1

Unit 1
INTRODUCTION

 Meaning of psychology
The word psychology is derived from the two Greek words 'Psyche' and 'logos'
which has the meaning 'soul' and 'area of study' respectively. Hence, etymologically,
the meaning of psychology is the science of soul. At the very beginning, psychology
was studied as a sub-branch of philosophy. The first Greek philosopher 'Democritus'
argued that everything is composed of indivisible, unitary material called atoms in
constant motion. He further claimed that soul had no physical existence i.e., it could
not be touched, seen or felt and hence could not be observed or experimented. It was
regarded as the philosophical and abstract phenomena. Hence, the meaning of
psychology as 'Science of soul' was opposed by other philosophers.
Another attempt was made by different philosophers to define the psychology as
the 'Science of mind' which remained in existence for long time, but certain
controversies raised on the nature of mind and ultimately, this concept was also
discarded by the philosophers.
Later on, another concept regarding the meaning of psychology as the 'Science of
consciousness' or immediate experiences emerged but psychologists rejected this
definition too on the ground that consciousness is very negligible portion of our total
personality.
As great revolution occurred during and after the renaissance period (1500 A.D. –
1850 A.D.) in the field of psychological thought which helped in developing a
'Science of psychology'. All the meaning and definitions expressed by previous
philosophers and psychologists were laying in shadow in accordance the emergence
of experimental psychology. During this stage psychology was meant and defined as
the 'Science of behavior and mental processes. In this context, it would be better to
discuss about the science and behavior as following:

1) Meaning of science
Science may be defined as a systematized body of knowledge which may be
verified at any time by anyone under the given conditions. The cause–effect
relationship of any event or phenomenon can be explored systematically and
objectively in science mainly by using observation and experimental methods.
The major features of science are as follows:
1. Scientific statements express a discovery of truth.
2. There is an objective proof of evidence for each scientific statement.
3. Scientific statements are general.
4. Scientific statements are systematic.
5. Scientific statements go beyond the empirical data. They interpret the data and
infer the relationship between the observable things and events.
6. The relationship in a scientific inquiry is presented as a system of hypothesis.
7. Scientific statements are applicable to future research and to practical life.
8. All sciences are empirical in nature.
2) Meaning of behavior
According to American psychologists J.B. Watson, "Behavior may be defined as
an action which can be seen and observed in an objective way.
According to B.F. Skinner, "Behavior is changes in the organism which can be
observed and measured."
 2

According to Oxford Dictionary, "The way in which a thing or person acts,

conducts, manners, reacts under a set of imposed conditions is known as behavior."
Hence, from above definitions, it can be said that human behavior is a complex act
related to a rich variety of internal and external factors. Generally, human behavior
can be classified into two categories i.e.
Covert or closed / unseen/ hidden behavior
Overt or open/ seen behavior

 Modern definitions of psychology

Right after the 1960's, Psychology was thoroughly reviewed by several
psychologists in different perspectives. Watson's thought of psychology as
behaviorisms mainly focused on overt behavior and then gradually continuous focus
on covert behavior was laid down. Such type of concern of psychology both with
observable behavior and inner thoughts and feelings made psychology as the science
of behavior and mental processes. As a science, psychology has four basic
characteristics as following:
1. Psychology is systematic in its nature and uses scientific methods.
2. Psychology includes measurement.
3. The results can be verified, and procedure must be repeatable.
4. It has objectivity in explaining behavior.

For the behaviorist, Psychology is that division of natural science which takes
human behavior that doings and sayings both learn or unlearn as its subject matter. -
J.B Watson.
What is man? To this question, psychology seeks an answer – Edwin Borino.
As a provisional definition of psychology, we may say that its problem is the
scientific study of the behavior of living creatures in their contract with the outer
world. – Kurt Koffka.
Psychology is usually defined as the scientific study of behavior. Its subject matter
includes behavioral processes that are observable such as : Gestures, Speech and
Physiological changes and process that can only be inferred such as : Thoughts and
dreams – Kenneth Clark and George Miller.

 Branches of psychology
As per the changing time, new trends and perspectives came in existence
which helped in evolving several branches of psychology. Some major branches of
psychology are as follows:
1. General Psychology
2. Education Psychology
3. Sports Psychology
4. Women Psychology
5. Child Psychology
6. Military Psychology
7. Abnormal Psychology
8. Development Psychology
9. Clinical Psychology
10. Health Psychology
11. Genetic Psychology
12. Counseling Psychology
 3

 Goals of psychology
Psychology as a science, concentrates its focus to study human behavior
through scientific methods. Today's expanding horizon of psychology is completed
only with the study of behavior, mental process, and organism's behavior towards
their environment. The main aim of psychology is to examine or find out
determinance as well as effects/ consequences of human behavior in or around their
socio- cultural, organizational, natural, and environmental settings. More specifically,
the goals of psychology can be given and explain according to the following points:
a) Understand
b) Predict
c) Describe
d) Influence and control the behavior and improve the quality
The ultimate aim of psychology is subjective wellbeing of human life.

 Applications of psychology in everyday life

Today, Psychology is becoming the emerging discipline that is linked with
everyday life matters. Findings or conclusions of psychologists can be used to solve
real life problems. Psychologists have gained insights into brain and mind, depression
and joy, dream and memories, intelligence, and personality. Theoretical as well as
practical aspects of human beings and society are the core area of psychological study
to make life better, balanced and adjusted. In this context, some major applications of
psychology can be given as followings:
1. Counseling
2. Exploring diversity
3. Industrial application – screening people for job, design of the equipments,
career orientation, etc.
4. Develop human relationship – knowing oneself and knowing others.
5. Cure of abnormal diseases.
6. Training of organisms/ animals.
7. Solving political as well as social problems.
8. New applied fields like legal, gender, criminal, consumer, etc.

 Psychological trends for new millennium

Psychology is viewed in different perspectives from ancient time to present
and the process is continuously going ahead. Several areas are evolving that need to
be studied under the heading of psychology. In this context, Psychology's future is
widening from the study of individual's behavior within the family to society and to
the worldwide. New trends have been emerging as per the changing time. Some of
them can be listed as following:
1. Prevention of psychological disorder rather than only on their treatment.
2. Social neuroscience.
3. Issues of public interest like violence, terrorism, racial and ethnic prejudice,
poverty, environmental and technological disasters, etc.
4. Issues of diversity.
 4

 Major perspectives in psychology

From philosophical stage to modern stage, psychology is viewed and
understood in different ways. Perspectives in psychology are the way or angle from
which the overall psychological phenomena is analyzed and explained. In explaining
human behavior and mental processes, the following major perspectives have been
emerging:
1. Cognitive perspective
2. Behavioral perspective
3. Psychodynamic perspective
4. Humanistic perspective
5. Biological/ Physiological perspective
6. Evolutionary perspective
7. Socio-cultural perspective

1) Cognitive perspective
This is the approach developed by psychologist George Miller and Jerome
Bruner during 1960 A.D. The word cognition refers the higher intellectual
processes as perceiving, thinking, knowing, believing, remembering, deciding,
problem solving and so on. Cognition is a mental process in which the
information is obtained, processed, transformed, stored, retrieved, and used. The
approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the
world is main feature of cognitive perspective. The nature of cognition is very
complicated that can be analyzed mainly in three ways:
a) Cognition process information.
b) Cognition is an active process.
c) Cognition is useful.

2) Behavioral perspective
The pioneer fellows or persons regarding the behavioral perspective are J.B.
Watson and B.F. Skinner. The motto of this approach is that human behavior can
be measured through observable behavior and not by the study of mind or
consciousness. Behavioral perspective focuses on mainly overt behavior,
behaviorist psychologists viewed and defined behavior as objective which can be
felt and seen, can be observed, verified, studying overt behavior of both animal
and human beings including children, old, normal, abnormal, and so on.

3) Psychodynamic perspective
Psychodynamic perspective is based on the view that human behavior is
motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little
control. Austrian psychologist and physician Sigmund Freud is the pioneer
fellow who used psychodynamic theory as a technique and tool to study
abnormal behavior of the human beings. Freud felt that the roots of psychological
problems are motives of sexual and aggressive nature which stay at the
unconscious level of the mind. He further focused on early childhood and
emphasized that early experiences have major influences on the personality
development of the individual.

4) Humanistic perspective
The humanistic perspective which is quite different to that of psycho analysis
and behaviorism approach was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and
 5

Victor Frankl during mid-20th century. According to humanistic psychologists,

each person is unique individual and experiences the world differently. The most
famous humanistic principle is that all human beings have basic powerful innate/
inborn tendency to grow and improve to their fullest potential and a desire to
control of their own lives. It focuses on freedom in controlling human behavior.
Its major contributions are the development of psychotherapy. It focuses on
individual's free desire/ will, values and goodness of people.

5) Biological/ Physiological perspective

Karl Lesley is the key person who studied the human behavior from the
physiological or biological perspective. It focuses the working relationship
between the body, behavior, and mental processes. The role of nerve cells is
described and highlighted in different aspects of an individual's behavior in
emotion, reasoning, problem solving, intelligence, speaking and so on. Similarly,
neurotransmitter and hereditary characters has also become the center of
discussion in biological perspective.

6) Evolutionary perspective
Evolutionary perspective in psychology is the outcome of the theory of
evolution that was propounded by great scientist Charles Darwin. D.M. Buss is
another key person of this perspective. Evolutionary perspective focuses on the
role of physical structure and behavior play in the adaptation process in any
organism to the environment. variation, inheritance, natural selection, struggle for
the existence, survival of the fittest, etc. are the major area of discussion in this
perspective.

7) Socio-cultural perspective
The socio-cultural perspective explains about the way that human beings
socialize and develop from early life to old age. Culture, as defined by Ralph
Linton, is the configuration of the learned behaviors (epitome) / essence. Culture
cannot easily be created or destroyed. Culture shapes our behavior. The prominent
figures who worked and advocate psychological phenomena through socio-
cultural perspective are Janet Hyde and David Matsumoto. The socio-cultural
psychology explains how our personality, beliefs, attitudes, skills and values are
shaped by our culture, ethnicity, gender, religion and other important socio-
cultural factors.

 Research methods in psychology

Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge. It
may be defined as the application of the scientific approach to the study of a problem.
According to WHO, "Research is quest for knowledge through diligent search or
investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of new
knowledge." It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to
answer a certain question or solve a problem. For any type of psychological study and
its findings, different scientific as well as systematic methods of studies have been
used. Out of several scientific research methods, some are as followings:
1. Naturalistic observation
2. Correlation method
3. Experimental method
4. Case study
 6

5. Survey method
6. Longitudinal study
7. Cross-sectional study

1) Naturalistic observation
The collection of data by careful observation of events in their natural setting is
called Naturalistic observation. In other word, naturalistic observation is that method
of research where the researcher simply records what occurs without any modification
in the situation. This type of research method is an ancient method and is widely used
in ethnology, social psychology, child psychology, abnormal psychology,
development psychology, sociology and other areas. The naturalistic observation can
be classified into two groups as: participant observation and non-participant
observation.

