CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

In the generation of electricity, the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers is

termed “Electricity Generation” while the other processes are electric power transmission and

electricity distribution. The importance of generation of electricity was revealed when it

became apparent that electricity was useful for providing heat, light and power for human

needs.

Electricity has been generated for the purpose of powering human technologies for at least

120 years from various sources of energy (Markvart, 2001). The first power plants were run

on wood, while today, we rely mainly on petroleum, natural gas, coal, hydroelectric and

nuclear power and a small amount of hydrogen, solar energy, tidal harness, wind generators

and geothermal sources.

Solar energy is the energy transmitted from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation,

which requires no medium for its transmission (Coker, 2004).

In solar energy, the sun has been acknowledged as the major source of energy to life on our

planet since ancient times. The energy supply from the sun is truly enormous on average’s the

Earth’s surface receives about 1.2 x 1017W of solar power (Kreider and Kreith, 1997). This

means that in less than one hour enough energy is supplied to the Earth to satisfy the entire

energy demand of the human population over the whole year.

The term “photovoltaic” comes from the Greek (PV: photo meaning “light” and “voltaic”,

meaning electrical, from the name of the physicist Volta, after whom the measurement unit

volts are named. The term “photovoltaic” has been in use in English since 1849. Indeed, it is

the energy of sunlight assimilated by biological organisms over millions of years that has

made possible the industrial growth as we know it today. Energy source such as photovoltaic
are needed to help reduce the levels of green house gases in the atmosphere and alleviate this

global warming.

Photovoltaic power generation is reliable, involve no moving parts, the operation and

maintenance costs are very low. And also, it creates no atmospheric pollution.

The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made from

silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into direct

contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are not

made in this way, but rather, by diffusing an n-type doping into one side of a p-type wafer (or

vice versa)

(Duncan, 1997).

Due to the erratic power supply in the country, which is becoming unbearable each day with

its effect on the business and energy, solar powered systems can be used as substitute where

there is need for constant supply of power.

1.1 Problem Statement

The problem statement is irregular electric power supply; the battery will be constantly

charged during day periods without affecting the integrity of the battery during night periods

when it will be used as an alternate source if supply from the national grid fails.

1.2 Aims and Objective

The aim of this project is Development and Installation of Solar Powered System which is

backed up with the following objectives.

 To enlighten and expose the student to relevance of solar in electricity generation.

 To develop a solar system with at least 18 working hours after fully charge.
  To install a charge controller so as to prevent backflow of current thereby protecting

the solar panel.

 To ensure the project is done with a reasonable cost of production.

1.3 Economic Importance

Its power source is reliable.

The operation and maintenance cost are minimal.

Its power generation is noiseless because of the absence of moving parts.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

The scope of this project is limited to the Development and Installation of Solar Powered

System. Other applications of solar energy will be neglected.

1.4.1 Limitations of The Project

It has been a tradition that in every project work there must be a limitation to limit the work,

since we are students, we will also encounter these problems but overcoming this problems

will make us successful at the very end. Some of the problems that limited this project work

were;

i. Level of literacy.

ii. Financial limitations

iii. Time constraints

iv. Limited equipment.

Level of literacy: Base on the fact that the person carrying out this project is a student, with

little knowledge of the project work, he will find it difficult to acquire information necessary

in bringing out the improvement of the work he encountered.

Limited equipment: Notwithstanding, efforts were made to use all the necessary material

and equipment gotten so as to make the project work worthwhile.

Financial Constraint: Due to the costs of this project, it was a bit difficult to raise the total

money necessary to complete this project.

Time Constraints: The time needed to fully complete this project was considered short, it

also served as a constraint factor.

1.5 Contribution to Knowledge

This project work would be of importance to scholars, as an addition to the existing body of

knowledge; also complementing the previous research carried out on the same topic. It will

provide a fair platform for further research to be carried out on the adoption of solar powered

systems.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.0.1 Electricity generation

This is the process of generating electrical energy from other sources of primary energy. The

fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the

1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday (ITSJ 2001). His basic

method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc

of copper between the poles of a magnet. Mankind has been generating electricity on an

industrial scale since 1881. The first power plants used hydroelectric power and coal power.

An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy in the form of alternating current.

Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature but occasionally, a

rotating armature is used with a stationary magnetic field; or a linear alternator is used. The

main aim is to move and drive the rotor by any method and techniques to produce power.

Alternators generate electricity using the same principle as DC generators, namely, when the

magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. Typically, a

rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on

an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced

EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn. The rotating

magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often there are three sets of

stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three-phase

current, displaced by

one-third of a period with respect to each other.

