Unit 1: System Approach to the Human Body

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the branch of biology which studies about internal structure of an organism. It deals
with "what" – the parts of the body. It is derived from two words. i.e. Ana= body and tomia =
cutting.

Physiology is the study of functions of different parts of our body. It deals with "how" – how
those parts work together to maintain life. It is derived from two words. i.e. Physis= function and
logy = study.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment as compared to
external environmental changes. It is required for physiological process. E.g. temperature
regulation, pH balance, blood sugar regulation, electrolyte and fluid balance, and blood pressure
regulation.
It is composed of two words: "homeo" meaning "similar" or "alike," and "stasis" meaning
"standing still" or "stable state."

Importance of Homeostasis
1. Health: Imbalances in homeostasis results diseases and disorders. It promotes good
health.
2. Survival: Homeostasis conditions for body temperature, blood pH and nutrient levels are
useful factors for survival.
3. Adaptation: It helps to respond and adapt to changes in their environment and maintain
stability.
 4. Functionality: It allows organs and systems to operate efficiently by maintaining optimal
conditions for biochemical reactions and cellular activities.
5. Energy conservation: It conserves energy despite of external fluctuations.

Easy to remember: (Homeostasis le garda) Health SAFE ( rahanchha).

Components
1. Receptors (Sensors)
Function: Detect changes in the internal or external environment and send
information to the control center.
Examples:
 Thermoreceptors: Detect changes in body temperature.
 Chemoreceptors: Monitor chemical levels such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH
in the blood.
 Baroreceptors: Detect changes in blood pressure.

2. Control Center
Function: Receives information from the receptors, processes it, and determines
the appropriate response to maintain homeostasis.
Examples:
 Hypothalamus: Regulates body temperature, thirst, and hunger.
 Medulla Oblongata: Controls respiratory rate and heart rate.
 Pancreas: Regulates blood glucose levels by secreting insulin or glucagon.

3. Effectors
Function: Carry out the response directed by the control center to restore balance.
Examples:
 Sweat Glands: Increase sweat production to cool the body.
 Muscles: Shiver to generate heat when the body is cold.
 Heart: Adjusts heart rate to regulate blood pressure.

4. Response
Function: The action taken by the effectors to counteract the initial change and bring
the internal environment back to normal condition.
Examples:
a. Negative Feedback: It reduces the initial stimulus. For example, if body temperature
rises, the body initiates cooling mechanisms like sweating.
b. Positive Feedback: It increases the initial stimulus. For example, release of oxytocin
increases contractions of uterus during child birth period.

Example of a Homeostatic Process: Blood Glucose Regulation

a. Receptors: Specialized cells in the pancreas (beta cells) detect elevated blood glucose
levels after a meal.
b. Control Center: The pancreas processes this information and decides to lower blood
glucose levels.
c. Effectors: The pancreas releases insulin into the bloodstream.
 d. Response: Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells and promotes storage as
glycogen in the liver, thereby lowering blood glucose levels back to the normal range.

Prefixes and Suffixes used in Anatomy and Physiology

Prefix: A prefix is a set of letters added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. In
anatomy, prefixes often describe the location, time, number, or degree related to a particular
anatomical structure or condition. For example:

 "Hyper-" (above, excessive): Hyperthyroidism (excessive activity of the thyroid gland)

 "Sub-" (below, under): Subcutaneous (under the skin)