(I) Participant observation

In participant observation, the researcher or observer actively takes part on
the events and simultaneously observe the behavior or features of the individual
or observe object.
(II) Non-participant observation
In non-participant observation, the researcher or psychologist tries to
observe the behavior from an observable distance or through a one-way
vision screen so that observers can see the subject without being seen
themselves.
There are certain important steps involved in carrying out the observation method
which are as follows:
1.Observation behavior
2.Noting down of the behavior
3.Interpretation and analysis of behavior
4.Generalization.

 Advantages/ merits of observation method

1. The main virtue/ trait is directness, it makes possible to study behavior as it
occurs.
2. The researcher need not ask to people about their behavior and interactions.
3. This type of research method provides richer information.
4. It has higher ecological validity.

 Disadvantages/ weak points of observation method

1. This method cannot legitimately infer causes and effect relationship between
variables that are only observed but not manipulated. Hence, lack of control
over conditions makes replication/ repetition more difficult.
2. This method is slow and expensive process, requiring human observers and
costly surveillance equipments.
3. Internal experiences cannot be inferred always from outward activities, unless
the experiencing person makes statements.
4. There may be some errors in judgment while observing person's behavior i.e.
biasness and prejudice may influence.
 7

2) Correlation method
Such method of psychological research in which the relationship between two sets
of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, linked or co-
related. In another word, correlation method is a statistical measure which helps in the
prediction of behavior. The degree or extent of the relationship between the two
variables is represented by a mathematical statistic known as correlation (statistics)
coefficient which ranges from +1 to -1. In this method of study, three types of
relationship may be found as following.
a. Positive correlation
As per the increasement of value of one variable, ultimately the value
of another variable increases then such type of relationship is known as
Positive correlation. Here, the correlation ranges from 0 to +1.
b. Negative correlation
If the value of one variable increases, then its effects can be seen as the
decreasement of other variable, such type of correlation is known as Negative
correlation. The coefficient of such relation rangesbetween 0 to -1.
c. Zero correlation
If there is no relationship between two variables at any extent then
such type of relationship may be termed as zero or neutral correlation. Here,
the coefficient of correlation is zero.

 Advantages of correlation method

1. It allows the study of hypothesis that cannot be examined directly.
2. More data or more variables can be collected more quickly than in an
experimental setup.
3. Problems of interpretation are reduced when no association is found.
4. It helps in prediction.
 Disadvantages of correlation method
1. Interpretation of results is difficult.
2. Cause and effect cannot be established.
3. Direction of causality is uncertain.
4. Variables other than the one of interest may be operating.

3) Experimental method of research

Such type of research method where investigation of the relationship between two
or more variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and
observing the effects of that change on the other aspects of situation is known as
experimental research. In another word, experimental method is a research method in
which the researcher systematically alter one or more independent variables in order
to determine whether such changes influence some aspects of behavior. In
experimental research, all factors are kept constant and only one factor is varied at a
time to determine the effect of this variable on the problem of study to find out the
cause-and-effect relationship between the two or more variables. An experimental
method/ design proceeds the following major steps:
1. Raising a problem.
2. Forming of hypothesis.
3. To distinguish between dependent and independent variable.
4. Controlling the environment of the situation.
5. Analysis of the result.
6. Verification of the hypothesis by the result of the experiment.
 8

 Advantages of experimental method of research

1. Experimental method helps to establish cause effect relationship.
2. It allows for replication.
3. There is good control of extraneous variables.
 Limitations/ Disadvantages of experimental method of research
1. For its application, a well-equipped laboratory, tools and equipments and
subjects are necessary.
2. Obviously, it cannot always be used; there is usually difficulty in attending
co-operation and attitude of the subject.
3. The method is restricted in its application; the conclusion derived from an
experiment may be limited to artificial experiment situation. They may not
apply to natural situation.
4. Ethical concern such as the right to withdraw may be violated.
 Treatment
The manipulation or changes or intervention implemented by the experimenter to
the individuals/ objects or events is called treatment.
 Experimental group
Any group which is participating in an experiment that receives any treatment or
changes by the experimenter is termed as experimental group.
 Control group
A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment or changes is
control group.
 Independent variable
The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter is known as independent
variable. In other word, independent variable is the stimulus variable which the
researcher wants to study to find the effect of its change on the performance. The
factor in an experiment which the researchers select to manipulate to examine its
effect upon the result is known as independent variable. For example, light, sound,
temperature, noise from the environment and sex, rich, poor, caste, literacy, etc.
are the independent variable. If parents' occupation influence to their children's
learning achievement then parents' occupation is independent variable.
 Dependent variable
The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes
caused by the experimenter's manipulation of independent variable is known as
dependent variable. In another word, the dependent variable is the response that
the experimenter wants to find out, so they are the effect. In the example of role of
motivation to the workers performance, motivation is independent variable and
performance is dependent variable. Similarly, if the customer's purchasing
capacity is affected or determined by their economics status them economic status
is independent variable and purchasing capacity is dependent variable.

 Home assignment model question (Solved by a student)

o Define psychology.In what sense psychology is essential for our daily life –
No matter from simple counseling to complex administrative activities?
 9

Psychology is defined as the science of soul. It also studies of people's

behavior, performance, and mental processes. It is a philosophical and abstract
phenomenon.
Psychology is essential for our daily life because it deals with the study
of human behavior and mental process. It helps to learn about ourselves. It
helps in decision making. Also, it helps to learn about other people and their
mind. The cause-and-effect relationship of any event or phenomenon can be
explored systematically and objectively in science mainly by using
observation and experimental methods. They are their knowledge and skills in
different areas such as in education, law, health, and sports. Also, while doing
our work we must be physically and mentally fit and must have the skills to
understand the work and its objectives then only we will be able to perform
our work with people around us. Psychology helps us to develop
communication skills, enrich our career and to build self-confidence. For some
instance, if a person is having nightmares than he/ she should take a help of
counselor to cure the problem of nightmare which is a part of psychology.
Also, in complex administrative it helps to analyze the person's behavior and
the work is done accordingly to the situation. It helps to solve the complex
administrative problems by various means and resources. So, in this sense,
psychology is necessary in every sector and essential for our daily life.
 10

Unit 2
PERCEPTION, SOCIAL THOUGHT AND BEHAVIOR

 Perception
Perception is the process by which human beings interpret and organize
sensory information to produce a meaningful experience of the surrounding
environment or whole world. Human perception basically depends on the five senses
of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. According to R.A Baron, "Perception is the
process through which we select, organize and interpret input from sensory
receptors." Perception describes own ultimate experience of the world and typically
involves further processing of sensory input from the above definition, it may be
concluded about nature and meaning of perceptions as follows.
1. Perception is a process.
2. Perception is a information extractor.
3. Perception involves sensation.
4. Perception is preparation to response.
5. Perception provides organization.
6. Perception is highly individualized.
There are three basic components of perception as:
1. Selection
2. Organization
3. Interpretation

 Sensation
Sensation is the input about the physical world provided by sensory receptors.
It has some attributes or features as following.
1. Quality
2. Intensity
3. Clearness
4. Duration
5. Extensiveness

 Difference between Perception and Sensation

Perception Sensation
1 It is complex mental process and is It is simple and initial mental process. It
the second stage of acquisition of is initial way of acquiring knowledge.
knowledge.
2 Perception has meaningfulness. It consist of awareness and lacks
meaning.
3 It has dominance of brain. It has superiority or dominance of sense
organ.
4 It is related to receptor and symbolic It is related to receptor process.
process.
5 It is concrete, mental process. It is abstract process.
6 It includes past experiences. It does not include past experiences. It
includes only immediate experience of
object.
 11

Process of perception
During the course of perceiving any information or ideas, following major
processes are involved.
1. Receptor process.
2. Symbolic process.
3. Unification/ organization process.
4. Affective process.

Factors influencing perception

1. The perceiver
2. The target
3. The situation

1) The perceiver
The personal factors of the perceiver that influence the perception are as
following:
a) Attitudes
b) Motives
c) Interest
d) Emotion
e) Past experiences
f) Expectations

2) The target
The characteristics of the target being observed can affect what is perceived. Such
characteristics are as: Novelty, Attractiveness or Unattractiveness, Simplicity,
Proximity, Background, Motion, Size, Sound, and other traits of the objects.
3) The situation
The elements in surrounding environment may influence our perception. For
example: Time, Context, Location, Work-setting, Social-setting, etc. can influence
directly or indirectly influence the perception.

 Perceptual organization
Perceptual organization in general sense is the process of perceiving the sensory
impressions produced by a stimulus are organized as the perceived object, perceptual
organization integrates sensations, into percepts, locates them in space and preserve
their meaning from different perspectives as examined by the perceiver. Four major
features can be found in perceptual organization as following:
1. Form perception
2. Depth perception
3. Motion perception
4. Perceptual constancy

Meaning of illusion
Illusions are misperceptions or misinterpretations of stimuli that do not correspond
to the sensations received by the eyes or other sense organs. For
example,misinterpreting sight of rope for snake is illusion. Illusion occurs mainly due
to failure of brain's effort to organize sensations. There are different types of illusions
that mainly can be categorized or classified into two types as:
1. Illusion due to physical process.
 12

2. Illusion due to cognitive process

1) Illusion due to physical process

Such type of illusion is perceived without any existence of the stimulus. Mirage is
an optical illusion in which the image of distant objects is made to appear nearby.
These illusions are falsely appeared to be real.

2) Illusion due to cognitive process

Cognitive illusions occur in the presence of the stimulus, but the person simply
misinterprets the situation or the stimulus. Various types of cognitive illusions can be
classified into two groups i.e., Illusion of size and Illusion of shape or area.

Hallucinations
Hallucinations are the abnormal reaction to perception which are also
considered as Neurotic and Psychotic symptoms. Hallucinations are the sensory
perceptions in the absence of external sensory stimuli. For example,an individual may
hear voices where there is no sound, similarly sees non-existed objects, smells non-
existed odors, tastes and feels non-existed stimuli. Hence, hallucinations are classified
as Auditory, Visual, Olfactory, Gustatory and Kinesthetic (touch).

Delusions
Delusions are unusual subjectively determined believes which are out of
harmony with the individual's education and surrounding. They are disguised wish to
satisfy inner needs.

Person perceptions
As a social being, an individual cannot live, survive, think or behave just
within the periphery of personal setting. An individual's beliefs, motives or intentions
let him or her to observe, explain or behave in certain way. People make observations
of others through the information they obtained about them and inferences about the
cause for their behavior.