Fig 1.0 showing an Alternator. Source: www.homemade-circuits.com

2.1 Methods and Techniques of Power Generation

Coal Power Generation

Steam coal, also known as thermal coal, is used in power stations to generate electricity. Coal

is first milled to a fine powder, which increases the surface area and allows it to burn more

quickly. In these pulverized coal combustion (PCC) systems, the powdered coal is blown into

the combustion chamber of a boiler where it is burnt at high temperature (see diagram

below). The hot gases and heat energy produced converts water – in tubes lining the boiler –

into steam.

Coal plays a vital role in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fired power plants currently

fuel 41% of global electricity. In some countries, coal fuels a higher percentage of electricity.

Fig. 2.0 showing a typical coal powered plant.

Thermal Power Generations

Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas

or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages.

However most large power grids also use diesel generators, originally provided as emergency

back up for a specific facility such as a hospital, to feed power into the grid during certain

circumstances. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or

wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a micro turbine, which is a GE-

Gas turbine and CAT –IE- Engine as below.

Fig. 3.0 showing a gas turbine.

Nuclear Power Generation

A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of

uranium. Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling water to

make steam which drives turbine generators. Except for the reactor itself, a nuclear power

station works like most coal or gas-fired power stations.

PWRs and BWRs

The main design is the pressurized water reactor (PWR) which has water in its primary

cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a secondary circuit. The less popular

boiling water reactor (BWR) makes steam in the primary circuit above the reactor core,
though it is still under considerable pressure. Both types use water as both coolant and

moderator, to slow neutrons.

Fig. 4.0 showing diagram of Pressurized Water Reactor.

Hydro-Power Generation

Hydro power is generated by using electricity generators to extract energy from moving

water. Historically people used the power of rivers for agriculture and wheat grinding. Today,

rivers and streams are re-directed through hydro generators to produce energy, although there

are pros and cons as far as local ecosystems are concerned and diagram as below.
Fig 5.0 Illustrating a hydro-electric power system.

Geothermal Power Generation

Geothermal energy is created by harnessing geothermal energy from the earth. Contrary to

popular belief geothermal energy is not technically a renewable energy source.

Fig. 6.0 showing a geothermal power generation system

Battery Power Generation

Batteries store electricity in a chemical form, inside a closed-energy system. They can be re-

charged and re-used as a power source in small appliances, machinery and remote locations.

Advances in battery technology may one day help to solve our energy crisis. The submarine

and car are using battery power for operational this type. A submarine consists and use 24

cell for their operation in the sea and these cell are chargeable through diesel generator.

Wind Power Generation

Wind power is produced by using wind generators to harness the kinetic energy of wind. It is

gaining worldwide popularity as a large-scale energy source, although it still only provides

less than one percent of global energy consumption.

Wind turbines are used to generate electricity from the kinetic power of the wind. Historical

they were more frequently used as a mechanical device to turn machinery. There are two

main kinds of wind generators, those with a vertical axis, and those with a horizontal axis.

Wind turbines can be used to generate large amounts of electricity in wind farms both

onshore and offshore. The articles on this page are about wind turbines.

Fig. 7.0 showing a wind power plant

Waves Power Generation

Wave energy is produced when electricity generators are placed on the surface of the ocean.

The energy provided is most often used in desalination plants, power plants and water pumps.

Energy output is determined by wave height, wave speed, wavelength, and water density. To

date there are only a handful of experimental wave generator plants in operation around the
world. The articles on this page explore the world of wave energy and its possible

applications.

Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture of that energy

to do useful work – for example, electricity generation, water desalination, or the pumping of

water (into reservoirs).

Machinery able to exploit wave power is generally known as a wave energy converter

(WEC).

Waste Water & Bio-Gas Power

The consumption habits of modern consumer lifestyles are causing a huge worldwide waste

problem. Having overfilled local landfill capacities, many first world nations are now

exporting their refuse to third world countries. This is having a devastating impact on

ecosystems and cultures throughout the world. Some alternative energy companies are

developing new ways to recycle waste by generating electricity from landfill waste and

pollution.

Note:- Wastage Water Hydro-Dam can be make in the metropolitan and big city .We can

study the total wastage water of big city per day and design the continuous wastage water

available Hydro-Dam.

The Bio Gas of city wastage can also be used to produce the electricity at big level through

Gas Generator (I.E Engine & Gas turbine).

Tidal Power Generation

Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy generators. These large underwater

turbines are placed in areas with high tidal movements, and are designed to capture the
kinetic motion of the ebbing and surging of ocean tides in order to produce electricity. Tidal

power has

great potential for future power and electricity generation because of the massive size of the

oceans.

Solar Power Generation

Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting it into electricity. This is done

by using solar panels, which are large flat panels made up of many individual solar cells. It is

most often used in remote locations, although it is becoming more popular in urban areas as

well.