Prefixes
1. A-/An-: Without, lack of (e.g., anaerobic, anemia).
2. Anti-: Against, opposing (e.g., antibiotic, antiseptic).
3. Bi-: Two, double (e.g., bilateral, bicellular).
4. Brady-: Slow (e.g., bradycardia, bradypnea).
5. Dys-: Difficult, painful, abnormal (e.g., dysphagia, dystrophy).
6. Eu-: Good, normal (e.g., euphoria, eukaryote).
7. Hypo-: Below, deficient, under (e.g., hypoglycemia, hypothyroidism).
8. Hyper-: Excessive, above, beyond (e.g., hypertension, hyperglycemia).
9. Inter-: Between, among (e.g., intercostal, intervertebral).
10. Intra-: Within, inside (e.g., intravenous, intracellular).
11. Macro-: Large, long (e.g., macroscopic, macrocephaly).
12. Micro-: Small (e.g., microscope, microorganism).
13. Mono-: One, single (e.g., monocyte, monosomy).
14. Neo-: New (e.g., neonatal, neoplasm).
15. Poly-: Many, much (e.g., polydactyl, polyuria).
16. Post-: After, behind (e.g., postoperative, postpartum).
17. Pre-: Before, in front of (e.g., prenatal, preoperative).
18. Sub-: Below, under (e.g., subcutaneous, sublingual).
19. Super-: Above, beyond (e.g., superior, superinfection).
20. Trans-: Across, through, beyond (e.g., transplant, transdermal).
21. Ab-: Away from, negative, absent (e.g., abnormal, abduct).
22. Ad-: Toward, near (e.g., adduct, adrenal).
23. Circum-: Around, about (e.g., circumvent, circumcision).
24. De-: Away from, down, negative (e.g., dehydration, descend).
25. Ex-: Out of, away from, former (e.g., exhale, excrete).
26. Peri-: Around, surrounding (e.g., pericardial, perinatal).
27. Poly-: Many, excessive (e.g., polyuria, polyphagia).
28. Re-: Again, back (e.g., reabsorb, return).
29. Sym-: Together, with (e.g., symmetrical, sympathy).
30. Tele-: Distant, at a distance (e.g., telemedicine, telecommunication).
Suffix: A suffix is a set of letters added to the end of a word to modify its meaning. In anatomy,
suffixes often describe the nature of a condition, procedure, or anatomical structure. For
example:

 "-itis" (inflammation): Arthritis (inflammation of the joints)

 "-ectomy" (removal of): Appendectomy (removal of the appendix)

Suffixes
1. -algia: Pain or painful condition (e.g., neuralgia, fibromyalgia).
2. -ectomy: Surgical removal or excision (e.g., appendectomy, tonsillectomy).
3. -emia: Condition of the blood (e.g., anemia, leukemia).
4. -gram: A record or image (e.g., electrocardiogram, mammogram).
5. -itis: Inflammation (e.g., arthritis, bronchitis).
6. -logy/-ology: Study of (e.g., cardiology, dermatology).
7. -lysis: Breakdown, destruction, separation (e.g., hemolysis, dialysis).
8. -oma: Tumor or mass (e.g., carcinoma, melanoma).
9. -osis: Condition, usually abnormal or diseased (e.g., neurosis, osteoporosis).
10. -pathy: Disease or disorder (e.g., neuropathy, myopathy).
11. -plasty: Surgical repair or reconstruction (e.g., rhinoplasty, angioplasty).
12. -scopy: Visual examination or viewing (e.g., endoscopy, colonoscopy).
13. -scope: Instrument for viewing (e.g., microscope, stethoscope).
14. -stasis: Stoppage, control, or equilibrium (e.g., hemostasis, homeostasis).
15. -therapy: Treatment or therapy (e.g., chemotherapy, physiotherapy).
16. -tomy: Surgical incision or cutting (e.g., lobotomy, craniotomy).
17. -rrhage/-rrhagia: Excessive bleeding or hemorrhage (e.g., hemorrhage, menorrhagia).
18. -rrhea: Flow or discharge (e.g., diarrhea, rhinorrhea).
19. -rrhexis: Rupture or breaking (e.g., myocardial infarction, hepatic rupture).
20. -gen/-genesis: Origin, production, or formation (e.g., carcinogen, osteogenesis).
21. -cyte: Cell (e.g., leukocyte, erythrocyte).
22. -cele: Hernia, protrusion (e.g., cystocele, rectocele).
23. -centesis: Surgical puncture to remove fluid (e.g., arthrocentesis, amniocentesis).
24. -clasis/-clast: Break, destruction (e.g., osteoclasis, osteoclast).
25. -crit: Separation or choice (e.g., hematocrit, lymphocrit).
26. -desis: Surgical binding or fusion (e.g., arthrodesis, syndesmosis).
27. -dynia: Pain (e.g., cephalodynia, gastralgia).
28. -ectasis: Dilation or expansion (e.g., bronchiectasis, telangiectasia).
29. -emia: Blood condition (e.g., hypoglycemia, hyperlipidemia).
30. -phobia: Fear or aversion (e.g., hydrophobia, agoraphobia).

