) Seventeen
(c) Eighteen
(d) Twenty
Ans: (c) Eighteen
Q.03. In Velan’s opinion, big mansion existed only in:
(a) Heaven
(b) Hell
(c) Swarg Loka
(d) Big cities
Ans: (c) Swarg Loka
Q.04. Which tree was most dear to Velan?
(a) Banyan
(b) Pipal
(c) Margosa
(d) Asoka
Ans: (c) Margosa
Q.05. R.K. Narayan was a novelist, an essayist and a:
(a) Short story writer

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(b) Poet
(c) Historian
(d) Dramatist
Ans: (a) Short story writer
Q.06. Name the fictitious town of R.K. Narayan:
(a) Wessex
(b) Malgudi
(c) Hogwarts
(d) Xanadu
Ans: (b) Malgudi
Q.07. Kumar Baugh was called as:
(a) Palatial home
(b) Old home
(c) Lonely mansion
(d) Ghost house
Ans: (d) Ghost house

Q.08. Who says, ‘Don’t cut yet. I am still within hearing.’?

(a) Owner of the house
(b) Labourer
(c) Velan
(d) Villager
Ans: (c) Velan
Q.09. Velan shifted to the veranda of the bungalow because:
(a) He wanted to keep the bungalow for himself
(b) His hut started giving way
(c) He liked comforts and luxuries
(d) None of the above
Ans: (b) His hut started giving way
Q.10. The Axe has been written by:
(a) R.N. Tagore
(b) R.K. Narayan
(c) Mulk Raj Anand
(d) Raja Rao
Ans: (b) R.K. Narayan

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The Wonder that was India by A. L. Basham (an excerpt)

Hindu civilization will, we believe, retain its continuity. The Bhagavad Gita will not cease to
inspire men of action, and the Upanishads men of thought. The charm and graciousness of the
Indian way of life will continue, however much affected it may be by the labour- saving
devices of the West People will still love the tales of the heroes of the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana, and of the loves of Dusyanta and Sakuntala and Pururavas and Urvasi. The quiet
and gentle happiness which has at all times pervaded Indian life where oppression, disease
and poverty have not overclouded it will surely not vanish before the more hectic ways of the
West

Much that was useless in ancient Indian culture has already perished. The extravagant and
barbarous hecatombs of the Vedic age have long since been forgotten, though animal sacrifice
continues in some sects. Widows have long ceased to be burnt on their husbands' pyres. Girls
may not by law be married in childhood. In buses and trains all over India brahmans rub
shoulders with the lower castes without consciousness of grave pollution, and the temples are
open to all by law. Caste is vanishing; the process began long ago, but its pace is now so rapid
that the more objectionable features of caste may have disappeared within a generation or so.
The old family system is adapting itself to present-day conditions. In fact the whole face of
India altering, but the cultural tradition continues, and it will never be lost.
The whole of South-East Asia received most of its culture from India. Early in the 5th century
B.C. colonists from Western India settled in Ceylon, which was finally converted to Buddhism
in the reign of Ashoka. By this time a few Indian merchants had probably found their way to
Malaya, Sumatra, and other parts of South-East Asia. Gradually they established permanent
settlements, often, no doubt, marrying native women. They were followed by brahmans and
Buddhist monks, and Indian influence gradually leavened the indigenous culture, until by the
4th century A.D. Sanskrit was the official language of the region, and there arose great
civilizations, capable of organizing large maritime empires, and of building such wonderful
memorials as their greatness as the Buddhist stupa of Borobodur in Java, or the Saivite

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temples of Angkor in Cambodia. Other cultural influences, from China and the Islamic world,
were felt in South-East Asia, but the primary impetus to civilization came from India.

Indian historians, proud of their country's past, often refer to this region as "Greater India",
and speak of Indian "colonies". In its usual modern sense the term "colony" is hardly accurate,
however. Vijaya, the legendary Aryan conqueror of Ceylon, is said to have gained the island
by the sword, but beyond this we have no real evidence of any permanent Indian conquest
outside the bounds of India. The Indian "colonies" were peaceful ones, and the Indianized
kings of the region were indigenous chieftains who had learnt what India had to teach them.

Northwards Indian cultural influence spread through Central Asia to China. Faint and weak
contact between China and India was probably made in Mauryan times, if not before, but only
when, some 2,000 years ago, the Han Empire began to drive its frontiers towards the Caspian
did India and China really meet. Unlike South- East Asia, China did not assimilate Indian ideas
in every aspect of her culture, but the whole of the Far East is in India's debt for Buddhism,
which helped to mould the distinctive civilizations of China, Korea, Japan and Tibet.

As well as her special gifts to Asia, India has conferred many practical blessings onthe world
at large; notably rice, cotton, the sugarcane, many spices, the domestic fowl, the game of chess
and most important of all, the decimal system of numeral notation, the invention of an
unknown Indian mathematician early in the Christian era. The extent of the spiritual influence
of India on the ancient West is much disputed. The heterodox Jewish sect of the Essenes, which
probably influenced early Christianity, followed monastic practices in some respects similar
to those of Buddhism. Parallels may be traced between a few passages in the New Testament
and the Pali scriptures. Similarities between the teachings of western philosophers and
mystics from Pythagoras to Plotinus and those of the Upanisads have frequently been noticed.
None of these similarities, however, is close enough to give certainty, especially as we have no
evidence that any classicalwriter had a deep knowledge of Indian religion. We can only say
that there was always some contact between the Hellenic world and India, mediated first by
the Achaemenid Empire, then by that of the Seleucids, and finally, under the Romans, by the
traders of the Indian ocean. Christianity began to spread at the time when this contact was

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closest. We know that Indian ascetics occasionally visited the West, and that there was a
colony of Indian merchants at Alexandria. The possibility of Indian influence on Neo-platonism
and early Christianity cannot be ruled out.
Many authorities may doubt that Indian thought had any effect on that of the ancient West,
but there can be no doubt of its direct and indirect influence on the thought of Europe and
America in the last century and a half, though this has not received adequate recognition. This
influence has not come by way of organized neo-Hindu missions. The last eighty years have
seen the foundation of the Theosophical Society, of various Buddhist societies, and of societies
in Europe andAmerica looking for inspiration to the saintly 19th-century Bengali mystic,
Paramahamsa Ramakrishna, and to his equally saintly disciple, Swami Vivekananda. Lesser
organizations and groups have been founded in the West by other Indian mystics and their
disciples, some of them noble, earnest and spiritual, others of more dubious character. Here
and there Westerners themselves, sometimes armed with a working knowledge of Sanskrit
and first- hand Indian experience, have tried to convert the West to a streamlined Yoga or
Vedanta. We would in no way disparage these teachers or their followers, many ofwhom are
of great intellectual and spiritual caliber; but whatever we may think of the Western
propagators of Indian mysticism, we cannot claim that they have had any great effect on our
civilization. More subtle, but more powerful, has been the influence of Mahatma Gandhi,
through the many friends of India in the West who were impressed by his burning sincerity
and energy, and by the ultimate success of his policy of non- violence in achieving India's
independence. Greater than anyof these influences, however, has been the influence of ancient
Indian religious literature through philosophy.

The pioneers of the Asiatic Society of Bengal quickly gained a small but enthusiastic following
in Europe, and Goethe and many other writers of the early 19th century read all they could of
ancient Indian literature in translation. We know that Goethe borrowed a device of Indian
dramaturgy for the prologue to "Faust" and who can say that the triumphant final chorus of
the second part of that work was not in part inspired by the monism of Indian thought as he
understood it? From Goethe onwards most of the great German philosophersknew something

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of Indian philosophy. Schopenhauer, whose influence on literature and psychology has been
so considerable, indeed openly admitted his debt, and his outlook was virtually that of
Buddhism. The monisms of Fichte and Hegel might never have taken the forms they did if it
had not been for Anquetil- Duperron's translation of the Upanisads and the work of other
pioneer Indologists. In the English-speaking world the strongest Indian influence was felt in
America, where Emerson, Thoreau and other New England writers avidly studied much
Indian religious literature in translation, and exerted immense influence on their
contemporaries and successors, notably Walt Whitman. Through Carlyle and others the
German philosophers in their turn made their mark on England, as did the Americans through
many late 19th-century writers such as Richard Jeffries and Edward Carpenter.

Though in the contemporary philosophical schools of Europe and America the monistic and
idealist philosophies of the last century carry little weight, their influence has been
considerable, and all of them owe something at least to ancientIndia. The sages who
meditated in the jungles of the Ganges Valley six hundred years or more before Christ are
still forces in the world.

It is today something of an anachronism to speak of Western civilization or Indiancivilization.

Until very recently cultures were sharply divided, but now, when India is but a thirty hours'
journey from London, cultural divisions are beginning to disappear. If a modus vivendi is
reached between liberal democracy and communism, and civilization survives, the world of
the future will have a single culture with, it is to be hoped, many local differences and
variations. India's contribution to the world's cultural stock has already been very large, and
it will continue and grow as her prestige and influence increases. For this reason if for no other
we must take account of her ancient heritage in its successes and its failures, for it is no longer
the heritage of India alone, but of all mankind.

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1. About the Author

A.L. Basham (Arthur Llewellyn Basham) was a prominent British historian and Indologist, known for his
expertise in ancient Indian history and culture.
He was born in 1914 and passed away in 1986. Basham’s contributions significantly shaped Western
understanding of Indian civilization.
Basham's The Wonder That Was India is one of the most widely read books on ancient Indian history, appreciated
for its thorough research and accessible style.

2. Writing Style
Accessible and Engaging: Basham uses clear, straightforward language, making complex ideas and historical facts
easy to understand for readers unfamiliar with the subject.

Narrative-driven: He intertwines historical facts with vivid descriptions of life in ancient India, creating a
narrative that is not purely academic but also engaging.

Non-Eurocentric Approach: Unlike many Western scholars of his time, Basham avoids the colonial lens of
portraying Indian civilization as inferior to the West. Instead, he presents a balanced and appreciative view of
India’s rich cultural heritage.

Use of Evidence: Basham draws extensively from archaeological findings, ancient texts, and other primary
sources. He supports his interpretations with references to Vedic literature, Buddhist texts, and other historical
records.

3. Theme and Setting

Ancient Indian Civilization: The book provides an extensive look at the history, culture, religion, and
achievements of India from ancient times to the beginning of the medieval period.

Focus on Cultural Achievements: Basham focuses on India’s contributions in various fields, including art,
literature, science, mathematics, and philosophy. The text highlights India’s advancements in these areas and
their impact on world civilization.

Religious and Philosophical Development: The book explores the origins of major Indian religions, including
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and their philosophical underpinnings.

Social Structure: Basham delves into the social and political organization of ancient India, including the caste
system, the position of women, and economic systems.

Inter-cultural Influence: The book also discusses India’s interactions with other ancient civilizations like Greece,
Rome, and China, showcasing India’s role as a central hub in the ancient world.

4. Characteristics of the Chapter

Rich Descriptions: Basham vividly describes the daily lives, rituals, and customs of ancient Indians, helping

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readers visualize the civilization.

Balance Between Religious and Secular Aspects: Basham emphasizes not just the religious and philosophical
achievements of India but also its secular advancements, particularly in art, science, and literature.

Chronological Flow: He takes a chronological approach, beginning with the Harappan civilization and covering
the Vedic age, the Mauryan Empire, and the Gupta period, giving readers a broad understanding of India's
historical timeline.

Global Context: The book often places India in the broader context of world history, comparing its development
with that of contemporary civilizations.

Objective Analysis: While being appreciative of India’s past, Basham does not shy away from discussing the
societal flaws, like the rigidity of the caste system or the subordinate status of women in ancient society.

5. Important Points

Harappan Civilization: Basham gives detailed accounts of the urban planning, architecture, and economy of the
Indus Valley Civilization, emphasizing its sophistication.

Vedic Culture: The chapter covers the transition from the Harappan to the Vedic period, focusing on the rise of
Aryan society and the development of early Vedic religious thought.

Mauryan Empire: Basham discusses the consolidation of political power under the Mauryan Empire, with special
focus on Ashoka’s contribution to spreading Buddhism and his policies of non-violence.

Gupta Period: Often referred to as the “Golden Age” of Indian culture, the Gupta period is celebrated for its
achievements in arts, literature, and sciences, particularly in mathematics (invention of zero) and astronomy.

Cultural Influence: The chapter discusses India’s influence on Southeast Asia and how Indian religions and culture
spread across the continent.

6. Short Questions and Answers

1. Q: Who was A.L. Basham?

A: A.L. Basham was a British historian and Indologist, known for his works on ancient Indian history, particularly
The Wonder That Was India.

2. Q: What is the primary focus of The Wonder That Was India?

A: The book focuses on the history, culture, and achievements of ancient Indian civilization, emphasizing its
contributions to art, literature, science, and religion.

3. Q: What was one of the key features of the Harappan civilization according to Basham?
A: The Harappan civilization was known for its advanced urban planning, including grid-patterned cities,

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drainage systems, and standardized weights and measures.

4. Q: How does Basham view the caste system in ancient India?

A: While acknowledging the societal structure it provided, Basham also critiques the rigid caste system for its
restrictions and inequalities.

5. Q: How did the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka influence Indian culture?

A: Ashoka promoted Buddhism, non-violence, and ethical governance, significantly impacting Indian society and
spreading Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

7. Word Meaning

Indologist: A scholar of Indian studies, particularly its history, languages, and culture.

Vedic: Related to the Vedas, the ancient sacred scriptures of Hinduism.

Mauryan Empire: An ancient Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya, known for its extensive territory
and powerful rulers like Ashoka.

Gupta Period: A period in ancient India noted for its advancements in arts, sciences, and political stability, often
called the "Golden Age" of India.

Caste System: The social stratification system in India, where people are divided into hierarchical groups based
on their birth.

8. Other Details

Illustrations: The book is supplemented with illustrations and maps, helping readers visualize ancient India’s
geography and culture.

Critical Reception: The Wonder That Was India is praised for its depth and comprehensive coverage of India’s
past, but some critics point out that the book tends to romanticize certain aspects of Indian civilization.
Legacy: Basham’s work remains a seminal text for students of Indian history, laying the foundation for further
research in the field.

MCQs.:

1. The main problems of India are:

a. labour saving devices.
b. action and thought.
c. disease and poverty.

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d. hectic ways of the world..
Ans: c. disease and poverty.
2. The old face of India:
a. has already changed fully.
b. is vanishing daily.
c. is changing fast.
d. is not likely to change at all.
Ans: c. is changing fast.
3. The earliest influence of ancient Indian culture on South- East Asia can be traced back to:
a. 4th Century A.D.
b. 5th Century B.C.
c. 1st Century A.D.
d. 9th Century B.C.
Ans: b. 5th Century B.C.
4. Vijaya, who is said to have conquered Ceylon first was:
a. a king from folk tales.
b. a king from fables.
c. a king from epics.
d. a king from real life.
Ans: a. a king from folk tales.
5. In the beginning, cultural relations between China and India were:
a. not strong.
b. mutually all assimilative.
c. pervasive and predominant.
d. pervasive and weakening.
Ans: a. not strong.
6. When was Ceylon finally converted to Buddhism:
a. in the reign of Ashoka
b. in the reign of Harsh
c. in the reign of Chandragupta
d. in the reign of Bhoj
Ans: a. in the reign of Ashoka.
7. Where is Buddhist stupa of Borobodur?
a. in Malaya.
b. in Sumatra.
c. in Ceylon
d. in Java
Ans: d. in Java.
8. Where is the Angkor located?
a. in Malaya.
b. in Sumatra.
c. in Cambodia
d. in Java
Ans: c. in Cambodia.