Fig. 8.0 showing a solar powered system.

2.1 Project History

Solar technology isn’t new. Its history spans from the 7 th Century B.C. to today. We started

out concentrating the sun’s heat with glass and mirrors to light fires. Today, we have

everything from solar-powered buildings to solar powered vehicles.

Magnifying glass used to concentrate sun’s rays to make fire and to burn ants.

Greeks and Romans use burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes.

As early as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes, used the reflective properties of bronze

shields to focus sunlight and to set fire to wooden ships from the Roman Empire which were

besieging Syracuse. (Although no proof of such a feat exists, the Greek navy recreated the

experiment in 1973 and successfully set fire to a wooden boat at a distance of 50 meters.)

Chinese document uses of burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes.

The famous Roman bathhouses in the first to fourth centuries A.D. had large south facing

windows to let in the sun’s warmth.

1767

Swiss scientist Horace de Saussure was credited with building the world’s first solar

collector, later used by Sir John Herschel to cook food during his South Africa expedition in

the 1830s.

1839

French scientist Edmond Becquerel discovers the photovoltaic effect while experimenting

with an electrolytic cell made up of two metal electrodes placed in an electricity-conducting

solution—electricity-generation increased when exposed to light.

1876

1876 William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day discover that selenium produces

electricity when exposed to light. Although selenium solar cells failed to convert enough
sunlight to power electrical equipment, they proved that a solid material could change light

into electricity without heat or moving parts.

1883

Charles Fritts, an American inventor, described the first solar cells made from selenium

wafers.

1954

1954 Photovoltaic technology is born in the United States when Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller,

and Gerald Pearson develop the silicon photovoltaic (PV) cell at Bell Labs—the first solar

cell capable of converting enough of the sun’s energy into power to run everyday electrical

equipment. Bell Telephone Laboratories produced a silicon solar cell with 4% efficiency and

later achieved 11% efficiency (http://www.californiasolarcenter.org/history_pv.html).

1957

Hoffman Electronics achieved 8% efficient photovoltaic cells.

1958

T. Mandelkorn, U.S. Signal Corps Laboratories, fabricates n-on-p silicon photovoltaic cells

(critically important for space cells; more resistant to radiation).

Dr. Alvin Marks receives patents for two solar power technologies he developed: Lepcon and

Lumeloid. Lepcon consists of glass panels covered with a vast array of millions of aluminium

or copper strips, each less than a micron or thousandth of a millimetre wide. As sunlight hits

the metal strips, the energy in the light is transferred to electrons in the metal, which escape at

one end in the form of electricity. Lumeloid uses a similar approach but substitutes cheaper,
film-like sheets of plastic for the glass panels and covers the plastic with conductive

polymers, long chains of molecular plastic units.

1991

President George Bush redesignates the U.S. Department of Energy’s Solar Energy Research

Institute as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

1992

1992 University of South Florida develops a 15.9% efficient thin-film photovoltaic cell made

of cadmium telluride, breaking the 15% barrier for the first time for this technology.

1992

A 7.5-kilowatt prototype dish system using an advanced stretched-membrane concentrator

becomes operational.

1993

1993 Pacific Gas & Electric completes installation of the first grid-supported photovoltaic

system in Kerman, California. The 500-kilowatt system was the first “distributed power”

effort.

1994

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (formerly the Solar Energy Research Institute)

completes construction of its “Solar Energy Research Facility”, which was recognized as the

most energy-efficient of all U.S. government buildings worldwide. It features not only solar

electric system, but also a passive solar design.

1994

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory develops a solar cell—made from gallium

indium phosphide and gallium arsenide—that becomes the first one to exceed 30%

conversion efficiency.

2001
TerraSun LLC develops a unique method of using holographic films to concentrate sunlight

onto a solar cell. Concentrating solar cells typically use Fresnel lenses or mirrors to

concentrate sunlight. TerraSun claims that the use of holographic optics allows more

selective use of the sunlight, allowing light not needed for power production to pass through

the transparent modules. This capability allows the modules to be integrated into buildings as

skylights.

2001

Power light Corporation installs the largest rooftop solar power system in the United States—

a 1.18 megawatt system—at the Santa Rita Jail in Dublin, California.

All buildings will be built to combine energy-efficient design and construction practices and

renewable energy technologies for a net-zero energy building. In effect, the building will

conserve enough and produce its own energy supply to create a new generation of cost-

effective buildings that have zero net annual need for non-renewable energy.

Photovoltaics research and development will continue intense interest in new materials, cell

designs, and novel approaches to solar material and product development.

It is a future where the clothes you wear and your mode of transportation can produce power

that is clean and safe.

