Anatomy and Physiology

CHAPTER 1 - THE HUMAN ORGANISM

Anatomy:
-​ investigates body structure Structural and Functional Organization
-​ the term means to dissect
Six levels from chemical to organism:
Physiology: 1.​ Chemical Level
-​ investigates processes and functions ●​ smallest level
-​ Human Physiology: ●​ atoms, chemical bonds,
-​ studies the human organism molecules
●​ Systemic Physiology
-​ studies body 2.​ Cellular Level
organ-systems ●​ cells: basic units of life
●​ Cellular Physiology ●​ compartments and organelles
-​ studies body cells ●​ Examples: mitochondria, nucleus

3.​ Tissues Level

Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
●​ group of cells with similar
Understand how the body:
structure and function plus
●​ responds to stimuli
extracellular substances they
●​ environmental changes
release
●​ environmental cues
●​ four broad types:
●​ diseases
Epithelial
●​ Injury Connective
Muscular
Types of Anatomy Nervous
1.​ Systemic Anatomy
4.​ Organs Level
●​ studies body organ-systems
●​ two or more tissue types acting
together to perform function(s)
2.​ Regional Anatomy
●​ Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary,
●​ studies body regions (medical bladder, kidney
schools)
5.​ Organ-System Level
3.​ Surface Anatomy ●​ group of organs contributing to
●​ studies external features, for some function
example, bone projections ●​ Example: digestive system, reproductive
system

4.​ Anatomical imaging

6.​ Organism Level
●​ using technologies (x-rays,
●​ All organ systems working
ultrasound, MRI)
together
●​ Includes associated
microorganisms such as intestinal
bacteria
 Level of structural organization
●​ Chemical Level ●​ Organ System Level
At this level, atoms, tiny building -​ An organ system is a group of
blocks of matter, combine to form organs that work together to
molecules such as water, sugar, accomplish a common purpose.
and proteins, like those that make For example, the heart and blood
up our muscles vessels of the cardiovascular
system circulate blood
●​ Cellular Level continuously to carry nutrients
-​ Molecules, in turn, associate in and oxygen to all body cells. In
specific ways to form microscopic all, 11 organ systems make up
cells, the smallest units of all the living human being.
living things. All cells have some
common structures and functions, ●​ Organismal Level
but individual cells vary widely in -​ the organism, which represents
size, shape, and their roles in the the highest level of structural
body. organization, the organismal
level. The organismal level is the
●​ Tissue Level sum total of all structural levels
-​ Tissues consist of groups of working together to keep us alive.
similar cells that have a common
function. There are four basic
tissue types, and each plays a
definite but different role in the
body.

●​ Organ Level
-​ An organ is a structure composed
of two or more tissue types that
performs a specific function for
the body. At the organ level of
organization, extremely complex
functions become possible. For
example, the small intestine,
which digests and absorbs food,
is composed of all four tissue
types.
 Characteristics of Life
Organization
●​ functional interrelationships between parts

Metabolism
●​ sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
●​ ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
Responsiveness
●​ ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
●​ Includes both internal and external environments

Growth
●​ can increase in size
●​ size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials

Development
●​ Changes in form and size
●​ Changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized—differentiation

Reproduction
●​ formation of new cells or new organisms
●​ generation of new individuals
●​ tissue repair

—------------------------
SURVIVAL NEEDS
●​ Nutrients
●​ Oxygen
●​ Water
●​ normal body temperature 37°C
●​ appropriate atmospheric pressure
 Maintaining Life
Necessary Life Functions

MAINTAIN ITS BOUNDARIES

Every living organism must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its “inside” remains distinct from its
“outside.” Every cell of the human body is surrounded by an external membrane that separates its
contents from the outside interstitial fluid (fluid between cells) and allows entry of needed substances
while generally preventing entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.