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9. Faust is a play by:

a. Marlowe
b. Goethe
c. Schopenhauer
d. Hegel
Ans: b. Goethe.
10. Goethe, Schopenhauer and Hegel were:
a. American philosophers.
b. French philosophers
c. German philosophers
d. Indian philosophers
Ans: German philosophers.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Preface to Mahabharata by C. Rajagopalachari

It is not an exaggeration to say that the persons and incidents portrayed in the great literature of a
people influence national character no less potently than the actual heroes and events enshrined in
its history. It may be claimed that the former play an even more important part in the formation of
ideals, which give to character its impulse of growth.

In the moving history of our land, from time immemorial great minds have been formed and nourished
and touched to heroic deeds by the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. In most Indian homes, children
formerly learnt these immortal stories as they learnt their mother tongue at the mother's knee. And
the sweetness and sorrows of Sita and Draupadi, the heroic fortitude of Rama and Arjuna and the loving
fidelity of Lakshmana and Hanuman became the stuff of their young philosophy of life.

The growing complexity of life has changed the simple pattern of early home life. Still, there are few
in our lands who do not know the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Though the stories come to them
so embroidered with the garish fancies of the Kalak shepam (devotional meeting where an expert
scholar and singer tells a story to his audience) and the cinema as to retain but little of the dignity and
approach to truth of Vyasa or Valmiki. Vyasa's Mahabharata is one of our noblest heritages. And it is
my cherished belief that to hear it faithfully told is
to love it and come under its elevating influence. It strengthens the soul and drives home, as nothing
else does, the vanity of ambition and the evil and futility of anger and hatred.

The realities of life are idealised by genius and given the form that makes drama, poetry or great prose.
Since literature is closely related to life, so long as the human family is divided into nations, literature
cannot escape the effects of such division.

But the highest literature transcends regionalism and through it, when we are properly attuned, we
realise the essential oneness of the human family. The Mahabharata is of this class. It belongs to the
world and not only to India. To the people of India, indeed, this epic has been an unfailing and
perennial source of spiritual strength. Learnt at the mother's knee with reverence and love, it has

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
inspired great men to heroic deeds as well as enabled the humble to face their trials with fortitude
and faith.

The Mahabharata was composed many thousand years ago. But generations of gifted reciters have
added to Vyasa's original a great mass of material. All the floating literature that was thought to be
worth preserving, historical, geographical, legendary, political, theological and philosophical, of
nearly thirty centuries, found a place in it.

In those days, when there was no printing, interpolation in a recognized classic seemed to correspond
to inclusion in the national library. Divested of these accretions, the Mahabharata is a noble poem
possessing in a supreme degree the characteristics of a true epic, great and fateful movement, heroic
characters and stately diction.

The characters in the epic move with the vitality of real life. It is difficult to find anywhere such vivid
portraiture on so ample a canvas. Bhishma, the perfect knight; the venerable Drona; the vain but
chivalrous Karna; Duryodhana, whose perverse pride is redeemed by great courage in adversity; the
high souled Pandavas with godlike strength as well as power of suffering; Draupadi, most unfortunate
of queens; Kunti, the worthy mother of heroes; Gandhari, the devotedwife and sad mother of the
wicked sons of Dhritarashtra, these are some of the immortal figures on that crowded, but never
confused, canvas.

Then there is great Krishna himself, most energetic of men, whose divinity scintillates through a cloud
of very human characteristics. His high purposefulness pervades the whole epic. One can read even a
translation and feel the over whelming power of the incomparable vastness and sublimity of the
poem.

The Mahabharata discloses a rich civilisation and a highly evolved society, which though of an older
world, strangely resembles the India of our own time, with the same values and ideals. When India
was divided into a number of independent kingdoms, occasionally, one king, more distinguished or
ambitious than the rest, would assume the title of emperor, securing the acquiescence of other
royalties, and signalised it by a great sacrificial feast. The adherence was generally

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
voluntary. The assumption of imperial title conferred no over lordship. The emperor was only first
among his peers.

The art of war was highly developed and military prowess and skill were held in high esteem. We read
in the Mahabharata of standardised phalanxes and of various tactical movements. There was an
accepted code of honorable warfare, deviations from which met with reproof among Kshatriyas. The
advent of the Kali age is marked by many breaches of these conventions in the Kurukshetra battle, on
account of the bitterness of conflict, frustration and bereavements. Some of the most impressive
passages in the epic center round these breaches of dharma. The population lived in cities and villages.
The cities were the headquarters of kings and their household and staff. There were beautiful palaces
and gardens and the lives led were cultured and luxurious. There was trade in the cities, but the
massof the people were agriculturists.

Besides this urban and rural life, there was a very highly cultured life in the seclusion of forest
recesses, centered round ascetic teachers. These ashramas keptalive the bright fires of learning and
spiritual thought. Young men of noble birth eagerly sought education at these ashramas. World-weary
aged went there for peace. These centers of culture were cherished by the rulers of the land and not
the proudest of them would dare to treat the members of the hermitages otherwise than with respect
and consideration.

About the Author:

Full Name: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (1878–1972)
Background: An Indian politician, independence activist, lawyer, writer, and statesman.
Achievements: Last Governor-General of India, founder of the Swatantra Party, and recipient of the Bharat Ratna,
India’s highest civilian honor.
Literary Contributions: Rajagopalachari was well-known for simplifying complex classical Indian texts like the
Ramayana and Mahabharata for the common reader. His adaptations are revered for making ancient epics
accessible to a modern audience.

Writing Style:
Simplicity and Clarity: Rajagopalachari's writing style is marked by simplicity and clarity, aiming to make the

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
stories and their moral lessons understandable to a wide range of readers, including those unfamiliar with
Sanskrit or ancient texts.

Moral and Philosophical Insights: His writing often reflects the moral and philosophical teachings embedded
within the epics, offering insights into the ethical dilemmas faced by the characters.

Conciseness: Rajagopalachari condensed the massive and intricate Mahabharata into a shorter, digestible
narrative, focusing on key events and their meanings rather than every detail.

Balanced and Objective Tone: He avoids overly glorifying or criticizing any particular character, presenting the
story in a balanced and objective manner.

Theme:

Good vs. Evil: The primary theme of Rajagopalachari's version of Mahabharata revolves around the eternal battle
between good and evil, symbolized by the conflict between the Pandavas and the Kauravas.

Dharma (Righteousness): A core theme of the Mahabharata, as presented by Rajagopalachari, is the concept of
dharma, or righteous duty, and the complex, often conflicting demands it places on individuals.

Human Frailty and Divine Justice: The story explores the frailties of human nature and how the characters, despite
their strengths, succumb to greed, envy, pride, and anger. The ultimate victory of good, as shown in the
Mahabharata, is aligned with divine justice.

The Impermanence of Power and Wealth: Rajagopalachari highlights the fleeting nature of power, wealth, and
worldly success, emphasizing the importance of virtues over materialism.

Setting:
Ancient India: The Mahabharata is set in ancient India, covering a vast landscape that includes kingdoms like
Hastinapura, Indraprastha, and Kurukshetra.

Time Period: Though the exact period is debated, the story is set in a mytho-historical time during the Dvapara

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
Yuga, just before the start of the Kali Yuga, the last of the four stages of cosmic time in Hindu belief.

Cultural Context: The setting reflects the hierarchical structure of ancient Indian society, with its kings, warriors,
and sages, and the moral and social codes they followed.

Other Characteristics:
Moral Lessons: The preface emphasizes the moral lessons embedded within the epic, focusing on how the choices
made by the characters reflect their adherence to or deviation from dharma.

Philosophical Depth: Rajagopalachari delves into the philosophical underpinnings of the Mahabharata, particularly
through characters like Krishna, whose teachings in the Bhagavad Gita form the spiritual core of the text.

Character Development: The author highlights the complexity of the characters, who are neither entirely good nor
entirely bad, but driven by personal ambitions, desires, and ethical dilemmas.

Role of Fate and Free Will: The preface explores the tension between fate (destiny) and free will, a recurring theme
in the Mahabharata. The characters’ struggles are often seen as part of a larger divine plan, yet they also face the
consequences of their own choices.

Short Questions and Answers:

1. Q: Who is the author of the simplified version of Mahabharata?

A: C. Rajagopalachari.

2. Q: What is the central theme of the Mahabharata as highlighted by Rajagopalachari?

A: The battle between good and evil, and the importance of dharma (righteous duty).

3. Q: How does Rajagopalachari’s writing style differ from traditional tellings of the Mahabharata?
A: His style is simple, concise, and focused on moral and philosophical teachings, making the story accessible to modern
readers.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

4 Q: What is the significance of the setting in the Mahabharata?

A: The story is set in ancient India, during the Dvapara Yuga, reflecting the societal and cultural norms of the time.

5. Q: How does Rajagopalachari portray the characters in the Mahabharata?

A: He presents the characters as complex individuals with human flaws, neither wholly good nor wholly evil.

MCQs.:
1. The Mahabharata by C. Rajagopalachari is a retelling of:a. The Ramayana
b. The Ramcharitmanas
c. The Mahabharata
d. The Gita
Ans: c. The Mahabharata
2. The full name of C. Rajagopalachari is:
a. Chief Rajagopalachari
b. Charles Rajagopalachari
c. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
d. None
Ans: c. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
3. C. Rajagopalachari is popularly known as:
a. Mahatma
b. Netaji
c. Guruji
d. Rajaji Ans: d. Rajaji
4. The first Indian Governor General of India was:
a. C. Rajagopalachari
b. J.L. Nehru
c. M.K. Gandhi
d. Rajendra Prasad.
Ans: a. C. Rajagopalachari
5. C. Rajagopalachari was the founder of:
a. Congress Party
b. National Party
C. Swatantra Party
d. Revolutionary Party Ans: C. Swatantra Party
6. The first recipient of the Bharat Ratna was:
a. C. Rajagopalachari
b. J.L. Nehru
c. M.K. Gandhi
d. Rajendra Prasad.
Ans: a. C. Rajagopalachari

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
7. When was C. Rajagopalachari born in:
a. 1876
b. 1877
c. 1878
d. 1879
Ans: c. 1878
8. C. Rajagopalachari left this world in:
a. 1970
b. 1971
c. 1972
d. 1973
Ans: c. 1972
9. C. Rajagopalachari is popular for:
a. His retelling of the Mahabharata
b. His retelling of the Kamayani
c. His retelling of the Ramcharitmanas
d. His retelling of Panchatantra.
Ans: a. His retelling of the Mahabharata
10. Who is the author of the Mahabharata:
a. Kalidasa
b. Tulsidas
c. Vyasa
d. Valmiki Ans: c. Vyasa

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1).Discuss how Tagore envisions an ideal nation in this poem. What values and aspirations does he emphasize?
2).Examine Gandhi’s views on the importance of character building in education. How does this align with
modern-day education systems?
3). Explore the theme of displacement and loyalty in Velan’s character. How does his relationship with the land
shape his identity?
4). Discuss the significance of India’s cultural and intellectual contributions to the world as described by Basham.
How does this shape our understanding of ancient India?
Students are required to complete any two questions from the above-mentioned assignment and submit a
detailed report on the related and relevent topic.
When the mood seized him (about once a year) he opened the house and had the floor swept and scrubbed.
But gradually he gave up this practice. He was too old to bother about these things.
Years and years passed without any change. It came to be known as the ‘Ghost House’, and people avoided
it. Velan found nothing to grumble about in this state of affairs. It suited him excellently. Once a quarter he
sent his son to the old family in the town to fetch his wages. There was no reason why this should not have
gone on indefinitely. But one day a car sounded its horn angrily at the gate. Velan hobbled up with the keys.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
‘Have you the keys? Open the gate,’ commanded someone in the car.
‘There is a small side-gate,’ said Velan meekly.‘ Open
the big gate for the car!’
Velan had to fetch a spade and clear the vegetation which blocked the entrance. The gates opened on rusty
hinges, creaking and groaning.
They threw open all the doors and windows, went through the house keenly examining every portion and
remarked, ‘Did you notice the crack on the dome? The walls too are cracked . .
. There is no other way. If we pull down the old ramshackle carefully we may still be able to use some
of the materials, though Iam not at all certain that the wooden portions are not hollow inside . . . Heaven
alone knows what madness is responsible for people building houses like this.’ They went round the garden
and said, ‘We have to clear every bit of this jungle. All this will have to go . . .’ Some mighty person looked
Velan up and down and said, ‘You are the gardener, I suppose? We have not much use for a garden now.
All the trees, except half a dozen on the very boundary of the property, will have to go. We can’t afford
to waste space. This flower garden . . . H’m, it is . . . old-fashioned and crude, and apart from that the
front portion of the site is too valuable to be wasted . . .’
A week later one of the sons of his old master came and told Velan, ‘You will have to go back to your village,
old fellow. The house is sold to a company. They are not going to have a garden. They are cutting down
even the fruit trees; they are offering compensation to the leaseholder; they are wiping out the garden and
pulling down even the building. They are going to build small houses by the score without leaving space
even for a blade of grass.’
There was much bustle and activity, much coming and going, and Velan retired to his old hut. When he felt
tired he lay down and slept; at other times he went round the garden and stood gazing at his plants. He was
given a fortnight’s notice. Every moment of it seemed to him precious, and he would have stayed till the last
second with his plants but for the sound of an axe which stirred him out of his afternoon nap two days after
he was given notice. The dull noise of a blade meeting a tough surface reached his ears. He got up and rushed
out. He saw four men hacking the massive trunk of the old margosa tree. He let out a scream: ‘Stop that!’ He
took his staff and rushed at those who were hacking. They easily avoided the blow he aimed. ‘What is the
matter?’ they asked.
Velan wept. ‘This is my child. I planted it. I saw it grow. I loved it. Don’t cut it down . . .’
‘But it is the company’s orders. What can we do? We shall be dismissed if we don’t obey,

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
and someone else will do it.’
Velan stood thinking for a while and said, ‘Will you at least do me this good turn? Give me a little time. I will
bundle up my clothes and go away. After I am gone do what you like.’ They laid down their axes and waited.
Presently Velan came out of his hut with a bundle on his head. He looked at the tree-cutters and said, ‘You
are very kind to an old man. You are very kind to wait.’ He looked at the margosa and wiped his eyes.
‘Brothers, don’t start cutting till I am really gone far, far away.’
The tree-cutters squatted on the ground and watched the old man go. Nearly half an hour later his voice
came from a distance, half-indistinctly: ‘Don’t cut yet. I am still within hearing. Please wait till I am gone
farther.’

About the Author

R.K. Narayan (1906-2001) was one of the most celebrated Indian novelists writing in English. He was born in Madras
(now Chennai), India.
Narayan's works are known for their simplicity, humor, and portrayal of Indian life, often set in the fictional town of
Malgudi.
His writing style is marked by gentle irony, realistic portrayal of common people, and a deep understanding of
human nature.
Major works include "Swami and Friends," "The Guide" (which won him the Sahitya Akademi Award), and "Malgudi
Days."