Technology roadmaps for the future outline the research and development path to full

competitiveness of concentrating solar power (CSP) with conventional power generation

technologies within a decade. The potential of solar power in the Southwest United States is

comparable in scale to the hydropower resource of the Northwest. A desert area 10 miles by

15 miles could provide 20,000 megawatts of power, while the electricity needs of the entire
United States could theoretically be met by a photovoltaic array within an area 100 miles on a

side. Concentrating solar power, or solar thermal electricity, could harness the sun’s heat

energy to

provide large-scale, domestically secure, and environmentally friendly electricity.

The price of photovoltaic power will be competitive with traditional sources of electricity

within 10 years.

Solar electricity will be used to electrolyse water, producing hydrogen for fuel cells for

transportation and buildings.

2.2 Project Definition

Solar Cell

The basic idea of a solar cell (photovoltaic cell) is to convert light energy in to electrical

energy.

Light energy is transmitted by photons. Solar panel comprises of several solar cell to achieve

a specific voltage. The solar cell contains a PN-Junction and may be treated as a diode; the

equivalent circuit of a solar cell.

A solar module is composed of individual solar cells. This crystalline silicon module type has

an aluminum frame and glass on the front.

In the field of photovoltaic, a solar module is a packaged interconnected assembly of solar

cells. An installation of photovoltaic modules or panels is known as a photovoltaic array PV

Modules generate DC electrical energy when exposed to sunlight. Although single modules

produce only a low voltage and current, shocks and burns are still a potential hazard. The

shock hazard increases as modules are connected in series producing a higher voltage and the

burn hazard increases as modules are connected in parallel producing higher current.
PV modules can be made safe to work on by fully converting the front surface with a dense

opaque material such as the carton or placing module face down on a flat surface. A

voltmeter can be used to verify that the output voltage is safe.

Most frequently, cells in a solar module are interconnected in series. The solar modules are

connected in series so as to increase its output voltage and appropriate measurement were

taken.

Construction and mode of operation of solar charge controller: A solar charge controller

limits the rate at which electric current is added or drawn from electric batteries. It prevents

overcharging and may prevent against over voltage, which can reduce battery performance or

lifespan and may pose safety risk. It may also prevent completely draining (“deep

discharging”) a battery, or perform controlled discharges depending on the battery technology

to protect life.

The circuit shown is a simple solar charge controller which stops charging the battery when

they exceed a set high voltage level, and re-enable charging when battery voltage, drops back

below that level.

Fig. 1.0 showing a typical solar system

Construction of an inverter and mode of operation: This construction consist of different

stages coupled together to perform a specific purpose and the circuit diagram were originally

placed on breadboard and later transferred to the Ferro board for proper construction.

Sourcing stage

Regulating stage

Oscillating stage

Driving stage

Transformation stage

Output stage

Change-over stage

Battery charging stage

Fig. 2.0 showing a typical sine wave inverter.

2.2.1 Solar Cell Voltage and Current

Solar cell is characterized by two main quantities namely

Open circuit voltage (Voc): The voltage between terminals at no load.

Short circuit current (Isc): The current when output are connected together.

As the sun intensity increases more photons are produced thus the short circuit current will

Increase. Current will decrease when the solar panel is connected to the load and a voltage

develops as charges build up at the terminals. The resulting current can be viewed as a

superposition of the short circuit current, current caused by the absorption of photon and dark

current, which is caused by potential build up over the load and flows in the opposite

direction.

2.2.2 Efficiency of Solar Cell.

Efficiency of solar cell is defined as the ratio of output power to power of incoming light -Ps.

Efficiency=(Im.Vm)/Ps

The efficiency is reduced by dissipation of power in the internal resistance.

Fill factor(FF) is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product

of

Voc and Isc.

FF=(Im.Vm)/(Isc.Voc)

2.2.3 Battery

A battery is made up of several cells. Total voltage will be equal to product of single cell

voltage and total number of cells.

A battery is an electrical device which is a combination of several electrochemical cells, used

to convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy or vice versa for rechargeable

batteries (Kiptoos Eliphas 2009). It is an important part of portable lamp since it stores power
that can be used to drive the load in absence of solar energy. The battery is charged when it is

given energy from external source (solar cells and electrical source) to restore its energy and

when a battery is connected to the load, energy stored in it gets utilized thus discharged.

2.2.3.1 Types of batteries

Batteries can be categorized in terms of the materials used to build them. They differ in terms

of capacity, cost and area of usage. In this categorization, there are four major types;

Nickel-Cadmium(Ni-Cd) Battery

Nickel-Metal Hydride(Ni-Mh) Battery

Lead-Acid Battery

Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Battery.

Lithium polymer.

Fig. 3.0 showing a typical dry cell.