●​ MOVEMENT ●​ METABOLISM
-​ includes all the activities -​ Metabolism is a broad term that
promoted by the muscular refers to all chemical reactions
system, such as propelling that occur within the body and all
ourselves from one place to its cells.
another (by walking, swimming,
and so forth) and manipulating ●​ EXCRETION
the external environment with our -​ Excretion is the process of
fingers. The skeletal system removing excreta, or wastes, from
provides the bones that the the body.
muscles pull on as they work.
Movement also occurs when ●​ REPRODUCTION
substances such as blood, -​ Reproduction, the production of
foodstuffs, and urine are offspring, can occur on the
propelled through the internal cellular or organismal level. In
organs of the cardiovascular, cellular reproduction, the original
digestive, and urinary systems, cell divides, producing two
respectively. identical daughter cells that may
then be used for body growth or
●​ RESPONSIVENESS repair. Reproduction of the
-​ Responsiveness, or irritability, is human organism is the task of the
the ability to sense changes organs of the reproductive
(stimuli) in the environment and system.
then to react to them.
●​ GROWTH
●​ DIGESTION -​ Growth can be an increase in cell
-​ Digestion is the process of size or an increase in body size
breaking down ingested food into that is usually accomplished by
simple molecules that can then an increase in the number of cel
be absorbed into the blood.
Homeostasis Negative feedback is the main mechanism
used homeostatic regulation.
Homeostasis
●​ maintenance of constant internal
●​ A negative feedback response involves:
environment despite fluctuations in the
detection: of deviation away from
external or internal environment
set point, and
●​ A dynamic state of equilibrium
correction: reversal of deviation
toward set point and
Variables
normal range
●​ measures of body properties that may
change in value
The components of feedback:
Examples of variables:
1. Receptor:
-​ body temperature
●​ detects changes in variable
-​ heart rate
-​ blood pressure 2. Control center:
-​ blood glucose levels ●​ receives receptor signal
●​ establishes set point
Normal range ●​ sends signal to effector
●​ normal extent of increase or decrease
around a set point 3. Effector:
●​ directly causes change in variable
Set point Positive feedback mechanisms occur when
●​ normal, or average value of a variable the initial stimulus further stimulates the
response
*Over time, body temperature fluctuates around ●​ system response causes progressive
a set point deviation away from
Set points for some variables can be temporarily ●​ set point, outside of normal range
adjusted depending on body activities, as ●​ not directly used for homeostasis
needed: ●​ some positive feedback occurs under
Examples Common cause of normal conditions
Example: childbirth
change
●​ generally associated with injury, disease
Body temperature fever ●​ negative feedback mechanisms unable
to maintain homeostasis
Heart rate, blood exercise
pressure, respiratory Comparison of negative feedback and positive feedback:
rate
Terminology and the Body Plan Body Planes
Sagittal plane
Anatomical position ●​ separates the body into right and left
●​ person standing erect with face and parts
palms forward ●​ is a cut along the lengthwise, or
●​ all relational descriptions based on the longitudinal, plane of the body, dividing
anatomical position, regardless of body the body into right and left parts. If the
orientation cut is down the median plane of the body
and the right and left parts are equal in
size, it is called a median (midsagittal)
Directional Terms
section. All other sagittal sections are
Superior: above parasagittal sections (para = near).

Inferior: below
Median plane
Anterior: front (also: ventral) ●​ a sagittal plane along the midline that
divides body into equal left and right
Posterior: back (also: dorsal) halves

Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral Transverse plane

(belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior and
posterior in humans ●​ a horizontal plane that separates the
body into superior and inferior parts.
Medial: close to midline ●​ is a cut along a horizontal plane, dividing
the body or organ into superior and
Lateral: away from midline inferior parts. It is also called a cross
section.
Proximal: close to point of attachment

Distal: far from point of attachment Frontal plane / Coronal

●​ a vertical plane that separates the body
Superficial: structure close to the surface into anterior and posterior parts.
●​ is a cut along a lengthwise plane that
Deep: structure toward the interior of the body divides the body (or an organ) into
anterior and posterior parts. It is also
ANATOMICAL POSITION called a coronal (ko-ronal, “crown”)
In the anatomical position, the body is section.
erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging
at the sides with the palms facing forward. Stand
up now, and assume the anatomical position.

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Directional terms allow medical
personnel and anatomists to explain exactly
where one body structure is in relation to
another.
Body Regions Three sets of serous membranes and cavities:

Upper limbs: Membrane Cavity

●​ upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
Pericardium Pericardial Cavity
around the heart
Lower limbs:
●​ thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot Pleura Pleural Cavity
around the lungs
Central region:
●​ head, neck, trunk Peritoneum Peritoneal Cavity
around abdominopelvic cavity and its
organs

Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity: Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity
-​ space within chest wall and diaphragm Pericardium
-​ contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, ●​ visceral pericardium
esophagus, trachea -​ covers heart
Mediastinum: ●​ parietal pericardium
-​ space between lungs -​ thick, fibrous
-​ contains heart, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea ●​ pericardial cavity
-​ reduces friction
Abdominal cavity:
-​ space between diaphragm and pelvis Pleura and Pleural Cavity
-​ contains stomach, intestines, liver,
spleen, pancreas, kidneys Pleura
●​ Visceral pleura
Pelvic cavity: -​ covers lungs
-​ space within pelvis
-​ contains urinary bladder, reproductive ●​ Parietal pleura
-​ Lines inner wall of thorax
organs, part of large intestine
●​ Pleural cavity
Serous Membranes -​ Reduces friction
-​ Adheres lungs to thoracic wall
Line trunk cavities, cover organs
Structure:
Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity
●​ visceral serous membrane covers
organs Peritoneum
●​ Visceral peritoneum
●​ parietal serous membrane is the outer -​ Covers, anchors organs
membrane -​ Double layers called mesenteries
●​ cavity - a fluid-filled space between the ●​ Parietal peritoneum
membranes -​ Lines inner wall of abdominopelvic
cavity
●​ Peritoneal cavity
-​ Reduces friction
BODY CAVITIES OTHER BODY CAVITIES
The dorsal and ventral body cavities 1.​ Oral cavity and digestive cavity.
provide different degrees of protection to the -​ The oral cavity, or the mouth,
organs. contains the teeth and tongue.
This cavity is part of and
DORSAL BODY CAVITY
continuous with the digestive
The dorsal body cavity has two
organs, which open to the
subdivisions, which are continuous with each
other. The cranial cavity is the space inside the
exterior at the anus.
bony skull. The brain is well protected because it 2.​ Nasal cavity
occupies the cranial cavity. The spinal cavity -​ Located within and posterior to
extends from the cranial cavity to the end of the the nose, the nasal cavity is
spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is a part of the respiratory system.
continuation of the brain, is protected by the 3.​ Orbital cavities.
bony vertebrae, which surround the spinal cavity -​ The orbital cavities (orbits) in
and form the spine. the skull house the eyes and
present them in an anterior
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY position.
The cavity is inferior to the diaphragm.
4.​ Middle ear cavities.
-​ The middle ear cavities carved
Some prefer to subdivide it into a superior
into the skull lie just medial to
abdominal cavity containing the stomach,
liver, intestines, and other organs, and an the eardrums. These cavities
inferior pelvic cavity containing the contain tiny bones that
reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum. transmit sound vibrations to
However, there is no actual physical the hearing receptors in the
structure dividing the abdominopelvic cavity. inner ears.

When the body is subjected to physical

trauma, the most vulnerable abdominopelvic
organs are those within the abdominal
cavity.

The reason is that the abdominal cavity

walls are formed only of trunk muscles and
are not reinforced by bone. The pelvic
organs receive some protection from the
bony pelvis in which they reside.
FOUR ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS NINE ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS
The quadrants are named according to their Umbilical region
relative locations with respect to anatomical -​ is the centermost region, deep to and
position—that is, right upper quadrant surrounding the umbilicus (navel).
(RUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left Epigastric region
upper quadrant (LUQ), and left lower -​ is located superior to the umbilical region
quadrant (LLQ) (epi = upon, above; gastric = stomach).
Hypogastric (pubic) region
-​ is inferior to the umbilical region (hypo =
below).
Right iliac (inguinal) region and the left iliac
(inguinal) region
-​ are lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac
= superior part of the hip bone).

Right lumbar region and left lumbar region

-​ lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus
= loins) and spinal column between the
bottom ribs and the hip bones)

Right hypochondriac region and left

hypochondriac region
-​ flank the epigastric region and contain
the lower ribs (chondro = cartilage)
Anterior Body Landmarks Posterior Body Landmarks
Abdominal : anterior body trunk inferior to ribs Calcaneal : heel of foot
Acromial : point of shoulder Cephalic : head
Antebrachial : forearm Femoral : thigh
Antecubital : anterior surface of elbow Gluteal : buttock
Axillary : armpit Lumbar : area of back between ribs and hips;
Brachial : arm the loin
Buccal : cheek area Occipital : posterior surface of head or base of skull
Carpal : wrist Olecranal : posterior surface of elbow
Cervical : neck region Popliteal : posterior knee area
Coxal : hip Sacral : area between hips at base of spine
Crural : anterior leg; the shin. Scapular : shoulder blade region
Deltoid : curve of shoulder formed by large Sural : the posterior surface of leg; the calf
deltoid muscle Vertebral : area of spinal column
Digital : fingers, toes
The plantar region, or the sole of the foot,
Femoral : thigh (anterior and posterior)
actually on the inferior body surface.
Fibular : lateral part of leg
Frontal : forehead
Inguinal : area where thigh meets body trunk; groin
Mental : chin
Nasal : nose area
Oral : mouth
Orbital : eye area
Patellar : anterior knee
Pectoral : relating to, or occurring in or on, the
chest
Pelvic : area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
Pubic : genital region
Sternal : breastbone area
Tarsal : ankle region
Thoracic : area between the neck and
abdomen, supported by the ribs, sternum and
costal cartilages; chest
Umbilical : navel