Terminologies Used in Various Systems

1. Skeletal System:
a.Bone: Rigid connective tissue composed of cells, fibers and minerals.
b. Joint: Area where two or more bones meet together.
c.Cartilage: Flexible connective tissue found at the ends of bones and in certain joints.
2. Muscular System:
a.Muscle Fiber: Individual muscle cells.
b. Skeletal Muscle: Muscles attached to bones that are responsible for movement.
c.Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscle found in internal organs.
d. Cardiac Muscle: Muscle found in the heart.
e.Contraction: Shortening of a muscle fiber, resulting in movement.
f. Relaxation: Expansion of a muscle fiber, resulting in movement.

3. Nervous System:
a.Neuron: Nerve cell responsible for transmitting electrical signals.
b. Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
c.Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
d. Synapse: Junction between two neurons where signals are transmitted.
e.Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger released by neurons to transmit signals.

4. Circulatory System:
a.Artery: Blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart.
b. Vein: Blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart.
 c.Capillary: Tiny blood vessel where gas exchange occurs.
d. Blood Pressure: Force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels.

5. Respiratory System:
a.Trachea: Windpipe; tube that carries air from the throat to the lungs.
b. Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
c.Bronchus: Large airway that branches off the trachea and leads to the lungs.
d. Diaphragm: Dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs that help with breathing.

6. Digestive System:
a.Esophagus: Tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach.
b. Stomach: Organ where food is partially digested.
c.Small Intestine: Organ where most nutrient absorption occurs.
d. Large Intestine: Organ where water is absorbed and waste products are formed.

7. Endocrine System:
a.Hormone: Chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands and released into the
bloodstream.
b. Pituitary Gland: "Master gland" that controls other endocrine glands.
c.Thyroid Gland: Gland present in neck that produces thyroid hormone that regulate
metabolism and growth.
 d. Adrenal Gland: Gland present on kidney that produces adrenaline and nor
adrenaline hormones in stress response.

Cavities
Cavities are hollow air space or compartment within the body that contain organs, tissues or
fluids.
Functions of cavities
 Provide space for organs to be included.
 Organize internal organs systematically.
 Protect organs from damage.
 Help in movement of organs with fluid-filled spaces.
 Help in physiological processes such as digestion, respiration, circulation and
reproduction.

Types of Cavities
1. Cranial Cavity
Location: Within the skull (cranium).
Function: Protects the brain from external trauma and shock.

2. Thoracic Cavity
Location: Chest region, bounded by the rib cage.
Function: Protects and houses the heart, lungs and major blood vessels
Supports in breathing and circulation.

3. Abdominal Cavity
Location: Below the diaphragm, above the pelvic cavity.
Function: Contains digestive organs such as the stomach, liver, intestines and spleen
Supports in digestion and nutrient absorption.

4. Pelvic Cavity
Location: Within the pelvis, below the abdominal cavity.
Function: Includes reproductive organs (such as the uterus, ovaries, and testes) and
urinary bladder
Supports in reproduction and waste elimination.

5. Spinal Cavity (Vertebral Canal)

Location: Within the vertebral column (spine).
Function: Protects the spinal cord and nerves
Supports in communication between the brain and the rest of the body.

6. Pericardial Cavity
Location: Within the thoracic cavity, surrounding the heart.
Function: Surrounds the heart and contains a small amount of fluid to reduce friction
during heartbeats.