Attribution process
This may be defined as perceptual activity which helps the individual to
interpret the world around him or her. In another word, attribution refers that how
people explain the cause of behavior of the individual, of others or their own. In this
regard, several social scientist and psychologists conducted the research studies to
find out whether the individual behavior is internally influenced (caused) or
externally.
Scholar Fritz Heider developed a theory which explains that an individual's
behavior is mainly caused by personal forces (subjective or internal forces) and
environmental forces (objective or external forces). Personal forces are the ability or
effect of the individual and are predictable. Environmental force of behavior is caused
by beyond the personal force or that may be due to lack of difficulty of the task to be
done.

Kelly's Attribution Theory

There is another theory regarding the attribution development by Harold
Kelly. Kelly explains any observed behavior or event is caused by internal or external
factors. Internal factors like personality traits, efforts, abilities, motivations, beliefs or
 13

intentions, etc. are originated from within the individual. In another hand, external
factor refers the environmental factors that lies beyond the individual trait. These may
be physical facilities, resources, friends and co-worker supportiveness, difficulty,
luck, adverse situation, etc. During the attribution process, anyone depends on three
types of information such as consensus, consistency and distinctiveness.
Biases and errors are the factors that easily influence the person about the
attribution. There are two types of biases and errors:

1. Fundamental Attribution Errors. (I > E)

Under estimation of the influence of external factors and hence overestimate the
influence of internal factors while making judgments or deciding about the behavior
of others is termed as fundamental attribution error.

2. Self- Serving Bias

The tendency of individual to attribute their own success to internal factors while
putting the blame for failures on external factors.

 Frequently used shortcuts in judging others

There are different ways through which people are judged in shortcuts or fast
way. Some of them are as following:

1. Halo –effect
Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of single
characteristics such as intelligence, co-cooperativeness, sociability
appearance, outstanding job performance is halo-effect. Halo-effect has both
positive and negative effects. The favorable judgment in positive light is
Golden Halo whereas reverse halo effect is Rusty Horns Effect.

2. Selective perception
Selective perception is our tendency to choose information that supports our
viewpoints while ignoring information that threatens our viewpoints.

3. Stereotyping
Judging someone on the one's perception of the group to which that person
belongs.

4. Contrast effect
Contrast effect is enhancement of perceived difference between stimuli
resulting from putting them side by side.
 Primary effect
More focus to the first item presented than later ones.
 Recency effect
The tendency of influencing our judgment by the most recent
information. This is a kind of Cognitive bias.

5. Projection (The similar-to-me effect)

The tendency to attribute one's own characteristics to other people is
called Projection.
Frequently used shortcuts in judging others and its specific application
in organization.
There are various applications or implications that the organization or
any business leader may impose to his or her staffs while judging them in
 14

shortcut or fast way. Judging others by using certain shortcuts may have both
positive and negative impacts. Some major applications in any organization
can be listed as following.
1. The employment interviews
2. Performance expectations
3. Performance evaluation
4. Employee effort
5. Employee loyalty

Social behavior
Any behavior of the individual that is directed towards society or taking place
between the members of the society is termed as social behavior which mainly
includes interaction among people and their thinking towards others. Social behavior
of an individual in any society is highly influenced by the following three factors.
1. Attitudes
2. Persuasion
3. Prejudice

1) Attitudes
An individual's lasting evaluation or judgment regarding to any object,
event or people that is stored in memory is called as attitude. Attitude has
three components as cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects. Attitude
formation is influenced by various factors like Genetic, Observational
learning, Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning and so on. The major
characteristics of attitudes are as following:
1. They tend to persist unless something is done to change them.
2. They can be favorable or unfavorable.
3. They are directed towards objects, events, or people about which a person
has feelings.
2) Persuasion
The process through which one or more person's attempt to alter the
attitudes of one or more others is called persuasion. Regarding efficacy of
efforts to change attitudes or persuasion psychologists have learned some
interesting facts.
1. Experts are more persuasive than non-experts.
2. Messages that do not appear to be designed to change our attitudes are
often more successful in this respect than one's that seem intended to reach
this goal.
3. People are sometimes more susceptible to persuasion when they are
distracted by some extraneous event than when they are paying full
attention to what is being said.
4. When an audience holds attitude contrary to those of a would-be
persuader, it is often more effective for the communicator to adopt a two
sided approach.
5. People who speak rapidly are often more persuasive than person's who
speak more slowly.
3) Prejudice
Prejudice is powerful negative attitudes towards the members of
specific, social group based solely on their membership in that group. By
means of prejudice, we cannot behave properly to any other people or group of
people. It means social behavior is highly influenced by the prejudice.
 15

Causes or origins of prejudice

Many different explanations for the origins of prejudice have been proposed.
Some of the influential ones are as following.
1. Direct intergroup conflict.
Competition and conflict theory is a source of bias.0
2. Social categorization.
Leading to ultimate attribution error.
3. Role of social learning.
4. Cognitive source of prejudice.
The role of stereotypes.

Techniques to reducing prejudice

1. Breaking cycle of prejudice.
Learning not to hate.
2. Direct intergroup contact and personal contact as a means of reducing
prejudice.
3. Re-categorization – Resetting the boundary between 'us' and 'them'.

Social Influence
Social influence is any process whereby a person's attitudes, opinions, beliefs or
behaviors are altered or controlled by some form of social communication. Social
influence can also be defined as the effort by one or more individuals to change the
attitudes, perceptions or behaviors of one or more others. It includes conformity,
compliance, obedience, minority social influence, etc.

I. Conformity
Conformity is a process by which an individual unconsciously attempts to pattern
him or herself to fit in with a group. Conformity means adjusting one's behavior to
align with the norms of the group. Social norms are rules indicating how individuals
ought to behave in specific situation. The causes of conformity are as following:
Generally, anybody in the society wants to go along with the norms of their
groups, values, social results or expectations. They fear resisting them. This is mainly
due to the reason that all human beings have the motive to be –
a) Liked or accepted by others.
b) The desire to be right.
c) Their cognitive processes how to view the social world.

II. Compliance
Compliance is the changing one's behavior due to the request or direction of
another person. Compliance refers to the act of responding favorably to an explicit or
implicit request offered by others. Social psychologist Robert Cialdini from his
several studies and experiments provided several tricks and techniques used by
professionals to gain compliance from others. The major tricks and techniques
according to Cialdini are based on the following six principles.

1. Friendship or liking.
2. Commitment or consistency.
3. Scarcity.
4. Reciprocity.
5. Social validation.
 16

6. Authority.

1) Friendship or liking/ingratiation
Tactics based on liking or ingratiation is a technique for gaining
compliance by causing others to have positive feelings about us or liking for us
before we attempt to influence them.
2) Commitment or consistency (The foot in the door technique)
Foot in the door technique is a technique for gaining compliance in which
a small request is followed by much large one.
3) Tactics based on reciprocity (The door in the face)
It is a technique for gaining compliance in which a large request is
followed by a smaller one.
4) Tactics based on scarcity (Playing hard to get)
Playing hard to get is a technique in which individual try to create the
impression that they are very popular or very much in demand.
5) The pique technique (Stimulating)
A technique that involves stimulating target person's interest by unusual
requests. As a result, they do not refuse request. For example, asking for more
donation (in terms of money) by showing how similar other people have
donated, such type of technique can be applied.
6) That's not all technique
A technique that involves offering target person's additional benefits
before they have decided whether to comply with or reject specific request.
7) Low ball technique
A technique in which an offer or deal is changed (made less attractive)
after the target person has accepted it.
8) The deadline technique
A technique in which target persons are told they have only limited time to
take advantage of some offer or to obtain some item.

III. Obedience
Obedience is the compliance with an order, request or law or submission to
another's authority.
Obedience is a form of social influence in which one individual issues order to
another to behave in specific way and other people follow it.

Milgram's experiment
Stanley Milgram's experiment tested how far an ordinary person will go to
obey authority. The design or experiment involves "a teacher and a learner". The
learner was strapped in a chair and electrode was placed on his wrist. The learner was
told he must respond correctly to a memory test involving word pairs. The teacher
was set before a machine that deals shock if the learner responds incorrectly. The
teacher is an inexperienced subject, and the learner is an actor. Measured was how far
a person will proceed to inflict pain on a victim. The shocks are administrated in
increasing volume, the victim experienced terrible pain and the suffered a dilemma to
continue obeying the experimenter and continue with the shocks or to break with
authority.

Results from the experiment

 17

Milgram's result showed that contrary to expectations, a majority civilian

volunteers who participated in experiment obeyed orders to apply electric shocks to
another person. In general, more submission was elicited from teachers when.
1. The authority figure was proximity.
2. Teachers felt they could pass on responsibility to others.
3. Experiment to place under the auspices of a respected organization.
 18

Unit 3
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

 Concept of motivation
The word motivation in English is from the Latin word "Emovere" which has
the meaning to move. Hence, motivation emphasizes an internal and external forces
that leads us to move. Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or
psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or drive i.e. aimed at a
global or incentive. In another word Motivation is deriving force that activates guides
and maintains a behavior i.e., aimed at a goal or incentive.
According to Lahey, "Motivation is an internal state that activates and gives
direction to our thoughts."
According to Pinder "Motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect
his/ her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behavior."
The four interacting and interdependent elements of motivation are.
1. Needs.
2. Drives.
3. Incentives.
4. Goal

The motivation cycle

An individual always tries to satisfy his/her desires following in a cycle
around need, drive, inventive and reward. If the need moving in a cycle is not fully
satisfied, it moves again to find its end.
Need

Goal Drive

Incentive

Fig. The motivation cycle

The motivation cycle is said to consist of.
1. Driving state
2. The goal direction behavior initiated by the driving state.
3. The attainment of an appropriate goal.
4. The reduction of driving state and subjective satisfaction and relief when goal
is reached.

Types of motives
1. Primary motives
Primary motives can also be termed as innate/ unlearned/ biological/
physiologically based motives. They are important for our survival i.e. without
primary motives we can't live. For e.g. Hunger, thirst, rest and sleep, sex,
maternal concern, etc. are primary motives.
 19

2. Secondary motives
Secondary motives are also termed as acquired, psychological, social or
learned motives. These are not directly related to biological survival of the
individual, but these needs are equally important because an individual's
happiness and wellbeing depend on the satisfaction of these motives. For e.g.
need for achievement, affiliation, power, security, status or prestige, etc. are
secondary motives.

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Self
Actuali-
zation
Needs
Additional Needs
Self Esteem Needs

Social Needs or Love and

Belonging Needs

Safety / Security Needs

Basic Needs
Physical Needs

Fig.1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Motto (essence) of the Maslow's hierarchy of needs

"Only after the fulfillment of the basic (lower) needs, do the additional (higher) needs
become important."