Writing Style
Language: Simple, clear, and accessible.
Humor: Subtle, often arising from everyday situations.
Characterization: Vivid and lifelike, often focusing on the lives of ordinary people.
Themes: The intersection of tradition and modernity, human emotions, and social realities in India.
Setting: Most stories are set in the fictional town of Malgudi, which acts as a microcosm of India.
Summary of "The Axe"
Plot: "The Axe" tells the story of Velan, a poor gardener who works for a wealthy landlord. The story explores Velan's
life from his humble beginnings to his deep connection with the land and the trees he tends. His life takes a dramatic
turn when the landlord orders the felling of a massive tree, which Velan has grown emotionally attached to.
Theme: The main theme is the connection between man and nature, symbolized by Velan's bond with the tree. The

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
story also reflects on the impact of modernization and the insensitivity of those in power.
Setting: The story is set in a rural Indian village, capturing the simple, yet profound life of the villagers.

Character Sketch
Velan: A hardworking, humble gardener. He is deeply connected to the land he works on and has a profound
attachment to the trees, particularly the one he planted and nurtured. Velan is a representation of the rural,
uncomplaining Indian worker, dedicated to his work despite facing hardships.
The Landlord: A wealthy, indifferent man who represents authority and modernization. His decision to cut down
the tree symbolizes the disregard for nature and tradition in the face of progress.

Themes
Man vs. Nature: The story highlights the bond between Velan and the tree, illustrating the conflict between man's
emotional connection to nature and the destructive forces of modernization.
Tradition vs. Modernity: The landlord’s decision to cut down the tree represents the clash between traditional values
and modern progress.
Isolation and Loneliness: Velan's attachment to the tree also reflects his loneliness and the sense of belonging he
finds in his work.

Important Points
Velan’s emotional connection to the tree symbolizes his entire life’s work and identity.
The landlord's indifferent attitude showcases the power dynamics and lack of empathy between the rich and the
poor.
The story subtly critiques the impact of modernization on traditional lifestyles and values.

Short Question and Answers

1. Who is Velan in "The Axe"?
Velan is the protagonist, a poor gardener deeply connected to the land and trees he tends.

2. What does the tree symbolize in the story?

The tree symbolizes Velan's life, identity, and his connection to nature. It also represents tradition and stability.
3. What is the significance of the landlord's decision to cut down the tree?
The decision represents the insensitivity of modernization and the disregard for nature and tradition.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

4. How does the story "The Axe" reflect the theme of man vs. nature?
The story reflects this theme through Velan's deep bond with the tree and his helplessness when it is cut down,
showing the conflict between human emotions and the forces of change.

5. What message does R.K. Narayan convey through "The Axe"?

Narayan conveys the message that progress and modernization often come at the cost of destroying nature and
traditional values, leading to emotional loss and disconnection.

MCQs.:

Q.10. Who foretold that Velan would live in a big house?

(e) Father
(f) Villagers
(g) An astrologer
(h) A friend
Ans: (c) An astrologer
Q.11. At what age did Velan leave home?
(e) Sixteen
(f) Seventeen
(g) Eighteen
(h) Twenty
Ans: (c) Eighteen
Q.12. In Velan’s opinion, big mansion existed only in:
(e) Heaven
(f) Hell
(g) Swarg Loka
(h) Big cities
Ans: (c) Swarg Loka

Q.13. Which tree was most dear to Velan?

(e) Banyan
(f) Pipal
(g) Margosa
(h) Asoka
Ans: (c) Margosa
Q.14. R.K. Narayan was a novelist, an essayist and a:
(e) Short story writer
(f) Poet
(g) Historian
(h) Dramatist

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
Ans: (a) Short story writer
Q.15. Name the fictitious town of R.K. Narayan:
(e) Wessex
(f) Malgudi
(g) Hogwarts
(h) Xanadu
Ans: (b) Malgudi
Q.16. Kumar Baugh was called as:
(e) Palatial home
(f) Old home
(g) Lonely mansion
(h) Ghost house
Ans: (d) Ghost house

Q.17. Who says, ‘Don’t cut yet. I am still within hearing.’?

(e) Owner of the house
(f) Labourer
(g) Velan
(h) Villager
Ans: (c) Velan
Q.18. Velan shifted to the veranda of the bungalow because:
(e) He wanted to keep the bungalow for himself
(f) His hut started giving way
(g) He liked comforts and luxuries
(h) None of the above
Ans: (b) His hut started giving way
Q.10. The Axe has been written by:
(e) R.N. Tagore
(f) R.K. Narayan
(g) Mulk Raj Anand
(h) Raja Rao
Ans: (b) R.K. Narayan

The Wonder that was India by A. L. Basham (an excerpt)

Hindu civilization will, we believe, retain its continuity. The Bhagavad Gita will not cease to inspire men of
action, and the Upanishads men of thought. The charm and graciousness of the Indian way of life will
continue, however much affected it may be by the labour - saving devices of the West People will still love
the tales of the heroes of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and of the loves of Dusyanta and Sakuntala
and Pururavas and Urvasi. The quiet and gentle happiness which has at all times pervaded Indian life where

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
oppression, disease and poverty have not overclouded it will surely not vanish before the more hectic ways
of the West

Much that was useless in ancient Indian culture has already perished. The extravagant and barbarous
hecatombs of the Vedic age have long since been forgotten, though animal sacrifice continues in some sects.
Widows have long ceased to be burnt on their husbands' pyres. Girls may not by law be married in
childhood. In buses and trains all over India brahmans rub shoulders with the lower castes without
consciousness of grave pollution, and the temples are open to all by law. Caste is vanishing; the process
began long ago, but its pace is now so rapid that the more objectionable features of caste may have
disappeared within a generation or so. The old family system is adapting itself to present-day conditions. In
fact the whole face of India altering, but the cultural tradition continues, and it will never be lost.
The whole of South-East Asia received most of its culture from India. Early in the 5th century B.C. colonists
from Western India settled in Ceylon, which was finally converted to Buddhism in the reign of Ashoka. By
this time a few Indian merchants had probably found their way to Malaya, Sumatra, and other parts of
South-East Asia. Gradually they established permanent settlements, often, no doubt, marrying native
women. They were followed by brahmans and Buddhist monks, and Indian influence gradually leavened
the indigenous culture, until by the 4th century A.D. Sanskrit was the official language of the region, and
there arose great civilizations, capable of organizing large maritime empires, and of building such
wonderful memorials as their greatness as the Buddhist stupa of Borobodur in Java, or the Saivite temples
of Angkor in Cambodia. Other cultural influences, from China and the Islamic world, were felt in South-East
Asia, but the primary impetus to civilization came from India.

Indian historians, proud of their country's past, often refer to this region as "Greater India", and speak of
Indian "colonies". In its usual modern sense the term "colony" is hardly accurate, however. Vijaya, the
legendary Aryan conqueror of Ceylon, is said to have gained the island by the sword, but beyond this we
have no real evidence of any permanent Indian conquest outside the bounds of India. The Indian "colonies"
were peaceful ones, and the Indianized kings of the region were indigenous chieftains who had learnt what
India had to teach them.

Northwards Indian cultural influence spread through Central Asia to China. Faint and weak contact
between China and India was probably made in Mauryan times, if not before, but only when, some 2,000

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
years ago, the Han Empire began to drive its frontiers towards the Caspian did India and China really meet.
Unlike South- East Asia, China did not assimilate Indian ideas in every aspect of her culture, but the whole
of the Far East is in India's debt for Buddhism, which helped to mould the distinctive civilizations of China,
Korea, Japan and Tibet.

As well as her special gifts to Asia, India has conferred many practical blessings on the world at large;
notably rice, cotton, the sugarcane, many spices, the domestic fowl, the game of chess and most important
of all, the decimal system of numeral notation, the invention of an unknown Indian mathematician early in
the Christian era. The extent of the spiritual influence of India on the ancient West is much disputed. The
heterodox Jewish sect of the Essenes, which probably influenced early Christianity, followed monastic
practices in some respects similar to those of Buddhism. Parallels may be traced between a few passages
in the New Testament and the Pali scriptures. Similarities between the teachings of western philosophers
and mystics from Pythagoras to Plotinus and those of the Upanisads have frequently been noticed. None of
these similarities, however, is close enough to give certainty, especially as we have no evidence that any
classical writer had a deep knowledge of Indian religion. We can only say that there was always some
contact between the Hellenic world and India, mediated first by the Achaemenid Empire, then by that of
the Seleucids, and finally, under the Romans, by the traders of the Indian ocean. Christianity began to
spread at the time when this contact was closest. We know that Indian ascetics occasionally visited the
West, and that there was a colony of Indian merchants at Alexandria. The possibility of Indian influence on
Neo-platonism and early Christianity cannot be ruled out.
Many authorities may doubt that Indian thought had any effect on that of the ancient West, but there can
be no doubt of its direct and indirect influence on the thought of Europe and America in the last century
and a half, though this has not received adequate recognition. This influence has not come by way of
organized neo-Hindu missions. The last eighty years have seen the foundation of the Theosophical Society,
of various Buddhist societies, and of societies in Europe andAmerica looking for inspiration to the saintly
19th-century Bengali mystic, Paramahamsa Ramakrishna, and to his equally saintly disciple, Swami
Vivekananda. Lesser organizations and groups have been founded in the West by other Indian mystics and
their disciples, some of them noble, earnest and spiritual, others of more dubious character. Here and there
Westerners themselves, sometimes armed with a working knowledge of Sanskrit and first- hand Indian
experience, have tried to convert the West to a streamlined Yoga or Vedanta. We would in no way disparage

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these teachers or their followers, many of whom are of great intellectual and spiritual caliber; but whatever
we may think of the Western propagators of Indian mysticism, we cannot claim that they have had any
great effect on our civilization. More subtle, but more powerful, has been the influence of Mahatma Gandhi,
through the many friends of India in the West who were impressed by his burning sincerity and energy,
and by the ultimate success of his policy of non- violence in achieving India's independence. Greater than
any of these influences, however, has been the influence of ancient Indian religious literature through
philosophy.
The pioneers of the Asiatic Society of Bengal quickly gained a small but enthusiastic following in Europe,
and Goethe and many other writers of the early 19th century read all they could of ancient Indian literature
in translation. We know that Goethe borrowed a device of Indian dramaturgy for the prologue to "Faust"
and who can say that the triumphant final chorus of the second part of that work was not in part inspired
by the monism of Indian thought as he understood it? From Goethe onwards most of the great German
philosophers knew something of Indian philosophy. Schopenhauer, whose influence on literature and
psychology has been so considerable, indeed openly admitted his debt, and his outlook was virtually that
of Buddhism. The monisms of Fichte and Hegel might never have taken the forms they did if it had not been
for Anquetil- Duperron's translation of the Upanisads and the work of other pioneer Indologists. In the
English-speaking world the strongest Indian influence was felt in America, where Emerson, Thoreau and
other New England writers avidly studied much Indian religious literature in translation, and exerted
immense influence on their contemporaries and successors, notably Walt Whitman. Through Carlyle and
others the German philosophers in their turn made their mark on England, as did the Americans through
many late 19th-century writers such as Richard Jeffries and Edward Carpenter.

Though in the contemporary philosophical schools of Europe and America the monistic and idealist
philosophies of the last century carry little weight, their influence has been considerable, and all of them
owe something at least to ancient India. The sages who meditated in the jungles of the Ganges Valley six
hundred years or more before Christ are still forces in the world.

It is today something of an anachronism to speak of Western civilization or Indian civilization. Until very
recently cultures were sharply divided, but now, when India is but a thirty hours' journey from London,
cultural divisions are beginning to disappear. If a modus vivendi is reached between liberal democracy and
communism, and civilization survives, the world of the future will have a single culture with, it is to be

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hoped, many local differences and variations. India's contribution to the world's cultural stock has already
been very large, and it will continue and grow as her prestige and influence increases. For this reason if for
no other we must take account of her ancient heritage in its successes and its failures, for it is no longer the
heritage of India alone, but of all mankind.

1. About the Author

A.L. Basham (Arthur Llewellyn Basham) was a prominent British historian and Indologist, known for his expertise in
ancient Indian history and culture.
He was born in 1914 and passed away in 1986. Basham’s contributions significantly shaped Western understanding
of Indian civilization.
Basham's The Wonder That Was India is one of the most widely read books on ancient Indian history, appreciated for
its thorough research and accessible style.

2. Writing Style
Accessible and Engaging: Basham uses clear, straightforward language, making complex ideas and historical facts
easy to understand for readers unfamiliar with the subject.

Narrative-driven: He intertwines historical facts with vivid descriptions of life in ancient India, creating a narrative
that is not purely academic but also engaging.

Non-Eurocentric Approach: Unlike many Western scholars of his time, Basham avoids the colonial lens of portraying
Indian civilization as inferior to the West. Instead, he presents a balanced and appreciative view of India’s rich cultural
heritage.

Use of Evidence: Basham draws extensively from archaeological findings, ancient texts, and other primary sources.
He supports his interpretations with references to Vedic literature, Buddhist texts, and other historical records.

3. Theme and Setting

Ancient Indian Civilization: The book provides an extensive look at the history, culture, religion, and achievements of
India from ancient times to the beginning of the medieval period.

Focus on Cultural Achievements: Basham focuses on India’s contributions in various fields, including art, literature,
science, mathematics, and philosophy. The text highlights India’s advancements in these areas and their impact on
world civilization.

Religious and Philosophical Development: The book explores the origins of major Indian religions, including
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and their philosophical underpinnings.

Social Structure: Basham delves into the social and political organization of ancient India, including the caste system,
the position of women, and economic systems.

Inter-cultural Influence: The book also discusses India’s interactions with other ancient civilizations like Greece,
Rome, and China, showcasing India’s role as a central hub in the ancient world.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
4. Characteristics of the Chapter

Rich Descriptions: Basham vividly describes the daily lives, rituals, and customs of ancient Indians, helping readers
visualize the civilization.

Balance Between Religious and Secular Aspects: Basham emphasizes not just the religious and philosophical
achievements of India but also its secular advancements, particularly in art, science, and literature.

Chronological Flow: He takes a chronological approach, beginning with the Harappan civilization and covering the
Vedic age, the Mauryan Empire, and the Gupta period, giving readers a broad understanding of India's historical
timeline.

Global Context: The book often places India in the broader context of world history, comparing its development with
that of contemporary civilizations.

Objective Analysis: While being appreciative of India’s past, Basham does not shy away from discussing the societal
flaws, like the rigidity of the caste system or the subordinate status of women in ancient society.

5. Important Points

Harappan Civilization: Basham gives detailed accounts of the urban planning, architecture, and economy of the Indus
Valley Civilization, emphasizing its sophistication.

Vedic Culture: The chapter covers the transition from the Harappan to the Vedic period, focusing on the rise of Aryan
society and the development of early Vedic religious thought.

Mauryan Empire: Basham discusses the consolidation of political power under the Mauryan Empire, with special
focus on Ashoka’s contribution to spreading Buddhism and his policies of non-violence.