7. Pleural Cavities
 Location: Within the thoracic cavity, surrounding each lung.
Function: Surround the lungs and contain a small amount of fluid to reduce friction
during breathing, allowing for efficient lung expansion and contraction.

Anatomical Position of the body

In anatomy, the "anatomical position" is a standard reference position used to describe the
location and orientation of body parts. In this position, the body is:

1. Standing Upright: The person is in a vertical stance.

2. Facing Forward: The body is facing straight ahead.
3. Feet Parallel: The feet are flat on the ground and parallel to each other.
4. Arms at the Sides: The arms are extended down alongside the body.
5. Palms Facing Forward: The palms of the hands face forward with the thumbs pointing
outward.
Examples
1. Anterior / Ventral: Position to the front of the body or towards the front.
2. Posterior / Dorsal: Position to the back of the body or towards the back.
3. Superior: Above or higher in position; towards the head.
4. Inferior: Below or lower in position; towards the feet.
5. Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
6. Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
7. Palmar: Position to the palm of the hand.
8. Lateral: Towards the side or away from the midline of the body.
9. Supine: Lying face up or on the back.
10. Prone: Lying face down or on the stomach.

Planes of Body
It is imaginary flat surfaces used to divide the human body into sections for descriptive and
anatomical purposes.

1. Sagittal Plane:
  Divides the body into left and right halves.
 A sagittal plane that passes directly through the midline is called the "midsagittal" or
"median" plane.

2. Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane):

 Divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions.
 If the coronal plane passes through the midline, it is referred to as the "midcoronal" plane.

3. Transverse Plane (Horizontal Plane):

 Divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions.
 Perpendicular to both the sagittal and coronal planes.

Range of Motion
Range of motion (ROM) is an act of movement that a joint or group of joints can undergo in
various directions. It is a measure of the flexibility and mobility of a particular joint or the entire
body.
It is affected by several factors like surrounding muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other soft
tissues.
Types of movements and positions of the body
a. Flexion: Movement that decreases the angle between two body parts.
e.g. bending the elbow or bringing the knee towards the chest.
b. Extension: Movement that increases the angle between two body parts or straightens a
joint.
e.g. straightening the elbow from a bent position or extending the knee.
c. Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body.
e.g. lifting the arm away from the body's side or spreading the fingers
apart.
d. Adduction: Movement towards the midline of the body.
e.g. bringing the arm back to the body's side from an outstretched position
or bringing the fingers together.
e. Rotation: Movement around an axis or central point.
e.g. rotating the head from side to side or twisting the torso.
f. Circumduction: Circular movement that combines flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction.
e.g. swinging the arm in a circular motion or tracing a circle with the foot.
g. Supination: Rotation of the fore arm and hand so that the palm faces upward or forward.
e.g. turning the hand to hold a bowl of soup with the palm facing upward.
h. Pronation: Rotation of the forearm and hand so that the palm faces downward or
backward.
e.g. turning the hand to pour liquid out of a container with the palm facing
downward.
i. Opposition: Movement of the thumb towards the fingers of the same hand, allowing
grasping or pinching. e.g. touching the thumb to each fingertip successively.
 Multiple Choice Questions

1. What does anatomy study?

A) Functions of body system B) Structure of body parts

C) Chemical processes in the body D) Developmental changes in the body

2. Which of the following is the focus of physiology?

A) The structure of organs B) The function of body parts

C) Tissue types D) The development of diseases

3. Which branch of anatomy deals with the microscopic study of tissues?

A) Gross anatomy B) Developmental anatomy

C) Histology D) Surface anatomy

4. Physiology often relies on which type of study?

 A) Pathological studies B) Microscopic studies
C) Functional studies D) Genetic studies