Theories of motivation

1) Drive theory
According to Drive theory, biological needs arising within our bodies create
unpleasant states of arousal. The feelings we describe as hunger, thirst, fatigue and
so on. In order to eliminate such feelings and restore a balanced physiological
state or homeostatic, we engage in certain activities.

2) Arousal theory
Arousal theory suggests that what we seek is not minimum levels of arousal but
rather optimal arousal. The level i.e., best suited to our personal characteristics
and to whatever activity we are currently performing. Arousal maintains or
increases excitement. The more arousal people are the better their performance
will be on all sorts of tasks.

3) Expectancy theory
Expectancy is a belief that certain behavior will lend to a particular outcome. This
expectancy theory suggest that behavior is affected by the values of the possible
outcomes weighted by the probabilities of those outcome. This theory
 20

concentrates on the outcomes we wished to obtain. For e.g. Earning high grade on
the next exam, getting a job in a multi-national company, graduation with a high
score in a final exam, etc.

4) Goal setting theory

Goal setting theory of motivation is theory which states that there is an
inseparable link between goal setting and task performance. It states that specific,
measurable and attainable goals motivate an employee to achieve the goal, while
vague targets suck off enthusiasm. In another word, the acronym "SMART"
factors should be considered for a higher motivation regarding the goal.
S – Specific
M – Measurable
A – Attainable / Achievable
R – Real
T – Time bound

5) Equity theory
Equality theory suggests that people perceive a situation as fair when their own
ratio of outcomes to inputs is the same as those of others with whom they compare
themselves. It also suggests that comparison of what we invest in work with what
we get out of it should be equal.

 Emotion
The word 'EMOTION' in English is derived from the Latin word 'Emovere'
which has the meaning to move, stirrup, agitate or excite. Emotion disturbs glandular,
muscular and behavioral functions. Hence, an individual in an emotional state is in a
state of un-equilibrium. According to Frijda, "Emotions are intense feelings that are
directed at someone or something." Similarly, Sdorow defines "Emotion as a
motivated state marked by psychological arousal, expressive behavior and intense
felling (mental experience)." This implies emotion consists of three components.
1. Physiological changes within body i.e., in heartbeat, breathing, pulse rate, etc.
2. Subjective experience i.e., personal experience which differs from one person
to another.
3. Expressive behavior like, laughing, weeping, breathing, etc.

Characteristics of emotion
1. Emotions are universal.
2. Emotions are personal and thus differ from person to person.
3. Emotional experience elicits an action tendency i.e. motivation to behave in a
certain way.
4. Emotions may be innate, but it grows to specific pattern with growth of
intelligence, maturation and learning.
5. Emotions involve overt behavior; different emotions have different bodily
expressions. In fear, anger, love different facial expression, vocal expressions
and bodily changes are found.
 21

6. Every emotional experience involves many physical and physiological

changes in the organisms.

Emotions and related terminologies

1. Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.
2. Mood is feeling that tend to be less intense than emotions and which lacks a
contextual stimulus.
3. Emotions are reaction to a contextual object.
4. Emotional labor may be defined as organizationally desired emotions
duringinter personal transactions.

Dimensions of emotion
We experience different kinds of emotions in different amounts. Some of these
emotions attracts us while others distract. Emotions differ in variety, intensity,
frequency and duration.

a) Variety
Emotions are classified in several aspects. In another word, it can be termed as
types of emotions which is as following.
Basic or fundamental emotion.
These emotions are common to all human beings and also have similar
physiological, cognitive and expressive components. This contains the list of
following six universal emotions as.
 Anger
 Fear
 Sadness
 Happiness
 Disgust
 Surprise
I. Positive emotion/ affects
Happiness, joy, love, etc. are termed as positive emotion (pleasant emotions)
II. Negative emotion/ affects
Anger, disappointment, hate, sadness, irritate, jealous, etc. are termed as
negative emotion or unpleasant emotions.

b) Intensity
People give different response to identical emotional provoking stimuli.
People vary in their inherent (heredity) ability to express intensity of their
emotion. The intensity or strength of expression of emotions depend partly on
individual differences and partly on the role given to them in any organization.

c) Frequency and duration

The frequency and duration of emotional expression also depends on
individual difference and the nature of the job.
 22

External constraints on emotion

Every organization defines boundaries that identify which emotions are
acceptable and the degree to which they can be expressed. Similarly, every culture has
its known boundaries or barriers regarding appropriateness of emotions. These and
other external constraints play important role in shaping displayed emotions and to
some extent felt emotion.
Organizational influence and cultural influence on emotion are described as
following.
1. Organizational influences
Every organization has its own boundaries regarding appropriateness of
emotion and emotional expression. Similarly, and happy appearance may be
the emotions appropriate for one organization whereas enthusiasm, sincerity,
privacy or secrecy, etc. may be appropriate in another organization.

2. Cultural influences
Emotional expression may also be shaped by any type of culture i.e. prevalent
to any society. Various cultural norms define appropriateness of emotion in
their own way. For e.g. Cultural norms in USA dictate employees in service
organization should smile and act friendly when interacting with customers. In
the other hand, kissing is pervasive or not allowed in the Hindu religious
society in public places but in Western Christian society, this is (kissing) the
courteous manner of people while they meet each other. Similarly, 'Burkha
practice' in Muslim society is still dominating the women for easy outlet or
expression of their own emotions.

Emotional labor: Felt emotion versus displayed emotion

Emotional labor may be defined as organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions. In another word, emotional labor refers to the effort,
planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal relationship and transactions.
a) Felt emotions
Felt emotions are an individual's actual emotions. In another word, felt emotion is
the natural, real or true emotion and is of spontaneous nature. In some instances,
felt emotion and displayed emotion may be same or real but in some contexts/
situation, displayed emotion may be just opposite of felt emotion and hence is
artificial or not real.
b) Displayed emotions
Displayed emotions are these that are required considered appropriate in given
situation. Displayed emotions are expressed in relation to time, situation or nature
of the job which is fixed according to the rules and regulation set by the
organization. These emotions are learned and acquired to be sociable and please
others. Displayed emotions may lead to unrealistic way of behavior.
For e.g.Mukh ma Ram Ram, Bagali ma Chhura.
 23

"Mutumathi Dhunga Rakhi, Hasnuparyacha"

Felt emotion displayed emotion
 Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, perceive, access and
manage emotions of owns self, of others and of groups in which he/ she is working.
Emotional intelligence is composed of five dimensions as following (According to
Daniel Goelman)
1. Self-awareness
Self-awareness is being aware of one's one feeling, moods, need or
emotions.
2. Self-management
Self-management is the ability to manage one's one emotions and
impulses.
3. Self-motivation
Self-motivation is the person's internal urge to maintain and manage
emotional behavior in a stable manner, even when different situations and
hurdles arise.
4. Empathy
Empathy is the ability to sense how others are feeling.
5. Social skills
A social skill is the ability to handle emotions of other.

Emotional dissonance
Emotional dissonance is that condition where the employee displays emotions
that are quite different from their true feelings. For e.g. even the grief stricken, the
employee has to show a fresh, active and cheerful face.

Organizational applications of emotion

Human behavior is easily influenced by emotional expressions. Properly
handled emotional situation provide feedback to manipulate future strategies in the
organization. When anybody becomes able to read one's own as well as others
emotion that ultimately helps to accomplish different difficult tasks or activities in the
organization. Hence, emotions are applied in several sectors of the organizational
affairs as in the following.
1. Ability and selection.
2. Decision making.
3. Leadership.
4. Motivation.
5. Interpersonal conflict.
6. Customer services.
7. Deviant workplace behavior.
8. Creativity.
9. Negotiations.
10. Job attitude.
 24

1) Ability and selection

Success of an organization depends on selecting appropriate manpower and
managers ability to manage his/her employees. This task is directly or indirectly
related to the emotion of employees as well as managers.

2) Decision making
Decision making is a conscious process of making choices to reach some
desired states of affairs. Decisions are influenced by one's feelings at a particular
moment.

3) Leadership
Leadership is the ability to lead group of people. Leadership quality is sought
in every organization and emotional expression is one important characteristics of
leadership.

4) Motivation
The common factor characterizing the various forms of emotional behavior is
that the individual's motivation is somehow in a special state i.e., he/she is moved
for the movement to act in a more or less unusual way.

5) Interpersonal conflict
Because some emotional elements are always attached in conflicts rationality
model of conflict resolution may not appropriately resolve conflict. A manager's
ability to solve the conflict largely depends upon his ability to identify emotional
element in conflict.

6) Customer services
When employees express positive emotions customers tend to respond
positively and their willingness to return to the place is likely to be increased. If
people don't like their jobs, they are unlikely to provide good services to the
customers. Negative emotions of employees tend to have negative effect on
customer.

7) Deviant workplace behavior

Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behavior.
Deviant behaviors are those behaviors that violate the established norms of an
organization and threaten the organization, its members or both. Timely
understating of employee's emotion can help to reduce such behaviors.
 25

Unit 4

LEARNING

 Meaning and definition of learning

Learning is a continuous process and is of universal nature. We cannot run our
daily life properly without learning. Learning saves our thoughts, language,
motivations, emotions, personalities and attitudes which help us to adopt to the
changing conditions in the world around us.
According to Morgan & King, "Learning is defined as any relatively
permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice and experience."
According to Myers, "Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's
behavior due to experience."
According to Crow & Crow, "Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge
and attitudes."
According to Great Psychologist B.F. Skinner, "Learning is a process of
progressive behavior adaptations."

Characteristics of learning process

1. Learning involves all those experiences and trainings of an individual that
helps to produce change in one's behavior.
2. Learning is a sort of ability to respond differently to different situations
because of past experience.
3. Learning is a general integration of behavior.
4. Learning is an outcome of the interaction of the organism with his/her
environment. It establishes new relationship between a stimulus and a
response.
5. Learning is universal and continuous.
6. Learning leads to bring change in the behavior but it does not necessarily
mean that these changes always bring improvement or development in the
positive direction.
7. Learning does not include the changes in behavior on account of sensation
adaptation, maturation, fatigue, illness or drugs.

Theories of learning
Learning is basic phenomena which occur in our daily life. Several
psychologists concentrate their effort to find out the way of learning. They believe
that learning occurs in several basic forms, which had led to the formulation of
different principles which describe the process of learning. Overall learning theories
can be broadly classified into two types or groups.
1. Stimulus – Response Theory. (S.-R. Theory)
2. Cognitive Theory.