Gupta Period: Often referred to as the “Golden Age” of Indian culture, the Gupta period is celebrated for its
achievements in arts, literature, and sciences, particularly in mathematics (invention of zero) and astronomy.

Cultural Influence: The chapter discusses India’s influence on Southeast Asia and how Indian religions and culture
spread across the continent.

6. Short Questions and Answers

6. Q: Who was A.L. Basham?

A: A.L. Basham was a British historian and Indologist, known for his works on ancient Indian history, particularly The
Wonder That Was India.

7. Q: What is the primary focus of The Wonder That Was India?

A: The book focuses on the history, culture, and achievements of ancient Indian civilization, emphasizing its
contributions to art, literature, science, and religion.

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8. Q: What was one of the key features of the Harappan civilization according to Basham?
A: The Harappan civilization was known for its advanced urban planning, including grid-patterned cities, drainage
systems, and standardized weights and measures.

9. Q: How does Basham view the caste system in ancient India?

A: While acknowledging the societal structure it provided, Basham also critiques the rigid caste system for its
restrictions and inequalities.

10. Q: How did the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka influence Indian culture?
A: Ashoka promoted Buddhism, non-violence, and ethical governance, significantly impacting Indian society and
spreading Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

7. Word Meaning

Indologist: A scholar of Indian studies, particularly its history, languages, and culture.

Vedic: Related to the Vedas, the ancient sacred scriptures of Hinduism.

Mauryan Empire: An ancient Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya, known for its extensive territory and
powerful rulers like Ashoka.

Gupta Period: A period in ancient India noted for its advancements in arts, sciences, and political stability, often called
the "Golden Age" of India.

Caste System: The social stratification system in India, where people are divided into hierarchical groups based on
their birth.

8. Other Details

Illustrations: The book is supplemented with illustrations and maps, helping readers visualize ancient India’s
geography and culture.

Critical Reception : The Wonder That Was India is praised for its depth and comprehensive coverage of India’s past,
but some critics point out that the book tends to romanticize certain aspects of Indian civilization.
Legacy : Basham’s work remains a seminal text for students of Indian history, laying the foundation for further
research in the field.

MCQs.:

11. The main problems of India are:

a. labour saving devices.
b. action and thought.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
c. disease and poverty.
d. hectic ways of the world..
Ans: c. disease and poverty.
12. The old face of India:
a. has already changed fully.
b. is vanishing daily.
c. is changing fast.
d. is not likely to change at all.
Ans: c. is changing fast.
13. The earliest influence of ancient Indian culture on South- East Asia can be traced back to:
a. 4th Century A.D.
b. 5th Century B.C.
c. 1st Century A.D.
d. 9th Century B.C.
Ans: b. 5th Century B.C.
14. Vijaya, who is said to have conquered Ceylon first was:
a. a king from folk tales.
b. a king from fables.
c. a king from epics.
d. a king from real life.
Ans: a. a king from folk tales.
15. In the beginning, cultural relations between China and India were:
a. not strong.
b. mutually all assimilative.
c. pervasive and predominant.
d. pervasive and weakening.
Ans: a. not strong.
16. When was Ceylon finally converted to Buddhism:
a. in the reign of Ashoka
b. in the reign of Harsh
c. in the reign of Chandragupta
d. in the reign of Bhoj
Ans: a. in the reign of Ashoka.
17. Where is Buddhist stupa of Borobodur?
a. in Malaya.
b. in Sumatra.
c. in Ceylon
d. in Java
Ans: d. in Java.
18. Where is the Angkor located?
a. in Malaya.
b. in Sumatra.
c. in Cambodia
d. in Java

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
Ans: c. in Cambodia.
19. Faust is a play by:
a. Marlowe
b. Goethe
c. Schopenhauer
d. Hegel
Ans: b. Goethe.
20. Goethe, Schopenhauer and Hegel were:
a. American philosophers.
b. French philosophers
c. German philosophers
d. Indian philosophers
Ans: German philosophers.

Preface to Mahabharata by C. Rajagopalachari

It is not an exaggeration to say that the persons and incidents portrayed in the great literature of a people
influence national character no less potently than the actual heroes and events enshrined in its history. It
may be claimed that the former play an even more important part in the formation of ideals, which give to
character its impulse of growth.

In the moving history of our land, from time immemorial great minds have been formed and nourished and
touched to heroic deeds by the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. In most Indian homes, children formerly
learnt these immortal stories as they learnt their mother tongue at the mother's knee. And the sweetness
and sorrows of Sita and Draupadi, the heroic fortitude of Rama and Arjuna and the loving fidelity of
Lakshmana and Hanuman became the stuff of their young philosophy of life.

The growing complexity of life has changed the simple pattern of early home life. Still, there are
few in our lands who do not know the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Though the stories come to
them so embroidered with the garish fancies of the Kalak shepam (devotional meeting where an

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expert scholar and singer tells a story to his audience) and the cinema as to retain but little of the
dignity and approach to truth of Vyasa or Valmiki. Vyasa's Mahabharata is one of our noblest
heritages. And it is my cherished belief that to hear it faithfully told is
to love it and come under its elevating influence. It strengthens the soul and drives home, as
nothing else does, the vanity of ambition and the evil and futility of anger and hatred.

The realities of life are idealised by genius and given the form that makes drama, poetry or great
prose. Since literature is closely related to life, so long as the human family is divided into nations,
literature cannot escape the effects of such division.

But the highest literature transcends regionalism and through it, when we are properly attuned,
we realise the essential oneness of the human family. The Mahabharata is of this class. It belongs to
the world and not only to India. To the people of India, indeed, this epic has been an unfailing and
perennial source of spiritual strength. Learnt at the mother's knee with reverence and love, it has
inspired great men to heroic deeds as well as enabled the humble to face their trials with fortitude
and faith.

The Mahabharata was composed many thousand years ago. But generations of gifted reciters have
added to Vyasa's original a great mass of material. All the floating literature that was thought to be
worth preserving, historical, geographical, legendary, political, theological and philosophical, of
nearly thirty centuries, found a place in it.

In those days, when there was no printing, interpolation in a recognized classic seemed to correspond to
inclusion in the national library. Divested of these accretions, the Mahabharata is a noble poem possessing in a
supreme degree the characteristics of a true epic, great and fateful movement, heroic characters and stately
diction.

The characters in the epic move with the vitality of real life. It is difficult to find anywhere such
vivid portraiture on so ample a canvas. Bhishma, the perfect knight; the venerable Drona; the vain
but chivalrous Karna; Duryodhana, whose perverse pride is redeemed by great courage in
adversity; the high souled Pandavas with godlike strength as well as power of suffering; Draupadi,
most unfortunate of queens; Kunti, the worthy mother of heroes; Gandhari, the devotedwife and
sad mother of the wicked sons of Dhritarashtra, these are some of the immortal figures on that

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crowded, but never confused, canvas.

Then there is great Krishna himself, most energetic of men, whose divinity scintillates through a
cloud of very human characteristics. His high purposefulness pervades the whole epic. One can
read even a translation and feel the over whelming power of the incomparable vastness and
sublimity of the poem.

The Mahabharata discloses a rich civilisation and a highly evolved society, which though of an
older world, strangely resembles the India of our own time, with the same values and ideals. When
India was divided into a number of independent kingdoms, occasionally, one king, more
distinguished or ambitious than the rest, would assume the title of emperor, securing the
acquiescence of other royalties, and signalised it by a great sacrificial feast. The adherence was
generally voluntary. The assumption of imperial title conferred no over lordship. The emperor was
only first among his peers.

The art of war was highly developed and military prowess and skill were held in high esteem. We
read in the Mahabharata of standardised phalanxes and of various tactical movements. There was
an accepted code of honorable warfare, deviations from which met with reproof among Kshatriyas.
The advent of the Kali age is marked by many breaches of these conventions in the Kurukshetra
battle, on account of the bitterness of conflict, frustration and bereavements. Some of the most
impressive passages in the epic center round these breaches of dharma. The population lived in
cities and villages. The cities were the headquarters of kings and their household and staff. There
were beautiful palaces and gardens and the lives led were cultured and luxurious. There was trade
in the cities, but the massof the people were agriculturists.

Besides this urban and rural life, there was a very highly cultured life in the seclusion of forest
recesses, centered round ascetic teachers. These ashramas keptalive the bright fires of learning
and spiritual thought. Young men of noble birth eagerly sought education at these ashramas.
World-weary aged went there for peace. These centers of culture were cherished by the rulers of
the land and not the proudest of them would dare to treat the members of the hermitages
otherwise than with respect and consideration.

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About the Author:
Full Name: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (1878–1972)
Background: An Indian politician, independence activist, lawyer, writer, and statesman.
Achievements: Last Governor-General of India, founder of the Swatantra Party, and recipient of the Bharat
Ratna, India’s highest civilian honor.
Literary Contributions: Rajagopalachari was well-known for simplifying complex classical Indian texts like
the Ramayana and Mahabharata for the common reader. His adaptations are revered for making ancient
epics accessible to a modern audience.

Writing Style:
Simplicity and Clarity: Rajagopalachari's writing style is marked by simplicity and clarity, aiming to make
the stories and their moral lessons understandable to a wide range of readers, including those unfamiliar
with Sanskrit or ancient texts.

Moral and Philosophical Insights: His writing often reflects the moral and philosophical teachings
embedded within the epics, offering insights into the ethical dilemmas faced by the characters.

Conciseness: Rajagopalachari condensed the massive and intricate Mahabharata into a shorter, digestible
narrative, focusing on key events and their meanings rather than every detail.

Balanced and Objective Tone: He avoids overly glorifying or criticizing any particular character, presenting
the story in a balanced and objective manner.

Theme:

Good vs. Evil: The primary theme of Rajagopalachari's version of Mahabharata revolves around the eternal
battle between good and evil, symbolized by the conflict between the Pandavas and the Kauravas.

Dharma (Righteousness): A core theme of the Mahabharata, as presented by Rajagopalachari, is the concept
of dharma, or righteous duty, and the complex, often conflicting demands it places on individuals.

Human Frailty and Divine Justice: The story explores the frailties of human nature and how the characters,

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despite their strengths, succumb to greed, envy, pride, and anger. The ultimate victory of good, as shown
in the Mahabharata, is aligned with divine justice.

The Impermanence of Power and Wealth: Rajagopalachari highlights the fleeting nature of power, wealth,
and worldly success, emphasizing the importance of virtues over materialism.

Setting:
Ancient India: The Mahabharata is set in ancient India, covering a vast landscape that includes kingdoms
like Hastinapura, Indraprastha, and Kurukshetra.

Time Period: Though the exact period is debated, the story is set in a mytho-historical time during the
Dvapara Yuga, just before the start of the Kali Yuga, the last of the four stages of cosmic time in Hindu belief.

Cultural Context: The setting reflects the hierarchical structure of ancient Indian society, with its kings,
warriors, and sages, and the moral and social codes they followed.

Other Characteristics:
Moral Lessons: The preface emphasizes the moral lessons embedded within the epic, focusing on how the
choices made by the characters reflect their adherence to or deviation from dharma.

Philosophical Depth: Rajagopalachari delves into the philosophical underpinnings of the Mahabharata,
particularly through characters like Krishna, whose teachings in the Bhagavad Gita form the spiritual core
of the text.

Character Development: The author highlights the complexity of the characters, who are neither entirely
good nor entirely bad, but driven by personal ambitions, desires, and ethical dilemmas.

Role of Fate and Free Will: The preface explores the tension between fate (destiny) and free will, a recurring
theme in the Mahabharata. The characters’ struggles are often seen as part of a larger divine plan, yet they
also face the consequences of their own choices.

Short Questions and Answers:

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

4. Q: Who is the author of the simplified version of Mahabharata?

A: C. Rajagopalachari.

5. Q: What is the central theme of the Mahabharata as highlighted by Rajagopalachari?

A: The battle between good and evil, and the importance of dharma (righteous duty).

6. Q: How does Rajagopalachari’s writing style differ from traditional tellings of the Mahabharata?
A: His style is simple, concise, and focused on moral and philosophical teachings, making the story
accessible to modern readers.

5 Q: What is the significance of the setting in the Mahabharata?

A: The story is set in ancient India, during the Dvapara Yuga, reflecting the societal and cultural norms
of the time.

5.Q: How does Rajagopalachari portray the characters in the Mahabharata?

A: He presents the characters as complex individuals with human flaws, neither wholly good
nor wholly evil.

MCQs.:
11. The Mahabharata by C. Rajagopalachari is a retelling of:a. The Ramayana
e. The Ramcharitmanas
f. The Mahabharata
g. The Gita
Ans: c. The Mahabharata
12. The full name of C. Rajagopalachari is:
a. Chief Rajagopalachari
b. Charles Rajagopalachari
c. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
d. None
Ans: c. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari

13. C. Rajagopalachari is popularly known as:

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a. Mahatma
b. Netaji
c. Guruji
d. Rajaji Ans: d. Rajaji
14. The first Indian Governor General of India was:
a. C. Rajagopalachari
b. J.L. Nehru
c. M.K. Gandhi
d. Rajendra Prasad.
Ans: a. C. Rajagopalachari
15. C. Rajagopalachari was the founder of:
a. Congress Party
b. National Party
C. Swatantra Party
d. Revolutionary Party Ans: C. Swatantra Party
16. The first recipient of the Bharat Ratna was:
a. C. Rajagopalachari
b. J.L. Nehru
c. M.K. Gandhi
d. Rajendra Prasad.
Ans: a. C. Rajagopalachari
17. When was C. Rajagopalachari born in:
a. 1876
b. 1877
c. 1878
d. 1879
Ans: c. 1878
18. C. Rajagopalachari left this world in:
a. 1970
b. 1971
c. 1972
d. 1973
Ans: c. 1972
19. C. Rajagopalachari is popular for:
a. His retelling of the Mahabharata
b. His retelling of the Kamayani
c. His retelling of the Ramcharitmanas
d. His retelling of Panchatantra.
Ans: a. His retelling of the Mahabharata
20. Who is the author of the Mahabharata:
a. Kalidasa
b. Tulsidas
c. Vyasa
d. Valmiki Ans: c. Vyasa

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ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1).Discuss how Tagore envisions an ideal nation in this poem. What values and aspirations does he
emphasize?
2).Examine Gandhi’s views on the importance of character building in education. How does this align
with modern-day education systems?
3). Explore the theme of displacement and loyalty in Velan’s character. How does his relationship
with the land shape his identity?
4). Discuss the significance of India’s cultural and intellectual contributions to the world as described
by Basham. How does this shape our understanding of ancient India?
Students are required to complete any two questions from the above-mentioned assignment and
submit a detailed report on the related and relevent topic.

