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YOUR NOTES
AS Physics CIE 

11.1 Atoms, Nuclei & Radiation

CONTENTS
11.1.1 Atomic Structure
11.1.2 Nucleon & Proton Number
11.1.3 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles
11.1.4 Decay Equations

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11.1.1 Atomic Structure YOUR NOTES


Rutherford Scattering
Evidence for the structure of the atom was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the
beginning of the 20th century from the study of α-particle scattering
The experimental setup consists of alpha particles fired at thin gold foil and a detector on
the other side to detect how many particles deflected at different angles

α-particle scattering experiment set up

α-particles are the nucleus of a helium atom and are positively charged

When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a small
number bounce straight back
From this experiment, Rutherford results were:
The majority of α-particles went straight through (A)

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This suggested the atom is mainly empty space YOUR NOTES

Some α-particles deflected through small angles of < 10o 
This suggested there is a positive nucleus at the centre (since two positive charges
would repel)
Only a small number of α-particles deflected straight back at angles of > 90o (C)
This suggested the nucleus is extremely small and this is where the mass and charge of
the atom is concentrated
It was therefore concluded that atoms consist of small dense positively charged
nuclei, surrounded by negatively charged electrons

An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

(Note: The atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

In an α-particle scattering experiment, a student set up the apparatus below to
determine the number n of α-particle incident per unit time on a detector held at
various angles θ.

Which of the

following graphs best represents the variation of n with θ from 0 to 90°?

ANSWER: A
The Rutherford scattering experience directed parallel beams of α-particles at gold foil
The observations were:
Most of the α-particles went straight through the foil
The largest value of n will therefore be at small angles
Some of the α-particles were deflected through small angles
n drops quickly with increasing angle of deflection θ
These observations fit with graph A

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Atomic Structure YOUR NOTES

The atoms of all elements are made up of three types of particles: protons, neutrons and 
electrons.

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom while electrons orbit the nucleus
The properties of each particle are shown in the table below:

A stable atom is neutral (it has no charge)

Since protons and electrons have the same charge, but opposite signs, a stable atom has
an equal number of both for the overall charge to remain neutral

 Exam Tip
Remember not to mix up the ‘atom’ and the ‘nucleus’. The ‘atom’ consists of the
nucleus and electrons. The ‘nucleus’ just consists of the protons and neutrons in the
middle of the atom, not the electrons.

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Antimatter YOUR NOTES

We live in a universe made up of matter particles (protons, neutrons, electrons etc.) 
All matter particles have antimatter counterparts
Antimatter particles are identical to their matter counterpart but with the opposite
charge
This means if a particle is positive, its antimatter particle is negative and vice versa
Common matter-antimatter pairs are shown in the diagram below:

Apart from electrons, the corresponding antiparticle pair has the same name with the prefix
‘anti-’ and a line above the corresponding matter particle symbol
A neutral particle, such as a neutron or neutrino, is its own antiparticle

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Atomic Mass Unit (u) YOUR NOTES

The unified atomic mass unit (u) is roughly equal to the mass of one proton or neutron: 
1 u = 1.66 × 10−27 kg
It is sometimes abbreviated to a.m.u
This value will be given on your data sheet in the exam
The a.m.u is commonly used in nuclear physics to express the mass of subatomic particles.
It is equal to 1/12 of the mass of the carbon-12 atom
Table of common particles with mass in a.m.u

The mass of an atom in a.m.u is roughly equal to the sum of its protons and neutrons
(nucleon number)
For example, the mass of Uranium-235 is roughly 235u

 Worked Example
Estimate the mass of the nucleus of element Copernicium-285 in Kg.Give your
answer to 2 decimal places.

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11.1.2 Nucleon & Proton Number YOUR NOTES


Nucleon & Proton Number
The atomic symbol of an element is used to describe the constituents of the nuclei
An example of this notation for Lithium is:

Atomic symbol for Lithium

When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the atom:
Protons: The atomic number
Electrons: Atoms are neutrals, so the number of negative electrons is equal to the
number of positive protons. Therefore, this is also the atomic number
Neutrons: Subtract the proton number from the mass number
For the lithium atom, these numbers would be:
Protons: 3
Electrons: 3
Neutrons: 7 − 3 = 4
The term nucleon is the used to mean a particle in the nucleus – i.e. a proton or neutron
The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and
neutrons

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example


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Isotopes YOUR NOTES

Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and 
hence electrons), the number of neutrons can vary
An isotope is an atom (of the same element) that has an equal number of protons but
different number of neutrons
The isotopes of hydrogen are deuterium and tritium:

The three atoms shown above are all forms of hydrogen, but they each have different
numbers of neutrons
Remember, the neutron number of an atom is found by subtracting the proton number from
the nucleon number
Since nucleon number includes the number of neutrons, an isotope of an element will also
have a different nucleon/mass number
Since isotopes have an imbalance of neutrons and protons, they are unstable. This means
they constantly decay and emit radiation to achieve a more stable form
This can happen from anywhere between a few nanoseconds to 100,000 years

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

One of the rows in the table shows a pair of nuclei that are isotopes of one another.

Which row is correct?