1) Stimulus – Response Theory

Stimulus – Response Theory explains learning as an associative process where
learning is a new association or connection i.e., formed between a stimulus (S) and a
response (R). This group of learning theory is supported by Pavlov, Skinner,
Thorndike, Hull, Guthrie, etc.
Theories that interpret learning in terms of relationship between stimulus and
response is also known as Behaviorist theory of learning.
 26

 Conditioning
Conditioning is the process of learning through which the behavior of the organisms
becomes dependent on environmental stimuli. Its two major forms are.
1. Classical conditioning.
2. Operational conditioning.

1) Pavlov's Classical conditioning theory of learning (Classical Conditioning/

Pavlovian Conditioning)
Classical conditioning learning theory was developed by Russian Psychologist
Ivan Petrovich (I.P) Pavlov in early 20th century. He was basically interested in
studying the process gastric secretion in dogs. He got the novel prize on his research
on digestive process in the year 1904 A.D. Classical conditioning is the process of
learning in which response (originally that of natural stimulus) is elicited to an
artificial or conditioned stimulus by presenting it with natural stimulus
simultaneously.
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS/ Natural Stimulus)
A stimulus that naturally elicits the response without any learning is UCS. For
e.g. In Pavlov's experiment, food (meat powder) is unconditioned stimulus.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
The natural or unlearned response to an UCS is UCR. For eg. Salivation as a
response of food is UCR.
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS/ Artificial Stimulus)
The neutral or indifferent stimulus i.e. paired with the unconditioned stimulus
is conditioned stimulus. For e.g. In Pavlov's experiment, Bell is the CS.
 Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned or acquired response to a condition stimulus is termed as
conditioned response. In Pavlov's experiment, Salivation to bell is conditioned
response. Conditioned response is also termed as conditioned reflex.
Pavlov's classical conditioning can be explained by the following pattern,
which Pavlov used in his experiment on dog.

1. Natural or unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – Food → Natural or Unconditioned

Response (UCR) – Salivation
2. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Bell → No salivation i.e. No response
3. C.S (Bell), 5 seconds interval UCS (food) → Unconditioned Response UCR →
Salivation
4. C.S (Bell) → Conditioned Response (Salivation)

Laws or basic principles of classical conditioning

IP Pavlov from his experiment formulated some basic laws or principles which are
as following.
1. Acquisition
The stage during which a new response is learn and gradually strengthen after
conditioning is called acquisition.
2. Stimulus generalization
The realization that a class of stimuli has common properties of characteristics
is called stimulus generalization.
3. Stimulus differentiation
The realization that similar (not same) but different stimuli have different
properties of characteristics is called stimulus differentiation.
 27

4. Experimental extinction
The process by which a condition response (CR) can be weakened and finally
eliminated is called as the process of experimental extinction.
5. Spontaneous recovery
When the experimentally extinguished response reappears again after a period,
it is called spontaneous recovery.

Application of classical conditioning in practical life

1. Behavior therapy.
2. Controlling behavior.
3. Measuring sensory capacities.
4. Remove phobias.
5. Developing good habits.
6. Elimination of unwanted responses.
7. Developing positive attitudes.

2) Operant conditioning learning theory (Skinner's theory of learning)

Famous American psychologist Burhus Frederick (B.F.) Skinner developed
the operant conditioning theory of learning during the decade of 1930 A.D. He was
influenced by J.B. Watson's behavioral view of psychology and E.L. Thorndike's
"Law of effect" which states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur. Operant
conditioning is a type of conditioning that occurs when an organism is reinforced for
voluntarily emitting a response. Operant conditioning is the term derived from the
word 'Operate'. When our behavior operates in the outside world, it produces some
kind of effect for us and these effects determine whether we continue to engage in that
behavior. If the consequences are rewarding, the response will be repeated and will go
in strength. This relationship between response and reward is the essence of
(rewarding) operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner conducted many experiments on
pigeons, rats, animals, humans and so on.
B.F. Skinner, from his experiment, mentioned two types of learning as 'S-type
conditioning' and 'R-type conditioning'. He spelt Pavlovian conditioning as S-Type
conditioning where for any type of behavior or response there must be stimulus. But
R-type conditioning refers that operant behavior is emitted from unknown stimulus or,
operant behavior is not linked with any type of stimulus and it is spontaneous nature.

Lever → Pressing → Food → Eating

(CS) (CR) (UCS) (UCR)
Response Reinforce

Main features of operant conditioning learning theory

1. Behavior shaping/ Habit formation.
Shaping is the process of teaching complex behavior by rewarding closer and
closer approximations of the desired behavior.
2. Acquisition of operant response.
3. Generalization.
4. Habit competition.
5. Chaining.
6. Extinction and spontaneous recovery.
 28

Reinforcement (reinforcer)
A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the
probability of response re-occurring. Skinner classified reinforcer as following.
1. Positive Reinforcer
2. Negative Reinforcer

 Positive reinforcer
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus, the introduction or presentation of which
increases the likelihood of a particular behavior. For e.g., Parental praise for any
behavior of their children increases the likelihood that the child will repeat that
behavior.
 Negative reinforcer
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which
increase the probability of a particular behavior. Negative reinforce are often
painful. Parental disappointment on their children while they secure low grade or
score in the examination.

Types/ Schedule of reinforcement

Scheldue of rein-forcement

Continuous Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement Schedule
Schedule
Fixed
Ratio Fixed Variable Variable
Schedule Interval Ratio Interval
Schedule Schedule Schedule

Similarities between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

The major laws of classical conditioning as acquisition, stimulus
generalization, stimulus difference, extinction, spontaneous recovery are also found in
operant conditioning.

Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

1. This theory of learning was This theory of learning was developed by
propounded by Russian American Psychologist Burhus Frederick
Psychologist Ivan Petrovich Skinner.
Pavlov.
2. Pavlov did his experiment on Skinner did his experiment on rat.
dog.
3. Stimulus is already known in Stimulus is unknown.
classical conditioning.
4. Response is obtained from Response is obtained without from stimulus.
stimulus.
5. Main focus is in the stimulus. Main focus is in the response or operation.
 29

6. Reinforcement is given already. Reinforcement is given only after the

response or operation/ activity.
7. Reinforcement or reward is Reinforcement or reward is associated with
associated with stimulus. response.
8. Organism or learner is passive. Organism or animal (learner) is active.
9. There is single unit of SR. There is chain of operations or responses to
reach the goal.
10. This learning theory depends This learning theory depends upon the law of
upon the law of contiguity or effect.
proximity.

Applications of operant conditioning theory

1. Personal management.
2. Behavior therapy.
3. Verbal learning.
4. Programmed instruction.
5. Use of token economy.
6. Group contingency.

Education implications of operant conditioning theory

1. To formulate or develop expected behavior.
2. To use reinforcement properly.
3. To get effective result among the students or employees.
4. To develop programmed instruction.
5. To teach voluntary motor activities.

Cognitive theory of learning

The group of German psychologists opposed the mechanical nature of S.-R.
Theory. They believe that S.-R. association can only explain simple forms and not the
complex types of learning. According to cognitive psychologist, teaching is a process
of developing insight or understanding in the learner and learning is the organization
of percepts and purposes by the learner. Basic principles of perception organizations
are as followings.
i. Figure ground.
ii. Principles of pragnanz.
iii. Law of transposition.
iv. Law of similarity.
v. Law of proximity.

Bandura's observational or social learning theory

Famous American psychologists Albert Bandura developed the observation
learning theory which is also known as Social Learning or imitation learning.
Although Bandura agreed S-R theory but argued that conditioning methods are too
limited and cannot generalize the findings from the animal experiments to every
aspects of human behavior. Bandura suggested that there are several situations where
we learn from watching others through observation and derived experienced with or
without reinforcement.
Bandura and his followers conducted a 'Bobo doll' experiment to determine
whether children learn aggressive behaviors by observing the actions of others.
Nursery school children were assigned to two groups where one group observed a
non-aggressive model who was quiet. After the observation, all children from both
 30

groups were given an opportunity to play with several toys including a Bobo doll.
Result showed that children who observed the aggressive behavior than those who
observed a non-aggressive model, social learning theory assumes that modeling
influences learning mainly through four interrelated components or processes as
following.
i. Attention process.
ii. Retention process.
iii. Motor reproduction process.
iv. Motivational process.

Wolf Gang Kohler's Insightful Learning Theory

Famous German psychologist Wolf Gang Kohler developed the insightful
learning theory. According to Kohler insight learning is the sudden understanding of
the relation between a problem and a solution. Occasionally, insight comes
dramatically and makes the problems solution suddenly clear. Group of Gestalt
psychologists refused to conditioning theory and trial and error theory. According to
Kohler, practice and reinforcement is not vital for the solution of the problem and
only inner feelings, perception, logical reasoning and thinking are pre-requisite factors
for effective learning. Kohler did his experiment on Chimpanzee named 'Sultan' in
different four conditions and then reach to the conclusion.

Main features of insightful learning theory

1. Perception.
2. Central mediation.
3. Discovering new relationship.
4. Sudden change.
 31

Unit 5
MEMORY AND FORGETTING

 Memory
Memory is the process by which people and other organisms encode, store and
retrieve information.

Memory process
Basically, memory system has the following three processes.
1. Encoding processes.
2. Storage processes.
3. Retrieval processes.

1. Encoding process
Encoding is the process of perceiving information and transforming it into a form
or code which can be stored. Encoding can also be classified as.
a) Automatic encoding.
b) Effortful encoding.
Automatic encoding occurs automatically with little or no effort. Encoding
that requires attention and conscious effort is called effortful encoding. This is
influenced by the following factors.
1. Meaningful organization / Hierarchies of the material
2. Imagery
3. Chunking
4. Effortful learning is easier if we distribute the rehearsal time evenly.
5. We remember the information easily when presented one hour before
sleep.
2. Storage process
Storage is the second process in processing memory where encoded information is
retained in the memory system.
3. Retrieval process
The process of bringing a memory into consciousness, from among the stored
materials is retrieval process.

Methods for studying retrieval

1. Recall method.
2. Recognition method.
3. Learning saving method.

1) Recall method
Recall is bringing past experience into present consciousness in the absence of
stimulus. This can be classified into free recall, probed recall and serial recall.
2) Recognition method
Recognition is retrieving the information in the presence of the stimulus we
have already experienced.
3) Learning saving method
L.M. - Lesser the number of trials for learning the list of nonsense syllables
better the retentive power.
S.M. – lesser the number of trials for re learning the list of nonsense syllables
after rest better the retentive power.
 32

Types of memory and information processing theory

for few hours to very

long period, sometime
lifelong also
1. The Sensory Memory (Sensory Register)
The sensory memory refers to the initial momentary recording of information
in our sensory system. When sensations strike our eyes, they linger briefly in the
visual system. This kind of sensory memory is called iconic image (memory) and
refers to the usually brief visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted by
the visual system. Echoic image or memory is the name given to the same
phenomenon in the auditory domain. The brief mental echo that persists after
information has been heard.