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UNIT-2
Comprehension Skill: Unseen Passage followed by multiple choice

Questions

Unseen passages can be tricky, but with the right approach, you can tackle them effectively. Here
are some tips and tricks for solving unseen passages in English for bachelor degree students:
1. Read Actively:
• Start by reading the passage carefully and actively. Pay attention to every word and sentence.
This initial reading will give you a sense of the overall tone and theme.
2. Understand the Context:
• Try to grasp the context of the passage. Understand who the characters are, what is happening,
and why. This will help you interpret the text accurately.
3. Identify the Main Idea:
• Determine the main idea or theme of the passage. This will give you a framework for
understanding the details and supporting points.
4. Look for Keywords:
• Identify keywords or phrases that are crucial to the passage's meaning. These might include
names, dates, places, or specific terms related to the subject.
5. Pay Attention to Punctuation:
• Punctuation marks like commas, periods, and semicolons can provide valuable clues about
sentence structure and meaning.
6. Analyze Sentence Structure:
• Understand how sentences are constructed. Pay attention to subject-verb agreements, verb
tenses, and the relationship between different clauses.
7. Predict Answers:
• Before looking at the options, try to formulate your own answer to the questions. This can help
you focus on the relevant parts of the passage.
8. Use Context Clues:
• If you come across an unfamiliar word, try to figure out its meaning based on the context in which
it is used.

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9. Watch for Opposite Answers:
Always double-check your choices.
10. Practice Active Reading Skills:
• Engage with the text actively. Underline or highlight key points, make marginal notes, and
annotate the passage as you read.
11. Time Management:
• Allocate a specific amount of time for each passage. If you find yourself stuck on a question, move
on and come back to it later.
12. Practice Regularly:
• Regular practice with different types of passages will help improve your comprehension skills.
Try to solve unseen passages from various topics and genres.
13. Be Mindful of Literary Devices:
• Look for literary devices like metaphors, similes, personification, and symbolism. Understanding
these can enhance your comprehension of the text.
14. Review Your Answers:
• Once you've answered the questions, review your choices to ensure they align with the context
of the passage.
15. Stay Calm and Confident:
• Don't panic if you encounter a challenging passage. Stay calm, read carefully, and trust your
comprehension skills.

16. Concentrate. Put aside your worries and distractions. Get ready toget down to business!
17. Don't rely too much on prior knowledge. Although you may know about the subject, the
information that is presented will bethe source from which your answer should come.

18. Read the question first. Why read the question before the passage?Because it saves time to know
what you are reading for!
19. Make sure you understand the question. What kind of informationwill you need to gather when
you read? Will you be looking for facts?Or will you be using the passage to come up with your own
answer?

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20. Read the passage. Read the passage as quickly as you can. Look for theanswer as you read.
When you find it, take notice of it, but -- and this is important -- don't stop reading yet! Read to the
end. That way you be sure that your answer is the best, most complete answer possible. If you are
reading the passage in order to provide a written response, read more carefully. Make sure you understand
everything.
21. Providing the answer. Feel free to look back at the passage to double-check your answer.
22. Concentrate. Put aside your worries and distractions. Get ready toget down to business!
23. Don't rely too much on prior knowledge. Although you may know about the subject, the
information that is presented will bethe source from which your answer should come.
24. Read the question first. Why read the question before the passage?Because it saves time to
know what you are reading for!
25. Make sure you understand the question. What kind of informationwill you need to gather
when you read? Will you be looking for facts?Or will you be using the passage to come up with
your own answer?
26. Read the passage. Read the passage as quickly as you can. Look for the answer as you read.
When you find it, take notice of it, but -- and this is important -- don't stop reading yet! Read to
the end. That way you can be sure that your answer is the best, most complete answer possible.
Ifyou are reading the passage in order to provide a written response, read more carefully. Make
sure you understand everything.
27. Providing the answer. Feel free to look back at the passage to double-check your answer.

Passage 1:

The Indian education system is quite an old education system that still exists. It has produced so
many genius minds that are making India proud all over the world. However, while it is one of the
oldest systems, it is still not that developed when compared to others, which are in fact newer. This
is so as the other countries have gone through growth and advancement, but the Indian education
system is still stuck in old age. It faces a lot of problems that need to be sorted to let it reach its full
potential. Our Indian education system faces a lot of problems that do not let it prosper and help
other children succeed in life. The biggest problem which it has to face is the poor grading system.

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It judges the intelligence of a student on the basis of academics which is in the form of exam
papers. That is very unfair to students who are good in their overall performance but not that good
at specific subjects. Moreover, they only strive to get good marks not paying attention to
understanding what is taught. In other words, this encourages getting good marks through
mugging up and not actually grasping the concept efficiently. Furthermore, we see how the Indian
education system focuses on theory more. Only a little percentage is given
for practical. This makes them run after thebookish knowledge and not actually applying it to the
real world. This practice makes them perplexed when they go out in the real world due to lack of
practical

knowledge. Most importantly, the Indian education system does not emphasize enough on the
importance of sports and arts. Students are always asked to study all the time where they get no
time for other activities like sports and arts. As the Indian Education System is facing so many
problems, we need to come up with effective solutions so it improves and creates a brighter future
for students. We can start by focusing on the skill development of the students. The schools and
colleges must not only focus on the ranks and grades but on the analytical and creative skills of
children. In addition, subjects must not be merely taught theoretically but with practical. This will
help in a better understanding of the subject without them having to mug up the whole thing due
to lack of practical knowledge. Also, the syllabus must be updated with the changing times and not
follow the old age pattern. Other than that, the government and private colleges must now increase
the payroll of teachers. As they clearly deserve more than what they offer. To save money, the
schools hire teachers who are not qualified enough. This creates a very bad classroom environment
and learning. They must be hired if they are fit for the job and not because they are working at a
lesser salary.
Questions:

• What are the major problems faced by the Indian education system?

a) Non development
b) Poor grading system
c) Stuck in old time

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d) Discrimination

Ans. b

• What are the steps that could be taken by schools for the development ofchildren?

a) Focusing on ranks and grades

b) Analytical and creative skills
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
Ans. b

• According to the passage what is ironical about the Indian educationsystem?

a) New yet not developed

b) Old yet developed
c) New yet developed
d) Old yet not developed Ans. d

• Which of the following factors is responsible for creating the bad environment in classroom?

a) Lack of knowledge
b) Mere theoretical teaching
c) Unqualified teachers

d) Old pattern of study Ans. c

• State the antonym of the word ‘perplex’.

a) Bewilder
b) Explicate
c) Perturb
d) Confound Ans. B

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

ASSIGNMENT QUESTION :-

Passage:

The concept of sustainability has gained immense importance in the 21st century, as the world

grapples with the effects of climate change, pollution, and resource depletion. Sustainable

development focuses on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs. This approach emphasizes the responsible management of

resources and the adoption of practices that reduce harm to the environment. However, achieving

sustainability requires collective action from governments, businesses, and individuals. While

technological advancements have provided some solutions, they also present new challenges, such as

e-waste and increased energy consumption. It is crucial for society to strike a balance between

innovation and environmental protection to secure a sustainable future.

Assignment Question: After reading the passage carefully, identify the main idea of the passage and

explain it in your own words.

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

UNIT-3

Basic Language Skills: 1. Vocabulary Building: Suffix, Prefix, Synonyms, Antonyms,

Homophones, Homonyms and One-Word Substitution.

2. Basic Grammar: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Prepositions, Articles,

Time and Tense

Prefixes:
A morpheme added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning is called prefix. Un: unkind,
unwise, unwanted, unfair Dis: disloyal, dislike,disrespect
Non: non-stop, non-violence

Mis: misbehave, misconduct, mismanagement

Suffixes:-
A morpheme added at the end of a word to modify the word’smeaning is called suffix. Ness:
kindness, meannessity: rapidity,
insanity I st :specialist, racialist
Ize: symbolize, hospitalize Ment:appointment, amazement
Al: refusal, dismissalFull: doubtful, wonder fulIsh : foolish, childishY: sandy, meaty,
salty En: ripen,widen

Ify: simplify, diversify

Synonyms:
They are different words with almost identical or similar meanings.
Synonyms can be any part of speech e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs orprepositions, for
e.g.Noun-
student, pupilVerb- buy, purchase Adjective- sick, ill Preposition- on, upon

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List of Synonyms: Abduct kidnap Admit confess Aggravate worsen Also

too
Answer response
Bliss happiness
Calamity disaster
Celestial heavenly
Conclude deduce
Dumb mute Egocentric self-centeredEgocentric self-centered

Luminousbright Malice ill will

Epoch era
Rough coarse
Reckless rough
Vogue fashion

Word Synonym Synonym

Narrow Confined restricted

Nature Aspect character

Necessary Mandatory requisite

Negate Contradict refute

Negligent Careless remiss

Negotiate Bargain deal

Nice Affable benign

Noble Aristocratic distinguished

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Novice Beginner nonprofessional

Nuisance Annoyance offense

Obedient Faithful loyal

Objection Disapproval protest

Obligatory Compulsory required

Observe Notice watch

Obvious Conspicuous definite

Offend Anger irritate

Offer Bid proposal

Omen Premonition sign

Omit Exclude remove

Opportune Advantageous auspicious

Pacify Appease placate

Pain Ache discomfort

Paramount Chief leading

Partisan Biased dogmatic

Passive Inactive lethargic

Pause Break cease

Permeate Diffuse disseminate

Perpetuate Endure preserve

Perplex Astonish baffle

Persecute Afflict harass

Radiate Effuse emanate

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Radical Basic fundamental

Range Anger furor

Rank Arrange classify

Realize Accomplish fulfill

Recalcitrant Obstinate stubborn

Receptacle Container repository

Reconcile Atone conciliate

Regret Deplore grieve

Reliable Dependable trustworthy

Sanction Approval permit

Scope Aim extent

Section Division portion

Settle Adjust compromise

Shallow Superficial trivial

Shrewd Careful calculating

Significant Distinctive important

Slight Delicate slender

Spontaneous Impromptu unplanned

Spread Announce broadcast

Stabilize Balance steady

Tame Domesticate subdue

Tangle Intertwine twist

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 Stabilize Balance steady

Tame Domesticate subdue

Tangle Intertwine twist

BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
Temper
Temper Mood
Mood nature
nature

Tendency
Tendency Inclination
Inclination trend
trend

Term
Term Cycle
Cycle duration
duration

Thrift
Thrift Conservation
Conservation prudence
prudence

Tough
Tough Aggressive
Aggressive unyielding
unyielding

Transfer
Transfer Convey
Convey exchange
exchange

Tumult
Tumult Agitation
Agitation commotion
commotion

Turbulent
Turbulent Disordered
Disordered violent
violent

Vain
Vain Boastful
Boastful inflated
inflated

Valid
Valid Authorized
Authorized legitimate
legitimate

Variety
Variety Assortment
Assortment diversify
diversify

Verify
Verify Authenticate
Authenticate substantiate
substantiate

Antonyms:-
They are more commonly knownas opposites.Cheap expensiveQuite noisy
Generous mean
Messy tidy
Asleep awake
Shallow deep

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Sharp blunt
Wise foolish
Wet dry
Odd even
Flexible rigid
Brave cowardly
Rude polite
Shiny dull
Tame wild Antonym Examples
Achieve – FailIdle – Active
Afraid – Confident Ancient – Modern Arrive – Depart Arrogant – Humble Ascend – Descend
Attack – Defend Blunt
– Sharp Brave – Cowardl Cautious –Careless Complex – Simple
Compliment – Insult Crazy – Sane Crooked –Straight Decrease – Increase Demand – Supply
Destroy – Create Divide – Unite Drunk – Sober Expand
– Contract Freeze - BoilFull – Empty
Generous – StingyGiant – Dwarf

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Gloomy – Cheerful Guilty – Innocent Hire – Fire Include –Exclude

Individual – Group Innocent – Guilty Knowledge – IgnoranceLiquid – Solid
Lonely – Crowded Major
– Minor Marvelous – Terrible Mature – Immature Maximum – Minimum Noisy – Quiet Optimist
- Pessimist Ordinary – Extraordinary Partial – Complete Passive –
Active Permanent – UnstablePlentiful – Sparse Positive – Negative Powerful – Weak Praise –
Criticism
Private – Public Problem – Solution

Professional – AmateurProfit – Loss

Quality – Inferiority Random – Specific Rigid
– Flexible Segregate – Integrate Shame – HonorSimple - Complicated Single – Married
Stiff – Flexible Strength
– Weakness Sturdy – Weak Sunny - Cloudy Superb – Inferior Temporary – Permanent

Timid – Bold Toward – AwayTragic – Comic

Transparent - Opaque Triumph – Defeat Union
– Separation Unique – Common Upset – RelaxedUrge – Deter Vacant
– Occupied

Vague – Definite Vertical – Horizontal Villain – Hero Visible -Invisible Wax – Wane Wealth –
Poverty

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Destroy Create

Dim Bright

Doubt Trust

Dull Sharp

Earth Sky

Easy Hard

End Begin

Evening Morning

Exceptional Common

Fail Pass

False True

Fancy Plain

Fat Thin

Find Lose

Firm Flabby

Bring Take away

Busy Idle

Capture Release

Cautious Careless

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Change Remain

same

Ancient Modern

Arrive Depart

Ascend Descend

Attract Repel

Awkward Graceful

Bad Good

Beautiful Ugly

Bent Straight

Big Small

Bitter Sweet

Blunt Sharp

Bold Timid

Brave Cowardly

Brief Long

Bright Dull

Boy Girl

Buy Sell

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Cause Effect

Center Edge

Cheap Expensive

Chilly Warm

Close Open

Command Obey

Child Adult

Clean Dirty

Cold Warm

Countryme Foreigner

Crooked Straight

Cry Laugh

Damage Improve

Dawn Sunset

Deep shallow

Difficulty Easy

Divide Unite

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Above Below

Accident Intent

Add Subtract

Admit Reject

Advance Retreat

Afraid Confident

Alive Dead

Alone Together

Amuse Bore

Annoy Soothe

Argue Agree

Arrogant Humble

Attack Defend

Awake Asleep

Back Front

Bare Covered

Before After

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Better Worse

Birth Death

Black White

Complimen Insult

Continue Interrupt

Copy Original

Crazy Sane

Cruel Kind

Curse Bless

Dark Light

Day Night

Amateur Profession

al

Pain Pleasure

Part Whole

Particular General

Passive Active

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Perceive Ignore

Life Death

Likely Unlikely

Little Big

Lonely Crowded

Lost Founded

Love Hate

Make Destroy

Man Women

Marvelous Terrible

Melt Freeze

Miscellaneo Specific

us

Mix Separate

More Less

Mother Father

Naïve Sophisticat

Near Far

New Old

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Nobody Everybody

None All

Nothing Something

Obese Thin

Odd Even

offer Refuse

Old Young

One Several

Other Same

Pacify Agitate

Panic Calm

Partial Complete

Pass Fail

Peace disturbance

Permanent Unstable

Permit Refuse

Physical Spiritual

Plain Fancy

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Plentiful Sparse

Polish Dull

Glossy Dull

Great Small

Grief Joy

Guard Attack

Handsome Ugly

Hard Soft

He She

Heaven Hell

Height Depth

Hero Coward

Hill Valley

Hire Fire

Hot Cold

Huge Tiny

Hurt Help

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In Out

Innocent Guilty

Intelligent Stupid

Joy Sadness

Kind Cruel

Large Small

Laugh Cry

Leave Arrive

Less More

Pollute Purify

Positive Negative

Praise Criticism

Pretty Ugly

Pride Modesty

Problem Solution

Prohibit Allow
pupil
Push Pull

Quick Slow

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Lie Truth

Like Dislike

Liquid Solid

Lively Inactive

Loose Tight

Loud Soft

Major Minor

Male Female

Many Few

Mature Immature

Mess Tidiness

Mistake Accuracy

Moist Dry

Move Stay

Nasty Nice

Never Always

No Yes

Noise Quiet

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North South

Now Then

Obvious Hidden

Offend Please

Often Seldom

On Off

Dumb Smart
East West
Elementary Advanced
Even Odd
Evil Good
Expand Shrink
Failure Success
Famous Unknown
Fast Slow
Fiction Fact
Finish Start
Fix Break
Follow Lead
Forward Backward
Fresh Stale

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Funny Sad
Gain Lose
Gentle Harsh
Give Receive
Gloomy Cheerful
Greed Generous
Ground Sky
Guess Know
Happy Sad
hate Love
Head Foot
Heavy Light
Help Hinder
High Low
Him Her

One Word Substitution:

One word substitution is the use of one word in place of a wordy phrase in order to make the sentence
structure clearer. The meaning, with the replacement of thephrase remains identical while the sentence
becomes shorter.