5. The suffix “-ectomy” refers to:

A) Study of B) Removal or excision C) Inflammation D) Enlargement

6. What does the prefix “brady-” indicate?

A) Fast B) Slow C) Normal D) Excessive

7. Which of the following prefixes means “against”?

A) Dys- B) Anti- C) Hyper- D) Sub-

8. The suffix “-algia” refers to:

A) Inflammation B) Pain C) Enlargement D) Surgical repair

9. The prefix “hypo-” means:

A) Above B) Below or under C) Within D) Around

10. What does the suffix “-osis” typically refer to?

A) Condition or disease B) Inflammation C) Surgical removal D)

Enlargement

11. What does the term “endocrinology” refer to?

A) Study of the digestive system B) Study of hormones and glands

C) Study of the heart D) Study of blood disorders

12. Which term describes the study of the kidneys?

A) Cardiology B) Gastroenterology C) Nephrology D) Neurology

13. What does “hematology” focus on?

A) The digestive system B) The nervous system

C) Blood and blood disorders D) The endocrine system

14. Which field studies the structure and function of the skin?

A) Dermatology B) Nephrology C) Endocrinology D) Orthopedics

 15. What is “immunology” concerned with?

A) The reproductive system B) The immune system

C) The cardiovascular system D) The respiratory system

16. Which cavity houses the brain?

A) Thoracic cavity B) Pelvic cavity C) Abdominal cavity D) Cranial cavity

17. Which cavity contains the stomach and intestines?

A) Thoracic cavity B) Cranial cavity C) Pelvic cavity D) Abdominal

cavity

18. What separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities?

A) Diaphragm B) Pelvis C) Spinal column D) Rib cage

19. Which cavity is located below the abdominal cavity and contains reproductive
organs?

A) Cranial cavity B) Thoracic cavity C) Pelvic cavity D) Spinal cavity

20. The thoracic cavity is subdivided into which of the following regions?

A) Left and right pleural cavities and mediastinum B) Cranial and spinal
cavities
C) Abdominal and pelvic cavities D) Left and right pelvic
cavities

21. In anatomical position, the palms of the hands are:

A) Facing backward B) Facing forward C) Facing sideways D) Facing

upward

22. What does the term “medial” refer to?

A) Closer to the midline B) Further from the midline

C) Towards the back D) Towards the front

23. Which term describes a position closer to the feet?

A) Superior B) Inferior C) Medial D) Lateral

24. What term is used to describe lying on the stomach?

 A) Supine B) Prone C) Lateral D) Recumbent

25. The term “proximal” means:

A) Farther from the trunk B) Closer to the trunk

C) Closer to the surface D) Farther from the surface

26. Which term indicates the back side of the body?

A) Ventral B) Dorsal C) Superior D) Inferior

27. What does “lateral” mean?

A) Towards the midline B) Away from the midline

C) Near the surface D) Deep within

28. Which term describes a structure situated on the front of the body?

A) Dorsal B) Lateral C) Anterior D) Superior

29. The term “distal” refers to a position:

A) Closer to the trunk B) Further from the trunk

C) Towards the head D) Towards the feet

30. Which term describes a position further from the surface of the body?

A) Superficial B) Deep C) Medial D) Lateral

31. What is “flexion”?

A) Increasing the angle between two body parts B) Decreasing the angle between two
body parts
C) Rotating a body part around its axis D) Moving a body part away from the
midline

32. Which movement involves straightening a joint?

A) Flexion B) Extension C) Abduction D) Adduction

33. What does “abduction” refer to?

A) Moving a limb towards the midline B) Moving a limb away from the midline
C) Rotating a body part D) Moving a body part in a circular motion

34. Which movement brings a body part closer to the midline?

 A) Abduction B) Adduction C) Flexion D) Extension

35. What is “circumduction”?

A) Moving a body part in a circular motion B) Moving a body part away from the
midline
C) Rotating a body part around its axis D) Decreasing the angle between two
body parts

36. What movement is described by turning the palm upward?

A) Pronation B) Supination C) Flexion D) Extension

37. Which term refers to turning the palm downward?

A) Supination B) Pronation C) Flexion D) Extension

38. What does “opposition” describe?

A) Moving the thumb away from the palm B) Bringing the thumb and fingers
together
C) Turning the palm upward D) Moving a limb towards the midline