2. Short Term Memory (STM)

Short – term memory is memory that holds information received from sensory
register for up to 30 seconds.
Rehearsal – the process of rehearsal consists of keeping items of information
motion in the center of attention. This can be classified into elaborative rehearsal and
maintenance rehearsal.

3. Long Term Memory (LTM)

LTM is a permanent memory that endures for long periods, possibly for life.
LTM is classified into the following three parts.
a) Episodic memory
Episode memory refers to memories of specific episodes in one's life and is what
most people think of as memory.
b) Semantic memory.
Semantic memory refers to our general knowledge of the world and all of the facts
we know.
c) Procedural memory
Procedural memory refers to the skills that human beings possess.

Associative models of memory

Associative models of memory suggest that memory consists of mental
representations of clusters of inter-connected information. Associative memory
models help account for priming, a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or
concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information. Explicit
memory refers intentional or conscious recollection of information. In the other hand,
Implicit memory refers to memories that people are not consciously aware of, but that
can affect their subsequent performance and behavior.
 33

Working memory
Working memory is a system for temporarily storing and managing the
information required to carry out complex cognitive task such as learning, reasoning
and comprehension. Most people remember the words at the beginning and end of the
series better than those in the middle. This phenomenon is called the serial position
effect because the chance of recalling an item is related to its position in the series
'Primacy effect' is the effect in which subjects better recall the first few list items.
Similarly, 'Recency effect' is the effect in which subject better recalls the last item on
the list.
American psychologist George Miller reviewed many experiments on memory
span and concluded that people could hold an average of seven items in short term
memory. He refers to this limit as 'The magical number 7, plus or minus two.' because
the results of the studies were consistent.

Improving Recall
1. Have confidence in own self.
2. Free oneself from excessive anxiety, stress, fear or any other emotional factors.
3. Remember association of ideas, connection and systematic thinking.
4. Do not fight with own self to recall a thing for a long time. Take break and
attempt it in a fresh mood or situation.

Improving Learning to improve memory demands

1. Improvement in the techniques and methods of learning.
2. Improvement in the learning situation and environment.
3. Improvement in the learner's state of mind.
Improvement in all these aspects can be improved by the following aspects of
learning.
1. Will to learn.
2. Interest and attention.
3. Adopting proper methods of memorization.
4. Follow principle of association.
5. Using methods of grouping and rhythm.
6. Utilizing as many senses as possible.
7. Arranging better learning situation.
8. Paying attention to internal factors within the learner.
9. Taking provision for change and proper rest.
10. Repetition and practice.
Forgetting
The restoring of previous experience, recalling or reproducing what was
learned previously is remembering and just opposite of remembering is forgetting. In
another word, forgetting is defined as the loss of information already encoded and
stored in our long-term memory. There are several reasons of forgetting which can be
broadly categorized into two groups as.
1. Factors affecting learning.
2. Factors affecting other than learning.

1) Factors affecting learning

The effectiveness of learning depends upon the behavior of the individual,
type of task, leaning situation, etc. some of the factors affecting learning are as
following.
 34

a) Meaningful organization.
b) Use of imagery.
c) Motivation for learning, mental set and attitude.
d) Speed and quantity of learning i.e., over learning leads towards forgetting.
e) Methods of learning.
i. Whole versus part learning.
ii. Recitation versus mere learning.
f) Knowledge of result and other reinforcement.

2) Factors affecting other than learning

a) Decay theory.
Decay theory states that memory traces are formed in the brain when we learn
information and they gradually disintegrate overtime.
b) Interference theory.
There are mainly two types of interference related to forgetting. The first one is
proactive interference and second one is retroactive interference.
 Proactive interference.
Proactive interference occurs when earlier/ prior learning or experience
interferes with our ability to recall later information.
 Retroactive interference.
Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with our
ability to recall earlier information or experiences.
c) Repression/ motivated forgetting.
Repression is the process of forgetting in which unpleasant and unacceptable
experiences are pushed into the unconscious mind.
d) Retrieval failure.
Retrieval failure is the inability to recall or bring a memory into consciousness.
Context dependent memory suggests that material learnt in one environment or
context is easier to remember in a similar environment or context than in a very
different one state dependent retrieval refers to the internal state of the
individual.
e) Memory dysfunctions or memory impairment.
Amnesia means loss of memory. It is a kind of forgetting and some forms of
memory disorder because of loss of what has already been stored or an inability
to retrieve stored information. Amnesia can be classified as functional amnesia
and organic amnesia.

 Functional Amnesia (Psychological basis Amnesia)

Functional amnesia refers to memory disorders that seem to result from
psychological trauma, not an injury to the brain. In dissociative amnesia, a person
losses memory of some important past experiences. In functional retrograde amnesia,
people have much more extensive forgetting that may obscure their whole past.
Dissociative identity disorder is a type of amnesia in which a person appears to have
two or more distinct personal identities.

 Organic Amnesia / Biological basis Amnesia

Organic amnesia refers to any traumatic forgetting that is produced by specific
brain damage. 'Anterograde amnesia' is a amnesia where there is no memory for new
experiences. 'Retrograde amnesia' is a case where there is loss of memory for old
experiences. Korsakoff's syndrome/ Korsakoff's psychosis is a disorder that produces
 35

severe and often permanent amnesia. Mainly this type of amnesia situation is caused
by the chronic alcoholism and prolonged deficiency of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine).
Alzheimer's disease is a condition in which neurons in the brain gradually degenerate
which ultimately hinders the function of the brain.

 Anterograde Amnesia
Anterograde amnesia refers to a decreased ability to retain new information.
Loss of new memories / no memory for new experiences.

 Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory access to events that occurred or
information that was leaned in the past. It is mainly caused by an injury or the onset of
a disease.
Loss of old/past memories/ loss of memory for old experiences.
 36

Unit6
MEMORY AND FORGETTING

 Thinking
Thinking refers to a pattern of behavior in which we make use of internal
representations of the things and events for the solution of some specific purposed
problems.

Characteristic of Thinking
1. Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity.
2. It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose. In genuine thinking, we
cannot let our thoughts without any definite end in mind as happens in the case
of daydreaming and imagination.
3. Thinking is described as a problem-solving behavior. From the beginning to
the end, there is some problem around which the whole process of thinking
revolves. But every problem-solving behavior is not thinking, it is only related
to the inner cognitive behavior.
4. In thinking, there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration. One has
to suspend immediately one's overt or motor activities while engaging in
thinking through some or other types of mental exploration.
5. Thinking is a symbolic activity. In thinking, there is a mental solution of the
problem which is carried out through some signs, symbols and mental images.
6. Thinking can shift very rapidly, covering and expands of time and space
almost instantaneously.

Elements of thought/ tools of thinking

The various elements involve in the thinking process may be summarized as
under. In this process of thinking, we usually depend upon these three elements or
tools.
a) Images.
b) Symbols and signs.
c) Concepts.

a) Images.
Images, as mind pictures, consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or
scenes one actually seen, heard or felt.
b) Symbols and signs.
A symbol or a sign is any stimulus that has become a commonly accepted
representation of an object, event, action or idea.
c) Concepts.
Concepts are symbols that summarize or generalize attributes typical of several
objects, events, actions or ideas that are dissimilar in other important aspects.

Types of thinking
Different psychologists have given different views about the types or forms of
thinking. Generally associative thinking and directed thinking is found during the
course or process of thinking. Flowing are the different types of thinking.
 37

1. Convergent thinking
Convergent thinking is logical, factual, conventional, and focused on problem
solving until a solution is found. This type of thinking brings together all the
information and knowledge focused on the solution of a problem that has a well-
defined correct answer.

2. Divergent thinking
It is the ability to generate a range of possible solutions to a given problem in
particular to a problem to which there is no single answer.
According to psychologist Guildford, "Divergent thinking is a major component
of creative thinking and has four main characteristics. These characteristics are.
 Fluency – (The ability to rapidly produce a large number of ideas or solutions to a
problem.)
 Flexibility – (The capacity to consider a variety of approaches to a problem
simultaneously.)
 Originality – (The tendency to produce ideas different from those of most other
people.)
 Elaboration – (The ability to think through the details of an idea and carry it out.)

3. Autistic thinking
Autistic thinking is characterized by extreme preoccupation with one's own
thoughts and fantasies. In other word, thinking governed by internal wishes and
desires irrespective of external real-world concern is known as autistic thinking.

4. Creative thinking
Creative thinking refers to the ability for thinking, to create or discovers
something new. It is the ability to integrate various elements of the situation into a
harmonious whole to create something noble. We can define creativity as the
ability to produce products (such as: plays, solutions to the social problems,
poems, etc.) that are both noble and socially values.

Stages of creative thinking

Stage of creative thinking may vary from person to person and types of creative work
but in general, the common stage of creative thinking are as following.
1. Preparation.
2. Incubation.
3. Inspiration or illumination.
4. Evaluation.
5. Verification or revision.

What factors produce creativity?

Several psychologists have proposed their own view about the factors i.e.,
responsible for creativity. Some psychologists have emphasized about the role of
motivation. Similarly, social psychologists have focused on the born personality traits
and the favorable environmental conditions. Some others have expressed their views
that creativity is also a part of everyday life.

Confluence approach of creativity

Confluence approach is a new view about the creativity, and this is widely
accepted throughout the world. This view suggests that in order for creativity to
 38

occur, multiple components must cover. According to Lubart, creativity requires a

confluence or combination of the following six distinct resources.
1. Intellectual abilities.
2. Knowledge.
3. Sudden style of thinking (noble way of thinking)
4. Personality attribute.
5. Intrinsic task focus motivation.
6. An environment i.e.,supportive or favorable of creative ideas.

Creativity innate (inborn) or learned (acquired)?

As we know, creativity is a special capacity of the person which differs from
person to person. Different psychologists have expressed their own view about the
determining factors of creativity. Some says environment is the vital factor whereas
others say personality is prime factor. From the perspectives of confluence approach
of creativity, we can say that multiple factors like, intellectual ability, knowledge,
personality, motivation, environment, etc. are responsible for all the overall creativity
of the person. In this sense, we can say that creativity is the outcome of both innate as
well as learned factor or acquired factors. But comparatively, from the different
experiment's psychologists suggested that learned or acquired factors are more
responsible for the creativity.

Problem solving thinking

Simply problem is any conflict of difference between one situation and
another situation we wish to produce our goal or objectives. Problem solving can be
defined as the cognitive process through which information is used to reach a goal
that is blocked by some kind of obstacles. There are different strategies for problem
solving which are as following.
1. Trial and error.
2. Algorithms.
3. Heuristics.

1. Trial and error"Practice makes man perfect"

To overcome errors or problems, you have to pay efforts or practices.
Famous American psychologist E.L. Thorndike developed trial and error theory
method of problem solving or learning. It is that method of problem solving in
which one makes attempts or practices and when confronted with error, correct
that error and proceeds forward.