1. Something that cannot be heard – Inaudible

2. A song sung at a burial – Dirge
3. A period of ten years – Decade
4. One who leaves his own country to settle in another – Emigrant
5. A place where clothes are kept – Wardrobe

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6. A person very reserved in speech – Reticent

7. Morals that govern one’s behavior – Ethics
8. Open refusal to obey orders – Defiance
9. One who loads and unloads ships – Stevedore
10. A sudden rush of a large number of frightened people or animals. –
Stampede

11. One who is preoccupied with his own interests – Egoist

12. A geometrical figure with eight sides – Octagon
13. One who loves his country – Patriot
14. Incapable of paying debts – Insolvent
15. A long and aggressive speech – Harangue
16. The school or college in which one has been educated – Alma Mater
17. Enclosed area where aircraft are kept and repaired – Hangar
18. A short story with a moral, usually with animals as characters. – Fable
19. Having two opposing feelings at the same time – Ambivalent
20. A group of ships – Fleet

21. Pertaining to an individual from birth – Congenital

22. To increase the speed – Accelerate
23. A person who attracts attention with a flashy style – Flamboyant
24. A person who preaches religion and is considered to be a messenger ofGod. –
Prophet
25. A game in which neither party wins – Draw

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26. That which cannot be satisfied – Insatiable

27. A place where plants are grown for sale – Nursery
28. Putting to death painlessly to end suffering – Euthanasia
29. To rise in value – Appreciate
30. To brighten up with lights – Illuminate
31. Central character in a story or play – Protagonist
32. Person or animal living on another – Parasite
33. Having something more than required – Surplus
34. Anger about an unfair situation or about someone’s unfair behavior –
Indignation

35. A building where grain is kept or stored – Granary

36. Working very hard and very carefully – Diligent
Some more examples:

A book published after the

Posthumous
death of its author

A flesh eating animal Carnivorous

A game in which no one wins Draw

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A Government by a king or

queen Monarchy

A Government by one Autocracy

A Government by the few Oligarchy

A Government by the Nobles Aristocracy

A Government by the officials Bureaucracy

A Government by the people Democracy

A Government by the rich Plutocracy

A grass eating animal Herbivorous

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A handwriting that cannot be

read Illegible

A life history written by

oneself Autobiograph
y
A life history written by

somebody else Biography

A person’s peculiar habit Idiosyncrasy

A place where orphans live Orphanage

A position for which no salary

is paid Honorary

A sentence whose meaning is

Ambiguous
unclear

A study of ancient things

Archaeology

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A study of animals Zoology

Ornithology
A study of birds

A study of derivation of words

Etymology

A study of man
Anthropology

A study of races
Ethnology

A study of the body

Physiology

A thing no longer in use

Obsolete

An animal who preys on other

animals Predator

Murder of a father
Patricide

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Murder of a human being Homicide

Matricide
Murder of a mother

Fratricide
Murder of an brother

Murder of an infant
Infanticide

Murder of self
Suicide

Murder of the king

Regicide

One incapable of being tired

Indefatigable

One who always thinks himself

to be ill Valetudinaria
n
One who believes in fate
Fatalist

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One who can throw his voice Ventriloquist

Turncoat
One who changes sides

One who copies from other

writers Plagiarist

One who dies without a Will

Intestate

One who does not make

mistakes Infallible

One who doesn’t know how to

read and write Illiterate

One who doubts the existence

of god Agnostic

One who eats too much

Glutton

One who goes on foot

Pedestrian

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One who has no money Pauper

Eccentric
One who has strange habits

One who hates mankind

Misanthrope

One who hates women

Misogynist

One who is a newcomer

Neophyte

One who is all powerful

Omnipotent

One who is easily deceived Gullible

One who is fond of sensuous

pleasures Epicure
One who is greedy for money Avaricious

One who is indifferent to

pleasure or pain Stoic

One who is out to challenge a

government Anarchist

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One who is present Omnipresent

everywhere
One who is quite like a woman Effeminate

One who is recovering from

illness Convalescent

One who is unmarried Celibate

One who knows everything Omniscient

One who knows many

languages Polyglot

One who lives in a foreign

country Immigrant

One who looks on the bright

side of things Optimist

One who looks on the dark side

of things Pessimist

One who loves books Bibliophile

One who loves mankind Philanthropis
t

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One who pretends to be what Hypocrite

One who questions everything Cynic

One who speaks less Reticent

One who thinks only of himself Egoist

One who thinks only of welfare

of women Feminist

One who works for free Volunteer

People living at the same time Contemporaries

People who work together Colleagues

Practice of having one wife or

husband Monogamy

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Practice of having several Polyandry

husbands
Practice of having several

wives Polygamy

Practice of having two wives or

husbands Bigamy

Rule by the mob Mobocracy

Something that cannot be

imitated Inimitable

That through which light can

partly pass Translucent

That through which light can Transparent

That through which light

cannot pass Opaque

That which cannot be avoided Inevitable

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That which cannot be defended Indefensible

That which cannot be

described Indescribable

That which cannot be imitated Inimitable

That which cannot be satisfied Insatiable

That which is against law Illegal

That which is not likely to

happen Improbable

To free somebody from all

blame Exonerate

To transfer one’s authority to

another Delegate

Words written on the tomb of

a person Epitaph

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To write under a different

Pseudonym
name
Violating the sanctity of a

church Sacrilege

Words likely to be confused and misused:Homonyms:

Some words are so alike to each other in their meanings, spellings or pronunciation that itbecomes
difficult to understand and use them correctly.Such words are called Homonyms.
Bear- (a name ofanimal)Bear-(to sustain)
Bark- (the soundofa dog)Bark – (the skin of a tree) Left-(to leave)
Left- (related to the side of the human body)Address- (to speakto)
Address- (location)
Homophones:
A word that sounds the same but differs in spelling or meaning or origin iscalledHomophone. Ex.
See,sea.
Access- (approach)Excess- (super abundance)
Addition- (toadd)

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Edition- (a number of books printed at one time)Duel- (a combat between two)

Dual- (double) Gait- (manner ofwalking)Gate- (door)

List of Some Common Homophones

1) Whir- of a machine, make a continues noiseWore-simple past tense or wear;
having clothes onWere- singular andpluralpast of to be
2) Whirred- past tense of whir
Word- these very bunch of letters together, forming what you readandcomprehend
3) to - preposition

Too - also
Two - 2
4) Flour- A kitchen supplementFlower- abeautiful plant
5) Pause- bring to momentary stop
Paws- the feet of an animal, usually, containing pads and claws
6) Affects- make a difference. Used as averb. Effects- with the same

7) Through- moving in one side and out of the otherside ofThrew- simple past of throw
8) Throe- an intense or violent pain
Throw- propel with force through the air
9) Knot- a fastening made bytyping a laceNo-
Negative
10) Know- becomeaware ofNo- negative
11) Bow- bend the body as a sign of respectBough- the main branch of a free
Bo- a name

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12) Sow- plant by scatting seeds onthe surfaceSo- Submodifier

Sew- fasten or join threads together with a needle
13) Wright- maker or builder
Right- direction or correctness
Rite- religious or any solemn ceremonyWrite- mark letters on surface
14) Wrought- simple past ofwork Rot- become bad

15) Would- indicate the possibility of an imagined eventWood-What tree are madeof
16) You- a pronoun Ewe-female sheep
17) New-in a good
condition
18) Knew -past of know

19) Feat- an achievement requiringgreat courageFeet- Plural of foot

20) Flew- simple past of fly
Flu- deadly disease
Flue- a duct for waste smoke produced by any fuel- burning installation Dye- give
a different color to (usuallyhair)Die- stop living; lack of vitality; mana
21) Four- 4
For- in support or in favor of
Fore- situated in front

22) Fourth- out from a starting point Fourth- 4th

23) Way- Method of doing something; pathWeigh- act of finding out how heavy
1) Wait- delay someone’s actions Weight- a body’s quantityof matter

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2) I- first person pronoun

Aye - yes
Eye- You need them to read all this
3) See- act of usingyour eyesSea-the ocean
27) Liar- someone who tells untruthful
storiesLyre- a music a linstrument
28) Cite- mention
Site- an area
Sight- point of view; power of seeing
29) Coal- black rock used to fuel
Cole- cabbage, kale or rape

30) course- the route of something

Confusing and the Most Misused Words in English:

In English language, there are several words which sound alike though these are spelled differently
and have different meanings. Hence, one has to be very careful in using these words because they
are not only confusing but are likely to be

misused. Some of the most commonly confused and misused words in English with their meanings
and usage in sentence are given below:

Advice/Advise- Advice is a noun: John gave Naresh good advice. Advise is a verb: John advised
Sheela to avoid thequestionable chicken salad.

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 Affect/Effect-
BBA/B.Com/ Affect is verb
B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Istand
Yeareffect is noun. Subject: English
Example- Downed electricity affect citizens.
The effect of lazy daily routine is not good for health.

Among/Amongst- Among is the preferred and most common variant ofthisword in

AmericanEnglish.
Amongst is more common in British English.

Among/Between – Among expresses a collective or loose relationship of several items:Harish

found a letter hidden among the papers on the desk. Between expresses the relationship of one
thing, to another thing or to many other things: Suresh spent all day carrying messages between
Harish and the other students.
The idea that between can be used only when talking about two things is amyth-it'sperfectly
correct touse between if you are talking about multiple binary relationships.

Assure/Ensure/Insure - Assure means to tell someone that something will definitely

happen or isdefinitely true: Naresh assured John that no one would

cheat at Chess.
Ensure means to guarantee or make sure of something: Aditya took steps to ensure thatno one
cheatedat Chess.
Insure means to take out an insurance policy: Prakash was glad the Chessh all wasinsured
against damage caused by rowdy people.

Breath/Breathe- Breath is a noun; it's the air that goes in and out of yourlungs: John heldhis
breathwhile his kid was going down the stairs.

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Breathe is a verb; it means to exhale or inhale: After Apoorva's safe landing,Pratibha had to
remind herself to breathe again.

Capital/Capitol- Capital has several meanings. It can refer to an uppercaseletter, money,or a

citywhere a seat of government is located: Sheela visitedDelhi, the capital of India. Capitol means
the building where a legislature meets: Naresh visited the cafe in the basement of the capitol.

Complement/Compliment- A complement is something that completes somethingelse. It's

often usedto describe things that go well together: hisblack shoes were a perfect complement to
his Jacket.
A compliment is a nice thing to say: she received many compliments on herpurple dress.

Disinterested/Uninterested - Disinterested means impartial: A panel ofdisinterested judges

hadnever met the accused before.

Uninterested means bored or not wanting to be involved with something:she was

uninterested inattending John's kinging class.

Defence/Defense- Defense is standard in American English. Defence is foundmainly in British

English.

Emigrate/Immigrate - Emigrate means to move away from a city or country to livesomewhere

else:Example- His grandfather emigrated fromCanada sixty years ago.

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Immigrate means to move into a countryfromsomewhereelse:

Example- Her sister immigrated to Ireland in 2004.

E.g./I.e. - These two Latin abbreviations are often mixed up, but e.g. means"for example,"while
i.e. means "that is."

Empathy/Sympathy- Empathy is the ability to understand another person'sperspective or

feelings. Sympathy is a feeling of sorrow for someone else's suffering. A sympathizer is someone
who agreeswith a particular ideal or cause.

Farther/Further- Farther refers to physical distance: She can run farther thanhim. Further
refers to metaphorical distance: Prof. Subramanian is further awayfrom finishinghis project
than Prof., Martin is.

Flaunt/Flout- Flaunt means to show off: Example- He his stylishnew dress.Flout means to defy,
especially in away that shows scorn:
Example- She flouted the institute's dress code by wearing a saree.

Gray/Grey- Gray is the standard American English spelling. Grey is thestandard BritishEnglish
spelling..

Historic/Historical - Historic means famous, important, and influential: Ile visited thebeach in
Kitty Hawk where the Wright brothers made their historicfirst airplane flight.

Historical means related to history: She visited the historical tomb of I lumayun.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English
Imply/Infer- Imply means to hint at something without saying it directly: Sheimplied that Naresh
was in trouble, but he wouldn't tell her why.
Infer means to deduce something that hasn't been staled directly: Satya inferredthat John was
nervousabout something from the way he kept looking over her shoulder.

It's/Its - lt's is a contraction of "it is".

Lay/Lie - To lay means to put or to place. One way to remember this is thatthere is an a inboth
to lay and to place. For example- She will lay out her overcoat before she goes to bed.

To lie means to recline. For example- She will lie down for a nap.

Lead/Led - Lead, when it rhymes with "bed." refers to a type of metal. Led isthe past tenseof the
verbto lead, which means to guide or to be first.
Example- He led thc way.

Loose/Lose- Loose is usually an adjective.

For example- Katy discovered that the cows were loose.
Lose is always a verb. It means to misplace something or not to be victorious in a game or
contest.Example- John was careful not to lose histicket.

Principal/Principle- Principal can be a noun or adjective. As a noun, it refersto the person in

charge ofa school or organization. He was called into the principal's office. As an adjective, it
means most important: The principal reason for thismeeting is tomake plans for conducting
the examination.
A principle (always a noun) is a firmly held belief or ideal: She doesn't likesurprise parties asa

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 matter of principle.
BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Inquiry/Enquiry- Inquiry and enquiry both mean "a request for information." Inquiry is the
standardAmerican English spelling. Enquiry is the British spelling.

Stationary/Stationery- Stationary, means un moving: The revolving doorremained

stationarybecause he was , pushing it the wrong way.

Stationery refers to letter writing materials and especially to high qualitypaper: John printed
hisresume on his best stationery.

Than/Then- Than is used for comparisons: He runs faster than John. Then is used toindicate
time or sequence: She took off running. and thenJohn came along and finishedher breakfast.

Their/There/They're - Their is the possessive form of "they": Studentstook their time.There

indicates a place: It took them anhour to get there.
They're is a contraction of "they are": Are Suresh and Sheela coming? They'realmost here.

To/Too - To is a preposition that can indicate direction: She walked to school.She said hello to
Johnwhen she saw him.
Too is used as an intensifier, and also means "also": Sheela waited too long to doherhomework.

Toward/Towards – Toward is standard in American English. Towards isstandard in British

English.

