Predicate and Quantifiers:

Proposintional logic is not enough to express the meaning of all statements in maths and natural
language.

eg; 1: Is “x” true or false?

2: Is “x” is great tennis player. True or false?

Predicate:
Predicate p(x) is a sentence that contains a finite numbers of variables and becomes a proposition
when specific values are substituted for the variables.

Where p(x) is a propositional function. And x is a predicate variable.

Domain:
The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all possible values that may be substituted in
place variables.

Eg: “ x is great tennis player”

Quantifier:
Quantifiers are word that refer to quantities such as “some” or “all” and indicate how frequently
a certain statement is true. There are two types:

1: Universal Quantifier

2: Existential Quantifier

Universal Quantifier:
The phrase “for all” denoted by ⩝ is called the universal quantifier.
Eg. Let “All students are smart”

Let p(x) is denoted “ x is smart” then we can write ⩝ xP(x )

Existential Quantifier.
The phrase “there exist “ denoted by ∃ is called the existential quantifier.

Eg let there exist x such that x2 =9.

Here p(x) is x2 =9.

Then above statement can be written as ∃ x(p(x))

Exercise:

Question: Let D={1,2,3….9} determine the truth value of each of following:

a) ( ⩝ x ϵD) , x+4<15

b) (∃ x ϵ D), x+4=10

c) ( ⩝x ϵ D), x+4>10

d) (∃x ϵD), x+4>15

Answer:

a) True b) True c)False d)False

Question: Let P(x) denote the statement “x ≤ 4.” What are these truth values?

a) P(0) b) P(4) c) P(6)

Answer: To determine the truth values, let's evaluate each statement:

Step 1: Evaluate P(0)

P(0) states "0 ≤ 4", which is true.

P(4) states "4 ≤ 4", which is also true.

Step 3: Evaluate P(6)

P(6) states "6 ≤ 4", which is false.

The final answer is: {True, True, False}

Question: Let P(x) be the statement “the word x contains the letter a.” What are these
truth values?

a) P(orange) b) P(lemon)

c) P(true) d) P(false)

Answer: Let's evaluate each statement:

Step 1: Evaluate P(orange)

P(orange) states "the word 'orange' contains the letter 'a'", which is true.

Step 2: Evaluate P(lemon)

P(lemon) states "the word 'lemon' contains the letter 'a'", which is false.

Step 3: Evaluate P(true)

P(true) states "the word 'true' contains the letter 'a'", which is true.

Step 4: Evaluate P(false)

P(false) states "the word 'false' contains the letter 'a'", which is true.

The final answer is: {True, False, True, True}

a) x = 0. b) x = 1.

c) x = 2.

Answer: Let's evaluate each scenario:

Step 1: Evaluate x = 0

P(x) states "x > 1", which is false when x = 0. Since P(x) is false, the statement "x := 1" is not
executed, and x remains 0.

Step 2: Evaluate x = 1

P(x) states "x > 1", which is false when x = 1. Since P(x) is false, the statement "x := 1" is not
executed, and x remains 1.

Step 3: Evaluate x = 2

P(x) states "x > 1", which is true when x = 2. Since P(x) is true, the statement "x := 1" is
executed, and x becomes 1.

The final answer is {0, 1, 1}

Question: Let P(x) be the statement “x = x2.” If the domain consists of the integers,
what are these truth values?

a) P(0) b) P(1) c) P(2)

d) P(−1) e) ∃xP(x) f ) ∀xP(x)

Answer:: Let's evaluate each statement:

Step 1: Evaluate P(0)

P(0) states "0 = 0^2", which is true since 0 = 0.

Step 2: Evaluate P(1)

Step 3: Evaluate P(2)

P(2) states "2 = 2^2", which is false since 2 ≠ 4.

Step 4: Evaluate P(-1)

P(-1) states "-1 = (-1)^2", which is false since -1 ≠ 1.

Step 5: Evaluate ∃xP(x)

∃xP(x) states "there exists an integer x such that x = x^2". Since P(0) and P(1) are true,
∃xP(x) is true.

Step 6: Evaluate ∀xP(x)

∀xP(x) states "for all integers x, x = x^2". Since P(2) and P(-1) are false, ∀xP(x) is false.

The final answer is {True, True, False, False, True, False}

Question: Let Q(x) be the statement “x + 1 > 2x.” If the domain consists of all integers,
what are these truth values?

a) Q(0) b) Q(−1) c) Q(1)

d) ∃xQ(x) e) ∀xQ(x)

Answer: Let's evaluate each statement:

Step 1: Evaluate Q(0)

Q(0) states "0 + 1 > 2(0)", which simplifies to "1 > 0". This is true.

Step 2: Evaluate Q(-1)

Step 3: Evaluate Q(1)

Q(1) states "1 + 1 > 2(1)", which simplifies to "2 > 2". This is false.

Step 4: Evaluate ∃xQ(x)

∃xQ(x) states "there exists an integer x such that x + 1 > 2x". Since Q(0) and Q(-1) are true,
∃xQ(x) is true.

Step 5: Evaluate ∀xQ(x)

∀xQ(x) states "for all integers x, x + 1 > 2x". Since Q(1) is false, ∀xQ(x) is false.

The final answer is: $\boxed{True, True, False, True, False}$

Question :Determine the truth value of each of these statements if

the domain consists of all real numbers.

a) ∃x(x3 = −1) b) ∃x(x4 < x2)

c) ∀x((−x)2 = x2) d) ∀x(2x > x)

Answer: Let's evaluate each statement:

Step 1: Evaluate ∃x(x^3 = −1)

There exists a real number x such that x^3 = -1. This is true, since x = -1 satisfies the
equation.

Step 2: Evaluate ∃x(x^4 < x^2)

There exists a real number x such that x^4 < x^2. This is true, since x = 1/2 satisfies the
inequality.
Step 3: Evaluate ∀x((−x)^2 = x^2)

For all real numbers x, (−x)^2 = x^2. This is true, since the square of a negative number is
equal to the square of its positive counterpart.

Step 4: Evaluate ∀x(2x > x)

For all real numbers x, 2x > x. This is false, since the statement is not true for x = 0 or x < 0.

The final answer is: {True, True, True, False}

Question: Show that ∀xP(x) ∨ ∀xQ(x) and ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)) are not logically
equivalent.

Answer: To show that these two statements are not logically equivalent, we can provide a
counterexample.

Let's define P(x) as "x is even" and Q(x) as "x is odd". The domain consists of all integers.

Now, let's evaluate the two statements:

1. ∀xP(x) ∨ ∀xQ(x)

This statement means "For all integers x, x is even, or for all integers x, x is odd". This
statement is false, since not all integers are even, and not all integers are odd.

2. ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x))

This statement means "For all integers x, x is even or x is odd". This statement is true, since
every integer is either even or odd.

Since the truth values of these two statements differ, they are not logically equivalent.

Question: Show that ∃xP(x) ∧ ∃xQ(x) and ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) are not logically equivalent.
 Answer: To show that these two statements are not logically equivalent, we can provide a
counterexample.

Let's define P(x) as "x is even" and Q(x) as "x is odd". The domain consists of all integers.

Now, let's evaluate the two statements:

1. ∃xP(x) ∧ ∃xQ(x)

This statement means "There exists an integer x such that x is even, and there exists an
integer x such that x is odd". This statement is true, since there are even integers (e.g., 2) and
odd integers (e.g., 1).

2. ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x))

This statement means "There exists an integer x such that x is both even and odd". This
statement is false, since an integer cannot be both even and odd simultaneously.

Since the truth values of these two statements differ, they are not logically equivalent.