2. Algorithms"A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem"

An algorithm is a set of rules which if followed correctly, will guarantee a
solution to a problem.

3. Heuristics"A way of solving problems by discovering things yourself and

learning from your own experiences"
A heuristic is a cognitive shortcut that might lend to a solution. Methods that
have been successful in the past time serve us as a guideline for the future. The
two most important categories of heuristics are representativeness and availability.
Different kind of heuristics – availability, representativeness and anchoring
and adjustment.
 39

Habits and set in problem solving

A habit which implies a long-term tendency to respond in a certain manner and set,
the temporary tendency to respond in a certain manner without regard for alternatives.
Thus, set is a tendency to stick with a familiar method of solving a particular type of
problem, one which has worked before.

Functional fixedness
Functional fixedness involves thinking about something only in terms of its
functionality, rather than new ways in which it could be tested.

Steps in problem solving

The major steps to any problem-solvingprocess are as following.
1. Preparation: Formulating the problem.
2. Production: Generating potential solutions.
3. Judgment / Evaluation: Examining and evaluating the solution.

Reasoning
Reasoning is another higher order mental process where we transform
available information to draw specific conclusions. The process of reasoning involves
transforming available information in order to reach specific conclusion. Logical
thinking is thinking that employs valid reasoning to read correct conclusion. Logical
thinking is the foundation of rational thought, thought that fits the real world and
allows us to function well in it. There are mainly two basic kinds of reasoning
involved in logical thinking and they are:
i. Inductive reasoning.
ii. Deductive reasoning.

1. Inductive reasoning(example/observations to conclusion or specific to general)

Inductive reasoning is categorized by making observations and gathering
information until a general conclusion is reached. It is the basic method of
science. This method was developed by Francis Backon an English Philosopher.
Example: all observed 10 rabbits have their lungs. Hence, we can say each rabbit
has its lungs.

2. Deductive reasoning (General to specific or Rule/formula to conclusion)

Deductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which a conclusion follows
from a premise or assumptions. The underlying structure of deductive reasoning is
if – then – such reasoning allows for prediction, and it is often the next step taken
after inductive reasoning is employed. This method of reasoning was developed
by Greek Philosopher Aristotle.
Example: All mammals have their lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Hence, each
rabbit has its lungs.

Decision making
Decision making is also a kind of problem solving in which we are presented
with several alternatives/ options among which we must choose the best one. The
optimizing decision maker is rational. That is, he/she makes consistent value
maximizing choices within specified constraints. These choices are made following a
six-step rational decision-making model.
Procedural steps of rational decision making:
 40

1. Defining the problem/ identification of problem.

2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.

Improving decision making

Here are some factors which are helpful to improve our decision process.
Some of the important factors are as following.
1. Increase information input.
2. Proper communication.
3. Select appropriate timing.
4. Increase acceptance and commitment.
5. Create supportive environment.
6. Change personal habits.
7. Provision of proper reward and punishment system.
8. Biasness (avoid prejudices and biasness)
9. Calculate risk or face the challenges.
10. Avoid indecisiveness.

Common biases and errors in problem solving

There are several factors that influence the decision making and ultimately to
the problem solving. Some common biases and errors that negatively influence the
decision making or problem-solving process are as following:

1. Overconfident
Over confidence is the state when subjective confidence in judgments is reliably
greater than their objective accuracy.

2. Anchoring and adjustment

In anchoring bias, we make modification in making decision on the basis of pre
information we have. According to Hammond and his colleague, anchoring bias
occurs because our mind appears to give an inappropriate amount of emphasis to
the first information it receives.

3. The confirmation bias

The tendency to test conclusions or hypothesis by examining evidence that
confirm our initial views. It is that tendency of the person where he/she always
only search positive evidence which correlates with his/her previous mental set.

4. The availability bias

It is that type of situation which is governed by our mind to decide anything on the
basis of what comes to mind first. A cognitive rule of thumb in which importance
or probability of various events is judged based on how readably they come to
mind.

5. Representation bias
It is the tendency to assume that the more closely and items resembles typical
examples of some concept, the more likely it is to belong to that concept.
 41

6. Escalation (Raising) of commitment

It is betting trapped in bad decisions. In many situations, person who have a bad
situation tend to stick to it even as possess associated with them increase.

7. The Hindsight bias

The tendency to assume that we could have predicted actual events more
successfully than is really the case. The hindsight bias is also known as 'I knew it
was going to happen' phenomenon.
 42

Unit 7
HUMAN INTELLIGENCE

 Meaning of Intelligence
Generally, Intelligence refers to the mental capacity of the person. David
Wechsler, define intelligence as the aggregate or global capability of the individual to
act purposefully, think rationally and to deal with the situation effectively. According
to Benjamin B. Lahey, "Intelligence refers to the cognitive abilities of an individual to
learn from the experience, reason well and to cope effectively with the demands of
daily living."
Other group of experts defined intelligence as the ability to understand
complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to
engage in various forms of reasoning and to overcome obstacles by careful thought.
From the above definitions, intelligence can be understood throughout the
following points.
o Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience.
o Intelligence is the ability to adjust effectively with the changing situation or
environment.
o Intelligence is the ability to reason, understand complex ideas and to think
abstractly.
o Intelligence is the total sum of cognition which refers to the individual's overall
capacity.

Major approaches of Intelligence/ Theories of Intelligence

As already said, intelligence is multi-facetedi.e., several factors influence
about the intelligence capacity of the person. Different psychologists and experts have
given different views about the intelligence. Here are some theories or approaches
which describe about the nature of intelligence. Those approaches or theories of
intelligence are as following.
1. Two - factor theory of intelligence.
2. Group – factor theory of intelligence.
3. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence.
4. Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence.
5. Cattell's fluid and crystallized intelligence.

1) Two – factor theory of intelligence

Charles Spearman proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence. According
to this theory, intelligence is consisted of two major factors.
i. General factor
ii. Specific factor
According to spearman, all individuals possess general factor. This factor is
common to all mental activities and is denoted by 'g'. 'g' underlies all intellectual task
and mental abilities however the degree of general ability differs among people. It
does not fluctuate overtime, rather remains constant through time. Therefore, it is said
to be an inborn quality.
 43

The specific factor is also called specific ability or intelligence and is denoted
by small 's'. Specific factor is the skill pertaining to the specific field. Specific factor
required in different (field) skills differ from one another. 'g' factor is one, but 's'
factor is many. 'g' factor effects all activities, but 's' factor affects only specific
activities. While comparing between 'g' factor and 's' factor we find that 'g' factor is
more inborn and less acquired and vice-versa. (and 's' factor is more acquired and less
inborn.)

2) Group – factor theory of intelligence

American psychologist Louis L. Thurstone proposed that intelligence was not
one general factor, but a small set of independent factors of equal importance. He
named his theory as Group – Factor theory of intelligence. Group factor theory of
intelligence states that intelligence is composed of specific abilities which are called
primary mental abilities. According to Louis, Intelligence is composed of seen
primary mental abilities as given below.
1. Verbal comprehension.
The ability to understand word meaning measured by vocabulary test.
2. Word fluency.
The ability to think of words rapidly, measured by test such as solving
anagram's and producing words that rhyme.
3. Number.
The ability to work with numbers and perform computations as in arithmetic.
4. Space relation.
The ability to mentally visualize and manipulate objects in three dimensions.
5. Memory.
The ability to remember words, letters, numbers and images.
6. Perceptual speed.
The ability to grasp visual details quickly and to see similarities and differences
between pictured objects.
7. Reasoning.
The ability to derive general ideas and rules from specific information, to find
out relations, rules and traits to proceed logically.
Each of these primary abilities consist within it minute factors. Although these
seven factors appear to be free and separate from each other they co-relate with
each other.

3) Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence

The theory of multiple intelligence was proposed by Howard Gardner in `983
to define the concept of intelligence more accurately and to address the question
whether methods which claim to measure intelligence are truly scientific. Gardner's
theory of multiple intelligences currently accepted intelligence is as following eight
types.
i. Spatial.
This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the
mind's eye, so to speak.
 44

ii. Linguistic.
This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal
linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages.
iii. Logical mathematical.
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers.
iv. Kinesthetic.
The core elements of the bodily- kinesthetic intelligence are control of
one's bodily motion and capacity to handle objects skillfully.
v. Musical.
This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones and music.
vi. Interpersonal.
This area has to do with interactions with others. In theory, people who
have a high interpersonal intelligence tend to be extroverts, characterized
by their sensitivity to other moods, feelings, temperaments and
motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a
group.
vii. Intrapersonal (within the person)
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. People
with intrapersonal intelligence are intuitive and typically introverted.
viii. Naturalistic.
This area has to do with nature, nurturing and relating information to one's
natural surroundings.

4) Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Stenberg had developed another modern theory of intelligence named
as Triarchic theory of intelligence. According to him, these are actually three basic
types of human intelligence.
The first known as Componential or Analytical intelligence, involves the
abilities to think critical and analytically. Person's high on this dimension usually
excel on standard tests of academic potential and make excellent students.
The second type of intelligence is Experiential or Creative intelligence,
which emphasizes insight and the ability to formulate new ideas. Persons who rate
high on this dimension, excel at zeroing in on what information is crucial in a given
situation and at combining seemingly on related facts. Sternberg termed the third
typed of intelligence as Contextual or Practical intelligence and some ways it is the
most interesting of all. Persons high on this dimension are intelligent in a practical,
adaptive sense – they have what many would term "street-smarts" and are adaptive at
solving the problems of everyday life.

5) Cattell's theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence

Cattell from his experimental study concluded that there are two major
clusters of mental abilities or intelligence. He gave these two clusters separate name
as fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence to the ability to reason
quickly and to think abstractly.This type of intelligence tends to decline during late
 45

adulthood. Fluid intelligence refers to our largely inherited abilities to think and
reason in a sense, the hardware of our brains that determines the limits of our
information processing capabilities. In the other hand, crystallized intelligence refers
to accumulated knowledge, information we store overall lifetime of experience and
the applications of skills and knowledge to solve specific problems. Hence,
crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge and experience.
In this sense, crystallized intelligence is the outcome of experience acting on our fluid
intelligence. The speed with which one can analyze information is an example of fluid
intelligence while the breadth of one's vocabulary – how many words one can put to
use illustrates crystallized intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient. (I.Q.)

Intelligence Quotient is the ratio between mental age and chronological age.
The chronological age is determined from the date of birth whereas mental age is the
absolute level of intelligence. It is the level of mental maturity a person has attained
irrespective of the number of years, he/she has lived.
𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑒 (𝑀𝐴)
𝐼𝑄 = × 100
𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑒 (𝐶. 𝐴. )
(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑔𝑒)

There is individual difference among the peoples in their intelligence level.