Who's/Whose- Who's is a contraction of "who is": Who's calling John at thishour? Whose is a
possessive pronoun that means "belonging to (someone)": Sheela, whosephone hadn'tstopped
ringing all morning, barely ate anything

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Basic Grammar: Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb,

Prepositions, Articles, Time and Tense
NOUN:

Noun is the name of person, place, thing, idea or feeling.Noun hasSeven Basic kinds. These are as

follows:

1. Common Noun

2. Proper Noun

3. Collective Noun

4. Material Noun

5. Abstract Noun

6. Countable Noun

7. Uncountable Noun

1. Common Noun: Common Noun is a name given to any person, place, or thingin general.The name
‘boy’ refers to all boys (Rakesh, Raju, Amit, Rajesh, Mayank etc.) but does not mention any
particular boy. Hence, the name ‘boy’ is a common noun. Similarly, the name ‘city’ refers to any
city in the world (Delhi, Patna, Japan, New York, etc.)but does not mention any particular city. Thus,
‘city’ is a common noun. (We must use an article before a singular Common noun.)

2. Proper Noun: Proper noun is the name given to a particular person, place or thing.

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For example,B.Com
BBA/B.Com/ Rakesh and Amit are the
(Hons)/BAJMC/ names of boys; Delhi, the name of a Subject:
Ist Year city; TajMahal, the
English
name of

a monument; Ganga the name of a river; Mt Everest, the name of a mountain range. Hence
Rakesh, Mayank, Delhi, Taj Mahal, Ganga and Mt. Everest are proper nouns.Note: A Proper
noun

always begins with a capital letter.

3. Collective Noun: A collective noun is a word or phrase that represents a group of people or
things but is treated as a singular entity (Hint: a “collection” of peopleor things). Even though you
can count the individual members of the group, you usually think of the individuals as a group, a
whole, or as one unit.

• A herd of animals
• Class of students
• Flock of birds
• Pride of lions
• Choir of singers

4. Material Noun: It is simply a name of various raw materials or elements which exist in
natureor the environment. Also, some of them are evolved from animals or plants after the
biodegradation process. Material nouns are formed from nature like gold, silver, iron, coal,
rock, copper, aluminum, etc. The most

important thing about this noun is that it only indicated the materials orsubstances and not

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 people, places,
BBA/B.Com/ etc. (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year
B.Com Subject: English

Types of Material Noun

• Material nouns for plants: Food, oil, coffee, medicine, perfume, tea, cotton,rubber, etc.

• Material nouns from animals: Wool, meat, honey, egg, milk, leather, silk, etc.
• Materials from nature: Sand, rock, rain, salt, water, silver, gold, diamond, coal, air,etc.
• Human-made material nouns: Alcohol, cement, charcoal, cheese, paraffin, cloth,utensil,
brick, acid, etc.

5. Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a person, place, or thing without a physical form,
meaningthat a person cannot interact with abstract nouns using their five senses: sight,
scent, taste, touch,or hearing. Abstract nouns are abstract concepts, such as philosophies
or emotions. They are names given to some quality, feeling, state or action. Charity is an
abstract noun for it is the name of a quality which cannot be seen but can only be
understood by seeing certain actions or behavioural pattern of a person. For example,
“happiness” is an abstract noun youidentify through someone’s actions, but you cannot
touch or smell “happiness.”

6. Countable Noun: Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a
singular and a plural form. The singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an".

Singular Plural

one cat two cats

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one fish
BBA/B.Com/ two fishes Ist Year
B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Subject: English

one man two men

one idea two ideas

one dress two dresses

7. Uncountable Noun: Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state orquantity that is
impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that actlike liquids (sand, air). Abstract
ideas like creativity or courage are also uncountable. Uncountable nouns are always considered
to be singular, and can stand alone or be used with some, any, a little, and much. See the examples
below for reference:

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

A lot of equipment is required to play hockey safely.

Pronoun:

Pro means 'for' or 'acting as.' A pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun or a noun phrase. In
other words, it has all the characteristics of a noun: it can function as a
subject/object/complement in a sentence. A pronoun is used to avoid the repetition of nouns or
noun phrases:

1. Suresh went to the market because Suresh wanted to buy a pen. i.e. Suresh went to the market
because he wanted to buy a pen.

2. Walking is a form of exercise. Walking is easier than swimming. i.e. Walking is a form of

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 exercise.
BBA/B.Com/It isB.Com
easier(Hons)/BAJMC/
than swimming.Ist Year Subject: English

There are seven types of pronouns:

i) Personal Pronouns: A pronoun used to place instead of any person is called a personal
pronoun. Personal pronoun usually indicates persons. For example, I, we, you, she, they, etc.

i) Personal pronouns: Personal Pronouns are pronouns that refer to a specific person orthing
in a sentence. Personal pronouns are marked in bold for easy identification:

• I have a sweet puppet.

• We have been playing cards since morning.
• You are very good at English.
• He had an evergreen memory in his childhood.
• She is going to arrange a meeting with her colleagues.
• They will be played in the final match.

➢ The Pronouns which refer to the person or persons speaking are called
Pronouns of the First Person; as: I, we, me, us, mine, and ours.
➢ The Pronouns which refer to the person or persons spoken to are called
Pronouns of the Second Person; as: you, yours.

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➢ The Pronouns which refer to the person or thing spoken of are called Pronouns ofthe
Third Person; as: he, she, him, his, her, hers, they, them,theirs, and it.

ii) Possessive Pronouns: Possessive pronouns show who owns something

described in a sentence. They include mine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, their,
andtheirs. Possessive adjectives are similar to possessive pronouns. However, the
possessive adjective comes before the object ofthe sentence; the possessive pronoun is
the object of the sentence.
Example: I had dinner with Jane and her brother, Michael.
His shoes were old and worn.

iii) Demonstrative Pronouns: Demonstrative pronouns point out a particular

person or thing. When used before nouns, however, they are considered adjectives
(these books, those houses, that flag).
Example: This, these, that, those. SentenceExample 1: These are her books.
Sentence Example 2: That is the road she took.

iv) Reflective Pronouns: When a pronoun consists of a reflection of the self, it isa
reflexive pronoun. For example,

He hurt himself.

She herself turned up to the event.

Note: We can only use the reflexive pronoun as a reflection of the subject, but

notinstead of thesubject.

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v) Relative Pronouns: A relative pronoun is a word that is related to the

nounmentionedbefore in the sentence. The relative pronoun also works as a
conjunction in the sentence, thus acting as a link between various sentences.

He works in that room which is also like his bedroom.

The man whose bike was stolen came to the police station today.It is thebest movie that I

ever watched.

I have a friend whom I treat as my teacher.

vi) Interrogative Pronouns: Interrogative pronouns are used for asking questions in
thesentences. Examples of such pronouns are what, who, which, when, where, why, etc.

What is your name?

Where is the Taj Mahal situated?

vii) Indefinite Pronouns: When the pronoun describes a general phenomenonand no one
specific in a sentence, that is an indefinite pronoun. For example,

One, all, some, no one, nobody, somebody, any, other, many, anyone, everyone,someone etc.

One should be careful about one’s behavior in the class.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Adjectives:
An adjective describes or modifies noun/s and pronoun/s in a sentence. It normally indicates
quality, size, shape, duration, feelings, contents, and more about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives
usually provide relevant information about the nouns/pronouns they modify/describe by
answering the questions: What kind? How many? Which one? How much? Adjectives enrich your
writing by addingprecision and originality to it.

Example:

• The team has a dangerous batsman. (What kind?)

• I have ten candies in my pocket. (How many?)
• I loved that red car. (Which one?)
•

• I earn more money than he does. (How much?)

Degrees of Adjectives

Positive Degree – An adjective is said to be in positive degree, when there is nocomparison.

Comparative Degree – An adjective is said to be in comparative degree, when itis used to

compare between two nouns or pronouns.

Superlative Degree – An adjective is said to be in superlative degree, when it isused to

compare more than two nouns or pronouns.

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Types of Adjectives:

1. Descriptive Objectives: As the name suggests, these are words which describe nouns
and pronouns. In other words, it adds an attribute to thenouns/pronouns. They are also
known as Qualitative Adjectives.

Examples: I have a fast car. (The word ‘fast’ is describing an attribute of thecar)

I am hungry. (The word ‘hungry’ is providing information about the subject)

2. Quantitative Adjectives: The quantity of the nouns or pronouns is definedby

quantitative adjectives. The question ‘how much?’ and ‘how many?’ is addressed by this
type.

Examples: I have 50 bucks in my purse. (How much)

Sunita has three kids. (How many)

3. Proper Adjectives: Proper nouns modifying or describing other nouns/pronouns

become proper adjectives. It means ‘specific’ or particular.

Examples: Indian kabaddi players are very strong.

I love Burger King’s burgers.

3. Demonstrative Adjective: Reference to something or someone is pointed out by

Demonstrative Adjectives. The words: this, that, these, those are usedas Demonstrative
Adjectives.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Examples: That house is beautifully decorated.

(‘That’ refers to a singular noun far from the speaker)

This notebook is mine.

(‘This’ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker)

4. Possessive Adjectives: A possession or ownership is described by this adjective. The

ownership of something to someone/something is pointedout. The most common
words used: my, his, her, our, their, your.

Examples: My bicycle was parked outside.

His dog is very adorable.

5. Interrogative Adjectives: This adjective asks a Question. The adjective is followed bya
noun or a pronoun. The most common words are: which, what, whose.

Examples: Which laptop do you use?

What game do you usually play?

6. Indefinite Adjectives: A non-specific modification of a noun is done by this one.

Provides indefinite information about the noun. The common words are: few, many,
much, most, all, any, each, every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.

Examples: Manisha gave some rice to her.

Raj wanted a few moments alone.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

relation with the subject or a noun and stand alone as a complete sentence. Ex. I go, She went.
They have completed.
Non-Finite (Incomplete) verbs do not show tense, person or number. Ex. He wants to play
football. The Police caught him driving without a license. Here‘to play’ and ‘driving’ are
considered as non-finite verbs. These Verbs are usedin various ways.
We have some more verbs and its kinds:

Kinds of verb
Transitive verb Intransitive verbLinking verb
Auxiliary verb/helping verb

Transitive verb
Transitive verb needs an object to complete its sense. It is SVO(subject, verb,object,) As:
Dinesh saw a film. Welove our country.
Sunaina sings beautiful songs.Indiawill win the match.

In these sentence –
Verbs are- saw, love, sings and will win.
Object are- a film, our country, beautiful. Songs, and the match.

Note: If we combine subject and verb and ask the question “what” or “whom” andget an answer
(object),it is Transitive verb.

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

Examples:
S+verbs Question Answer(Object)

Dinesh saw What? a pen

We love Whom our country

Sunaina sings What? beautiful songs

Transitive verb can have two objects:

• One object
• Two objects
Transitive verb with one object She is taking milk.
I like coffee. Anandplays chess.
Our teachers teach us.
In these sentence milk, coffee, chess, and us are objects.

Transitive verb with Two object

In such cases one is the indirect object which is usually a human being and one is directobject which is
usually a thing, idea or thought etc.
Ms. Mamta teaches us English. My friend gave me a book.

The stranger asked him a question.

She wrote me a letter.

In these sentence Indirect objects are- us, him, me , me and Direct object are-English, abook, a

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BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

questionand a letter.

Intransitive verb
An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity
likearrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object
receiving the action.Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:

Meera arrived late in the class.Arrived = intransitive verb.

James went to the library today.Went

= intransitive verb

The cats often lie in the shade under out cars.Lie =intransitive verb

Shreya was grinding peppers so shesneezed with violence.Sneezes=

intransitive

In the evenings, Geeta sits in her garden.Sits =intransitive verbs.

Many people die in road accidents everyday.Dies=intransitive verb.

Linking verb
It is called Intransitive verb of incomplete predication also. It is used as complement to
make the sensecomplete. As: In other words we can say thatlinking verb connects a
subjects and its complement. As:

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 Komal
BBA/B.Com/ is a(Hons)/BAJMC/
B.Com doctor. Ist Year Subject: English

Geeta looks happy.The sun is a star.

Karina is beautiful. Myfriend is present.Musicsounds sweet.
Linking verbs: is, am, are, was, were, looks, taste, feel, consider, sound,appear,
remain, seem, grow,get, come, go, run, become, has/have, had+been.

Auxiliary verb or Helping verb An auxiliary verbs are—

(i) Primary auxiliary- Be( is, am, was, were, been, being,), has ,have, had ,do,does, did,
(ii) Modal auxiliary- Should, shall, will, should, may, might, can, could.

Primary Auxiliary Modal Auxiliaries

Varun is reading a novel. We shall come tomorrow.Madhvi was singing a song. You should
study.

I have done my work. It may rain today. She

has betrayed us. She can drive a car.They do not waste their time. You need not
worry.
Do you like the film Would you lend me some moey?

Conjugation of verb
Verb has four forms:Present (first form) Past (second form)
Past participle (third form) Present participle (ing form)

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First Form Second Form Third Form Four

Form

Accept Accepted Accepted Acceptin

Act Acted Acted Acting

Agree Agreed Agreed Agreeing

Buy Bought Bought Buying

Bleed Bled Bled Bleeding

Call Called Called Calling

Cry Cried Cried Crying

Close Closed Closed Closing

Drink Drank Drank Drinking

Enter Entered Entered Entering

Free Freed Freed Freeing

Give Gave Gave Giving

Help Helped Helped Helping

Insult Insult Insulted Insulting

Kill Killed Killed Killing

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Lay Laid Laid Laying

Make Made Made Making

Meet Met Met Meeting

Pay Paid Paid Paying

Push Pushed Pushed Pushing

Adverb:

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It “qualifies” or “modifies” averb. Readthe
following sentences:
It “qualifies” or “modifies” a verb. Read the following sentences:

–Alice smiled sweetly.

– Those mangoes were very sweet.

– He spoke quite loudly.

In sentence 1, the adverb quickly shows how (or in what manner) Alice smiled. Itmodifies theverb
smiled.

In sentence 2, the adverb very says something about the sweetness of themangoes. Itmodifies the
adjective sweet.

In sentence 3, quite says something about the manner in which he spoke. Itmodifies the adverb
loudly.

Note that the adverbs that are standing at the beginning of sentences sometimesmodify thewhole

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sentence,
BBA/B.Com/rather than
B.Com a particular word.
(Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

• Unfortunately, no one was present there. It was unfortunate that no one waspresent

• there.)

Probably I am mistaken. (It is probable that I am mistaken.)

Kinds of adverbs:

There are very many kinds of adverbs:

1. Adverbs of action: They are the adverbs which tell us when an action takesplace.Examples are
today, yesterday, before, daily, already, ago, never etc.

Rule: Time adverbs cannot be used in the present perfect, instead the pastindefinite is
used for them.
– I saw a 3D movie last night.

– I met him yesterday.

– His father died two years ago.

– I have seen him before.

2. Adverbs of frequency: They are the adverbs which tell us how often an action takes place.examples
are often, always, once, never, again, seldom, frequentlyetc.

– The Delhi Police is always with you.

– They always come in time.

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–BBA/B.Com/
We seldomB.Com
go out(Hons)/BAJMC/
on Sundays. Ist Year Subject: English

– I have seen him only once.

3. Adverbs of place They are the adverbs which tell us where an action takes place. Examples
are: here, there, up, down, everywhere, out, in etc.

– He left his bag there.