ANSWER: B
Step 1: Properties of isotopes
Isotopes are nuclei with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
The nucleon number is the sum of the protons and neutron
Therefore, an isotope has a different nucleon number too
Step 2: Calculate protons in the first nucleus
Nucleon number: 37
Neutrons: 20
Protons = 37 − 20 = 17
Step 3: Calculate protons in the second nucleus
Nucleon number: 35
Neutrons: 18
Protons = 35 − 18 = 17
Step 4: Conclusion
Therefore, they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
and are isotopes of each other
The correct answer is therefore option B
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AZX Notation YOUR NOTES

Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called AZX notation 

Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus

Note: In Chemistry the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton
number as the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number

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Conservation of Nucleon Number & Charge YOUR NOTES

Nuclear processes such as fission and fusion are represented using nuclear equations 
(similar to chemical reactions in chemistry)
The number of protons and neutrons in atom is known as its constituents
For example:

Nuclear fission equation

The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a
neutron and splits into two smaller nuclei – a Strontium nucleus and Xenon nucleus,
releasing two neutrons in the process
In nuclear equations, the nucleon number and charge are always conserved
This means that the sum of the nucleons and charge on the left hand side must equal the
sum of the number of nucleons and charge on the right hand side
In the above equation, the sum of the nucleon (top) numbers on both sides are equal
235 + 1 = 236 = 90 + 144 + 2 × 1
The same is true for the proton (bottom) numbers
92 + 0 = 92 = 38 + 54 + 2 × 0
By balancing equations in this way, you can determine the nucleon, proton number or the
number of missing elements
For example:

Balancing the number of nucleons shows that 3 neutrons must be released in the reaction
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

When a californium atom reacts with an unknown element X, the following reaction
occurs. Determine the values of Y and
Z.

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11.1.3 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles YOUR NOTES


Alpha, Beta & Gamma Particles
Some elements have nuclei that are unstable
This tends to be when the number of nucleons does not balance
In order to become more stable, they emit particles and/or electromagnetic radiation
These nuclei are said to be radioactive
There are three different types of radioactive emission: Alpha, Beta and Gamma
Alpha Particles
Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the
same as a helium nucleus)
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large

Beta Particles
Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus
β− particles are emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons

Beta is a moderately ionising type of radiation

This is due to it having a charge of +1e
This means it is able to do some slight damage to cells (less than alpha but more than
gamma)
Beta is a moderately penetrating type of radiation
Beta particles have a range of around 20 cm - 3 m in air, depending on their energy
Beta can be stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium foil

Gamma Rays
Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves

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They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy YOUR NOTES


If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
This can cause chemical changes in materials and can damage or kill living cells

When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
The properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table below

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YOUR NOTES


u is the atomic mass unit (see “Atomic Mass Unit (u)”)

e is the charge of the electron: 1.60 × 10-19 C
c is the speed of light: 3 × 108 m s-1

 Worked Example

ANSWER: D

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
It is important to be familiar the properties of each type of radiation and their
symbols.

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11.1.4 Decay Equations YOUR NOTES


Neutrino Emission
An electron neutrino is a type of subatomic particle with no charge and negligible mass
which is also emitted from the nucleus
The anti-neutrino is the antiparticle of a neutrino
Electron anti-neutrinos are produced during β– decay
Electron neutrinos are produced during β+ decay

 Exam Tip
One way to remember which particle decays into which depends on the type of beta
emission, think of beta ‘plus’ as the ‘proton’ that turns into the neutron (plus an
electron neutrino)

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Energy of Alpha & Beta Decay YOUR NOTES

When the number of α particles is plotted against kinetic energy, there are clear spikes that 
appear on the graph
This demonstrates that α-particles have discrete energies (only certain values)

Alpha particles have discrete energy levels whilst beta particles have a continuous range of
energies
When the number of β particles is plotted against kinetic energy, the graph shows a curve
This demonstrates that beta particles (electrons or positrons) have a continuous range
of energies
This is because the energy released in beta decay is shared between the beta particles
(electrons or positrons) and neutrinos (or anti-neutrinos)
This was one of the first clues of the neutrino’s existence
The principle of conservation of momentum and energy applies in both alpha and beta
emission

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α & β Decay Equations YOUR NOTES

Alpha Decay 
Alpha decay is common in large, unstable nuclei with too many protons
The decay involves a nucleus emitting an alpha particle and decaying into a different
nucleus
An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the nucleus of a Helium atom)

Alpha decay produces a daughter nucleus and an alpha particle (helium nucleus)
When an unstable nucleus (the parent nucleus) emits radiation, the constitution of its
nucleus changes
As a result, the isotope will change into a different element (the daughter nucleus)
Alpha decay can be represented by the following radioactive decay equation:

Alpha decay equation

When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:
The nucleus loses 2 protons: proton number decreases by 2
The nucleus loses 4 nucleons: nucleon number decreases by 4

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example


ANSWER: C

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YOUR NOTES


β- decay
A β- particle is a high energy electron emitted from the nucleus
β- decay is when a neutron turns into a proton emitting an electron and an anti-electron
neutrino

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YOUR NOTES


When a β- is emitted from a nucleus:

The number of protons increases by 1: proton number increases by 1
The total number of nucleons stays the same: nucleon number remains the same

Equation for beta minus emission

The new nucleus formed from the decay is called the “daughter” nucleus (nitrogen in the
example above)
β+ decay
A β+ particle is a high energy positron emitted from the nucleus
β+ decay is when a proton turns into a neutron emitting a positron (anti-electron) and an
electron neutrino

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YOUR NOTES


When a β+ is emitted from a nucleus:

The number of protons decreases by 1: proton number decreases by 1
The total number of nucleons stays the same: nucleon number remains the same

Equation for beta plus emission

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A radioactive substance with a nucleon number of 212 and a proton number of 82
decays by β-plus emission into a daughter product which in turn decays by further
β-plus emission into a granddaughter product.

Which letter in the diagram represents the granddaughter product?

ANSWER: A

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember to avoid the common mistake of confusing the number of neutrons with

nucleon number. In alpha decay, the nucleon (protons and neutrons) number
decreases by 4 but the number of neutrons only decreases by 2.

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