Generally, distribution of intelligence scores of the persons can be categorized mainly
into three groups, namely: very high, vey low and in between or average.
The intelligence level in the general population can be grouped into following
different levels as obtained from a standard intelligence test.

S.N. I.Q. Description % In population

1 130 & above Very superior 2.2
2 120 – 129 Superior 6.7
3 110 – 119 Bright Normal 16.1
4 90 – 109 Average 50
5 80 – 89 Dull normal 16.1
6 70 – 79 Borderline 6.7
7 Below 70 defective 2.2

Extremes of Intellectual Ability

A. Mental sub-normality
Mental sub normality is also called mental retardation/ feeble mindedness /
mental deficiency. It is a disorder in which a person's overall intellectual functioning
is well below average, with an IQ around 70 or less. Mental retardation appears in
childhood before as 18.
o Level of mental retardation:
a. Mild retardation: IQ ranges from 55 to 69.
b. Moderate retardation: IQ ranges from 39 to 54.
 46

c. Severe retardation: IQ from 25 to 39.

d. Profound retardation: IQ having less than 25.

B. The mentally gifted

The persons having IQ distribution more than 180 and below 150 are known
as intellectually gifted.

C. The Middle Groups

Most of the peoples about 95% fall in this category as middle group of
intelligence with IQ between 70 and 130.

Application of emotional intelligence

1. To excel in business and career.

2. To manage anger emotions.
3. Develop relationship.
4. Development of positive and pro-social characteristics.
5. Selection of employees.
6. Develop healthy lifestyle.

Emotional intelligence (EI)

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, perceive, assess and
manage emotions of owns self, of others and of groups in which he or she is
working or interacting.

Daniel Goelman's dimension of EI

1. Self-awareness.
2. Self-management.
3. Self-motivation.
4. Empathy
5. Social skills.
 47

Unit 8
PERSONALITY

 Personality
The word personality in English is derived from Greek word 'Persona' which
has the meaning facial mask. Generally, personality refers the quality of a person. The
overall features or qualities are involve to a person's personality. In this sense,
personality refers to the sum/ total of all the pattern of thinking, feeling, acting and
behaving that are unique and distinguishes one person from another.
According to A.M. Colman, "Personality is the sum total of the behavioral and
mental characteristics that are distinctive of an individual."

Determinants of personality
Personality is dynamic and very complex aspect which is influenced or shaped
by various factors. These factors may be biological, socio-logical, cultural,
economical and so on. Generally, we can list the major determinants of personality as
following.
1. Biological factors- heredity, endocrine gland, nerve system, physique.
2. Environmental factors/ social factors – home, influence, school, economic
factors, culture.
3. Situational factors.

Personality traits. (primary)

Traits describe the response of an individual in a particular way. In another
word, traits are characteristics or features of the person that describe the tendency to
behave, feel and think in ways that are consistent in different situations. Openness,
friendly, shy, happy, loyal, etc. are the terms which refers the traits of personality of a
person. Different psychologists have their own views about the traits of the
personality. Gordon Allport and Raymond B. Cattell develop the concept of
primary traits of personality. According to Cattell's study, 16 primary traits are as
following.
1. Reserved v/s outgoing.
2. Less intelligent v/s more intelligent.
3. Affected by feelings v/s emotionally stable.
4. Submissive v/s dominant.
5. Serious v/s happy go lucky.
6. Expedient v/s conscientious.
7. Timid v/s venturesome.
8. Tough minded v/s sensitive.
9. Trusting v/s suspicious.
10. Practical v/s imaginative.
11. Forthright v/s shrewd.
12. Self-assured v/s apprehensive.
13. Conservative v/s experimenting.
14. Group dependent v/s self-sufficient/ independent
15. Uncontrolled v/s controlled.
16. Relaxed v/s tensed.
 48

The Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The very simple and popular method to assess the personality traits of an
individual was developed by Isabel Briggs and her mother Kathleen Briggs in 1987. It
is widely used in business and career counseling sector. The MBTI is composed of set
of hundred questions where the individual should give his/her response or choices of
how an individual feels or acts in a particular situation. According to the response
obtained from the respondent, the following four types of personality traits are listed.

1. Thinking v/s Feeling ( T v/s F )

Thinking types used justification and logic to handle the problems. Feeling types
have faith on own values and emotions.
2. Extrovert v/s Introvert ( E or I )
Extroverts are sociable, talkative, practical and assertive. Introverts are quiet,
secretive, prefer solitude, rigid, touchy and shy.
3. Sensing v/s Intuitive ( S or I )
Individuals labeled as sensing are realistic practical and prefer a habitual order.
Intuitive rely on unconscious process and have an immediate understanding of the
problem, learning things without the conscious use of reasoning.
4. Judging v/s Perceiving ( J or P )
Judging individuals form ideas and opinions in an order and structure style.
Perceiving individuals show flexibility and have spontaneous personality traits.

The Big 5 Model

Different investigators and psychologists like: Costa, Norman, Gold Berg,
John, etc. developed this model during the decade of 1990 to summarize various
primary traits mainly to big 5 factors. These five traits of personality can be
remembered to an acronym 'OCEAN' as following.
1. O = Openness to experience
A personality dimension describe someone in terms of appreciation for art,
emotion, adventure, unusual idea, imagination and curiosity.
2. C = Conscientiousness
A tendency to show self-discipline, act beautifully and aim for achievement.
3. E = Extraversion / Extroversion
Extroversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world.
Energy, sociable, assertive and tendency to seek stimulation and the company
of others.
4. A = Agreeableness
A tendency to be compassionate and co-operative rather than suspicious and
antagonistic towards others.
5. N = Neuroticism
This is a tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as; anger,
anxiety, depression or vulnerability.
In the business sector, it is found that conscientiousness is the best indicator
for being a successful person or leader in organization and so on.

Personality attributes influencing organization behavior

(Personality attributes and the workplace)
The personality attributes not only influence an individuals daily lifestyle but
also their organizational behavior. The major personality attributes that influence
organizational behavior of an individual to any workplace are as following.
 49

1. Locus of control.
2. Machiavellianism.
3. Self-esteem.
4. Self-monitoring.
5. Risk taking.
6. Type A personality.
7. Type B personality.
8. Pro-active personality.

1) Locus of control
The perception of people to believe the source of their fate is termed as locus of
control. A degree to which people believe they are masters of their own faith is
termed as locus of control. This can be classified into two groups.
a) Internals.
These are the peoples who believe that they shape their own destinies (less
satisfied with job, more absent, conventional jobs)
b) Externals.
These are the people who believe their outcomes are largely the result of
forces outside their control. (More job satisfaction, more successful, low
absenteeism, healthier, etc.)

2) Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism refers to degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains,
emotional distance and justify means. (High matches win more, lose less, more
assertive and low matches are just opposite.)

3) Self-esteem
The degree to which people like or dislike themselves is self-evaluation (high self-
esteemed are more confident, more successful, face challenging jobs but low self-
esteemed are apprehensive, involve in deviant workplace behavior, conventional
jobs.)

4) Self-monitoring
The individuals ability to adjust his/her behavior to external and situational factors
is self-monitoring (high monitors can control behavior and emotions, can fake
emotions, chances of succeeding is more than low self-monitors.)

5) Risk taking
This is a tendency among human decision makers to take chance or possibility of
danger, loss, injury, etc. (High risk takers are impulsive, quick decision makers,
but low risk-taking person are more patient, collect lots of information before
making a single decision.)

6) Type A personality
A complex of personality and behavioral characteristics, including
competitiveness, time urgency, social insecurity, aggression, hostility and a quest
for achievements.

7) Type B personality
The reverse of type A personality which do not show high levels of
competitiveness, time urgency, hostility and can relax without guilt. They are
 50

rarely stressed by the desire to obtain a widely increasing number of things or

participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of
time.
(Type A persons are found to be more successful in diverse area but still type
B persons are found to able to promoted to higher post, may be because of
friendly nature and making more qualitatively better decisions. Type A persons
have higher chances of suffering cardiac disease.)

8) Pro-active personality
The tendency to take initiative to improve current circumstances or create new
ones. Proactive identify opportunities, slow initiative, take action and try or
persevere until meaningful change occurs, engage in career planning and so on.

Measurement of personality
As already discussed, personality of human being is very complex i.e. it
includes different aspects or personality is influenced by multiple factors. Different
psychologists have developed different techniques to measure the personality of the
individual.

Some of the personality measurement test or inventory are as following.

1. Objective test.
2. Projective test/ subjective test.
3. Situational test.

1) Objective test
Objective test are psychological test that measure an individuals
characteristics in a way i.e. independent of rater – based or the individuals own
beliefs. Generally, objective test are like multiple choice questions and respondents
have to chase the best option suitable to him or her.These test are more reliable and
valid then projective or subjective test.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

One of the most popular objective test is MMPI test which was developed by
Starke Hathaway and J.C. McKinley in 1943 at Minnesota University of USA. MMPI
is a set of questionnaire which is based on the ten dimensions of personality. It
consists of 550 items or statements with yes, no or I don't know (Idk) as options.
MMPI test was revised several times and it mainly focuses its concern to diagnose
mental disorder. MMPI2(IInd) contents 556 questions items to which the person has to
respond in true or false that includes 10 clinical scales, four validity or control scales.

2) Projective test/subjective test

A projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to
ambiguous stimuli, presumably rebelling hidden emotions and internal conflicts.
Projective test by nature is subjective test and hence it is less reliable than that of
objective test. There is different test in projective test some of which are as following.
a) The Rorschach Test
This test was developed by Swiss psychiatrist Herman Rorschach in 1921.
Herman used 10 symmetrical ink blots, irregular in outline and varied in shading
in which five of the cards are in the test are black, white and grey and two are
black and the remaining three are entirely colorful. While administering the test
the subjects were asked what they saw in the ink blots and there responses were
 51

recorded. While analyzing the responses location, determinants, content and

originality from the respondent is going to be focused and their personality trait is
found.
b) Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)
This test was developed by Henry Murry and Morgan in 1935 at Harvard
University. TAT assumes that people interpret ambiguous pictures according to
their motives, re-occupations, affection, conflicts, fear and a way of interpreting
the world. It consists of 20 standard pictures, each picture representing a different
situation. There is also a blank card among these 20 cards to give free reign/
response to one's imagination. TAT picture responses can be analyzed into 5
important events.
1. The hero – important traits of the main character.
2. The need – motives and interest of the main character.
3. The press – the forces and strength of the environment.
4. The theme – the action and reaction between the heroes, environment and his
forces.
5. The outcome – the concluding situation or end of the story.

THE END !
BEST OF LUCK !