– They looked everywhere.

– Please sit here. The car parked there.

4. Adverbs of manner: They are the adverbs which tell us how an action takes place or in
whatmanner. Examples are: quickly, carefully, sweetly, clearly, bravely, beautifully, well,
fast etc.

– Gautam Buddha left his family stealthily.

– They helped us cheerfully.

– he speaks slowly.
5. Adverb of Degree and quality – They are the adverbs which tell us how much or in
what degree or to what extent. Examples – very, quite, rather, enough, any, partly, almost,
utterly, as, entirely etc.

– Shamita is very beautiful

– The whistle did not please him anymore.

– I have pleaded enough and now I give up.

– He’s quite a good soccer player.

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6. Adverbs of reason – They are the adverbs which tell us why an action takes place.Examples
– consequently, therefore, hence.

– It consequently has four vertices and six edges.

– He was therefore forced to relinquish his plan.

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–

– Her triumphal progress through the skies. Hence he was called.

7. Adverbs of Adverbs of affirmation or negation – They are the adverbs whichtell us whether
an action is done or not. Examples – surely, certainly, not, probably etc.

– Surely he should have known she would get suspicious.

– He is a fool indeed.

– He is a fool indeed.

– I was not playing.

8. Interrogative adverbs – Adverbs which are used for asking questions are calledinterrogative
adverbs. Examples are: when, where, how, why etc.

– When will you go to New York ?

– How long will you stay here?

– Where are my keys ?

9. Relative adverbs – A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun that often introduces

dependent(or relative) clauses in sentences. They also can stand alone as the subject or
object of a sentence.Examples – who, whoever, whom, whomever, that, which, when,
where, and whose.

– Where are you going ?

– That was my book.

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Prepositions:

A preposition is a word placed before a noun, pronoun or gerund. It denotes the relation of the
person or thing with something else.

Examples:

a) The food is on the table. In this sentence, on shows the relation between thenouns table
and food.
ii) I am fond of chocolates. In this sentence, of shows the relation between the words
fond and chocolates.

As given in the examples above, a word such as a noun, pronoun or gerund following a preposition
is said to be the object of the preposition. It is always inthe objective case.

A preposition is always followed by a noun and never by a verb. If we want a verb to follow a
preposition, we must use the -ing form of that particular verb, which should be a gerund (verb ina
noun form). e.g. I am very fond of riding. (The base verb ‘ride’ here takes the ‘ing’ form)

Kinds of Prepositions

i) Simple Preposition : They include at, by , for, in, of, off, on , out, through , till
, to, up, with etc.

ii) Compound Preposition : These are usually formed by prefixing a preposition( a or be) to a
noun, adjective or adverb.

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These include about, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around,before, behind,
beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside , underneath, within, without etc.

iii) Phrasal/Group Preposition : These are formed by joining two or morewords.

These include phrases like according to, in accordance with, in place of, agreeable to, in
addition to, in reference to, along with, in (on) behalf of, in regard to, away from, in case of,
in spite of , because of, in comparison of , instead of , by dint of , in compliance with, in the
event of, by means of, in consequence of, an account of, by reason of, in course of, owingto, by
virtue of , in favour of, with a view to, by way of, in front of, with an eye to, conformably to,
in lieu of, with reference to, for the sake of, in order to, with regard to etc.

iv) Participle Preposition : When present participles are used without any nounor pronoun
attached to them, these are called participle prepositions.

These include barring, concerning, passing, considering, during,notwithstanding, pending,

regarding, respecting, touching etc.

Classes of Preposition

To make a distinction, Simple Prepositions can also be divided into three classes:

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i) Prepositions of Time and Date : These include at, on, in, by, to, till, until,during, for,since, from, within ,
before, after, afterward, then etc.

ii) Prepositions of Place : These include at, in, on, to, behind etc.

iii) Prepositions of Travel and Movement : These include from, to, by , on, in,into, at, outof, off etc.

Position of a Preposition

Prepositions normally precede nouns or pronouns. However, in certain cases it ispossible tomove the
preposition to the end of the sentence.

i) When an object of the preposition is an interrogative pronoun like what, who,whom,which, where etc,
the preposition can take the end or the beginning of a sentence.
e.g. a) What are you thinking of?

b) To whom were you talking?

ii) When the object of the preposition is the relative pronoun ‘that’ , thepreposition takes the end
position.
e.g. This is the dish that she is fond of.

iii) When the object of the preposition is infinitive (to + verb) , the preposition isplaced afterthe
infinitive.
e.g. It is a beautiful house to live in.

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iv) In some sentences, where the relative pronoun is hidden, the preposition takesthe endposition.
e.g. This is the girl (that) I told you of.

v) In some sentences, prepositions is attached with the verb.

e.g. I hate being laughed at.

Common Usage

At/In

i) At shows stationary position or existing state.

e.g. She is at home.
Also, at noon, at the age of ninety.

ii) In shows movement.

e.g. The train is in motion.

Also, it is used to express a period of time.

e.g. in February, in the morning, in the yea 1992, in summer etc.

iii) At is also used for a small place and for a precise point of time.
e.g. a) He lives at Surajkund in Haryana.
b) The train will arrive at six in the morning.

In the above sentences, we can see that in is used for a big place, town, city etc andfor a period oftime.

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To/Into

i) To is used in the following cases

a) To specify direction : Turn to the left.

b) Destination : I am going to Jaipur.

c) Until : From Monday to Friday, five minutes to ten.
d) Comparison : They prefer cricket to hockey.
e) With indirect objective : Please give it to me.
f) As part of the infinitive : I want to help you.
g) In order to : We went to the store (in order) to buy soap.

ii) Into is used in the following cases

a) To the inside : We stepped into the room.

b) Change in condition : The boy changed into a man.
c) To denote movement : He jumped into the well.
Beside/Besides

i) Beside : at the side of

e.g. a) He was sitting beside Sarla.

b) We camped beside a lake.

ii) Besides : in addition to/as well as

e.g. a) He has a car besides a motorcycle.

b) Besides doing the cooking. I help him.

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Between/Among

i) Between is used for two things or persons, but it can also be used for more thantwo when wehave a
definite number in mind and there is a close relationship/association within them.

e.g. a) He distributed his property between his two sons.

b) A treaty was signed between the three parties.

ii) Among is usually used for more than two persons or things when we have nodefinite

iii) number in mind.

e.g. a) He was happy to be among his friends again.

b) He distributed his property among the poor.

With/By

With is used for instruments and by is used for agents.

e.g. The snakes was killed by him with a stick.

Under/Underneath

Under is used for living beings.

Underneath is used for non-living things only.

e.g. a) Hide this underneath the table.

b) I work under Mr Singh.

c) He is holding under the table.

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On/Upon BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

On is used when two things are touching each other. Upon is used when one thingis locateddirectly
above the other thing.

e.g. a) We sat on the chair.

b) The cat jumped upon the chair.

Of/Off

These are used in the following situations, referring to

i) Location : East of here, the middle of the road

ii) Possession : a friend of mine, the sound of music
iii) Part of group : one of us, a member of the team

iv) Measurement : a cup of milk, two metres of snow

v) Not on, away or from or removal : Please keep off the grass
vi) At some distance from : There are islands off the coast.

During/For

i) During is used with known periods of time i.e. period known by name, such asChristmas,Diwali; or
periods which already have been defined.

e.g. during the middle ages, during the winter etc.

For may be used to denote purpose and may also be used before known periods.

e.g. I went there for the summer. Theywent to the club for partying.

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i) Since is used to denote a point in time and never for a period of time.

e.g. It has been raining since 6 o’clock.

Since can also be used as an adverb.

e.g. He left school in 1983. I haven’t seen him since.

ii) From is normally used with to or till/until.

e.g. Most people work from eight to six.

From can also be used to denote place.

e.g. He is from Mumbai.

Before/After/Afterwards

i) Before is used in reference of two events.

e.g. The train had left before he reached the station.

ii) After is a preposition while afterwards in an adverb. Afterwards can be usedat either end
of a clause and can be modified by soon, immediately, not long etc. After is followed by a noun,
pronoun or gerund.

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e.g. a) After visiting them, we came back.

b) We visited them and afterwards they came back.

c) Soon afterwards, I got a call from him.

Out/Out/Out of

i) On is used for a place of work and also for a mode of travel.

e.g. on an estate , on the railway, on a bicycle.

On is also used with days and dates.

e.g. on 25th February, on Thursday.

ii) Out is used mostly with get, like get out of a vehicle, get out of the house etc.

Till/Until

i) Till means up to. It can be used with ‘from’ or without it.

e.g. a) We work from 10 AM to/till 6:30 PM.

b) We work till 6:30 PM.

ii) Until means upto a time or before. We use until when the activity continues through out the
period up to the time limit.

e.g. There were visa applicants in our waiting room until 7 PM.

Determiners and Articles

Determiners or Fixing words are the words which fix or modify the nouns before which they are

used.

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BBA/B.Com/
ThisB.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year
is a boy. Subject: English

My birthday falls in August.Sheis a doctor.

Everybody enjoyed the film.Didyou buy any book?
In these sentence the Determiners are-

This, my, a, every and any.

The nouns they modify are boy, birthday, doctor, body andbook,. Kind of Determiners are of five kinds:
1. Article Determiners
2. Demonstrative Determiners
3. Possessive Determiners
4. Numeral Determiners
5. Quantitative Determiners

1. Article Determiners
There are three Article in English- A, An, The,
Articles are of two types:
(i) Indefinite Article
(ii) Definite Article

(i) Indefinite Article: A, and An, are called Indefinite Article becausethey do notrefer to any
particular person or thing.

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BBA/B.Com/ st
Usage of AB.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ I Year Subject: English

Before a singular number which starts with a consonant or avowelwith a consonant

sound.
Example:
A boy, a cat, a girl, a horse, a month, a year, a pencil etc.
A unit, a university, a European, a useful thing, a uniform etc.A one-eyed person, a one-way ticket, a
one-rupee note etc.

Usage of An
For example-
Anegg, aneagle, an apple, anink-pot, anorange, an island, anuncle, anumbrella,an army, an elephant
etc.

Before a singular number starting with a consonant thatgives thesound of a vowel.

An hour, an honest person, an heir, an M.L.A., an M.P., an S.S.P., an M.A., anS.O.S.

(ii) Definite Article: The is called definite article because it refers to aparticularperson or thing.

Usage of The
Before the names of heavenly bodies.
The sun, the earth, the moon, the stars, the sky etc.

Before the directions.

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BBA/B.Com/
TheB.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/
east, the Ist Year
earth, the south, the north, Subject: English

Before a noun which is already mentioned:

I met a man in the train. The man was veryinteresting. The children you met werenaughty.
Before the names of the ocean, rivers, mountains, gulfs, plains,deserts,bays, etc.

The Indian Ocean, The Ganga, The Himalayas, The Persian Gulf, TheGangetic Plain, TheSahara Desert,
The Bay of Bengal etc.
Abbreviated names of states, countries etc.

The U.S.A. The M.P., The Punjab, The UAE etc.

Before the superlative Degree of Adjective:

She is the best student of theclass. Australia is the largestisland in theworld.

Before two or more comparative degrees of Adjectives:

The earlier, the better.

The higher you go, the cooler it is

Before the epithets used before the names of the person:

Ashoka the Great, Alexander the Great, Charles the First

Before the names of holy books:

The Adi Granth, the Gita, the Koran, the Bible etc.

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Before the names of big organidsations:

The Taj Mahal, the Qutub Minar, the Agra fort

Before the clans:

The Marathas, the Rathores, the Sikhs etc.

Before the names of big organization:

The BJP, the CPI, the UNO etc.

Before the names of bigoffices:

The Air Marshal, the Prime Minister, the President etc.

TENSES

Tenses denote time of action. Time can be divided into three parts: Present Pastand Future.

Present Tense

Present Tense Simple Present Tense:

The Simple Present
The Simple Present is a tense that expresses action in the present time,habitual actions, or
generaltruths.
Example: The sun rises in the east.

Present Continuous:
It describes an incomplete ongoing present action that is in the middle of
happening, but will finish at some point. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb be (am/is/are)
with the present participle verb form ending in "ing".
Example: The boys are playing cricket.

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Present Perfect Tense:

It signifies that an action started in the past and continued to present time, in which it is
completed. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (have/has) with the past
participle form of the verb.
Example: I have finished my work.
Note: Present perfect is never used with adverbs of past time.

Present Perfect Continuous:

It describes an action that began in the past and continued up to present time,In which it is (or
most of it) is completed. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (have/has)together
with the auxiliary verb been and the present participle form of the verb ending with"ing"
Example: They have been doing the work since Eight o'clock.

Past Tense

SimplePast Tense
It is an action or situation that was finished in the absolute past and has no connection with the
present.Always second form of the verb is used in simplepast sentence.
Example: I learnt French in Delhi.
Past Continuous It describes action which went on during a stretch of time in the past and finished.
This tense in formed by using the verb be (was/were) with the present participle form of the verb
ending in “ing”
Example: when I met him, he was reading a novel.

Past Perfect Tense:

It describes an action completed in the past before certain point in time or an action which
happened in the very distant past. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had)with
the Past participle form of the verb.

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Example: you had studied English before you moved to New York.

Past Perfect Continuous:

It describes an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time
in past. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have (had) together with the auxiliary
verb been and the present participle form of the verb ending with "ing".
Example: She had been working at that company for three years when It went out of business:

Future Tense

Simple Future Tense:

It describes an action or situation that has still to take place. This tense is usually formed byusing the
auxiliary verb will with the base form of the verb.Example: I will call you when I arrive.

Future Continuous:
It describes an ongoing action that will be in process around a point of time in the future. This
tense is usually formed by using the auxiliary verb will together with the auxiliary verbbe and the
present participle form of the verbending in "ing".
Example: He will be waiting for her when she arrives home tonight.

Future Perfect Tense:

It describes that a future action will be completed before a point in time or before another action
in the future. This tense Is formed by using the auxiliaryverb will together with the auxiliary verb
be and the past participle form of the verb.
Example: BY next November, I will have received my promotion.

Future Perfect Continuous:

It is describes an along future action that will continuous and will be completed before point

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 BBA/B.Com/ B.Com (Hons)/BAJMC/ Ist Year Subject: English

in time or before another action in the future. This tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb
will, the auxiliary verb have (have), and the auxiliary verb been together with the present
participle form of the verb ending in “ing”.
Example: They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Madam arrives.

ASSIGNMNT QUESTIONS
1. Write a short paragraph about a place you admire, using at least five descriptive
words. Then, rewrite the paragraph by replacing some of these words with simpler or
more expressive ones.

2. Describe an interesting experience from your life in 5-6 sentences. Use a mix of
descriptive and action words, and underline any changes in how you express time or
sequence of events.

3. Create a brief dialogue between two friends discussing their weekend plans. Focus
on using appropriate linking words, time expressions, and descriptive language to make
the conversation realistic and engaging.

4. Write five sentences about a place you frequently visit, using descriptive words to
add detail. Make sure each sentence uses different ways of connecting ideas or
describing locations.

5. Rewrite the following sentences by replacing highlighted words with either a

synonym or antonym. For additional practice, come up with three examples each of
homophones and homonyms, using them in sentences to show their meanings clearly.

**************

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