39. What is “rotation”?

A) Moving a body part in a circular motion B) Turning a body part around its own
axis
C) Moving a body part away from the midline D) Increasing the angle between two body
parts

40. Which movement decreases the angle between two body parts?

A) Extension B) Abduction C) Flexion D) Rotation

41. What does “adduction” involve?

A) Moving a body part away from the midline B) Moving a body part towards the
midline
C) Rotating a body part D) Moving a body part in a circular
motion

42. What is the opposite of “flexion”?

A) Abduction B) Extension C) Rotation D) Adduction

43. Which movement would you use to draw your arm away from your body?
 A) Adduction B) Flexion C) Abduction D) Extension

44. What is the movement of the body part in a circular pattern around a fixed point?

A) Supination B) Rotation C) Circumduction D) Pronation

45. Which of the following movements is used to make a fist?

A) Opposition B) Flexion C) Extension D) Abduction

46. What movement involves increasing the angle between two body parts?

A) Flexion B) Extension C) Abduction D) Adduction

47. What does “supination” refer to in the context of the forearm?

A) Turning the palm downward B) Turning the palm upward

C) Moving the thumb away from the palm D) Bringing the thumb and fingers
together

48. Which term refers to the action of moving a body part inwards or towards the
body’s midline?

A) Abduction B) Adduction C) Flexion D) Extension

49. What is the opposite movement to “pronation”?

A) Supination B) Flexion C) Extension D) Adduction

50. Which movement would you use to perform a high five?

A) Flexion B) Extension C) Pronation D) Supination

 Unit 2: Introduction to cells and tissues
Cell
A cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms. A cell has three main parts: the
cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm. The cell membrane surrounds the cell and
controls the substances that go into and out of the cell. The nucleus is a structure inside the cell
that contains the nucleolus and genetic material called DNA or RNA. The cytoplasm is the fluid
inside the cell. It contains other tiny cell parts that have specific functions, including the Golgi
complex, the mitochondria, and the endoplasmic reticulum. The cytoplasm is where most
chemical reactions take place and where most proteins are made. The human body has more than
30 trillion cells. The sperm cell is the smallest cell in the human body. The length of the human
sperm is around 55-65 µm. Ovum (female gamete) is the largest cell present in the human
body. It is a single cell released from the ovary every month. The size of each ovum is 0.1mm in
diameter.

Composition / Characteristic of Cell

1. Cell Membrane
Structure
 The cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
 The bilayer consists of hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads and hydrophobic (water-
repelling) tails.
 Proteins are attached to the lipid bilayer.
 Cholesterol molecules are present in the lipid bilayer providing stability and fluidity.
Function
 It helps to maintain shape of the cell.
 It protects the cell's internal organelles.
 It transports lipid soluble particles inside or outside the cell.
 It contains receptors for cell-to-cell communication.
 Proteins on the membrane enable cells to adhere to each other and the extracellular
compartment.
 It allows cells to recognize self from non-self and interact with other cells.

2. Cytoplasm
Structure
 It contains fluid component of the cytoplasm called cytosol.
 It includes membrane-bound structures suspended in the cytosol, including the
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, and
centrioles called cell organelles.
 It also contains filaments consisting of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules.

Function
 It provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and holds organelles.
  It helps in cell division.
 It stores nutrients, ions, and waste products within the cell.
 It helps in the movement of organelles, vesicles, and other cellular components.
 It helps in metabolism through glycolysis, protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, and cellular
respiration.

3. Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells (cells with
a nucleus), containing the cell's genetic material (DNA). It controls and regulates
cellular activities such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction by regulating
gene expression.
Structure
 Nuclear Envelope / Nuclear membrane: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus,
consisting of an outer and inner membrane.
 Nuclear Pores: Openings in the nuclear envelope that regulate the passage of molecules
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Chromatin: Complex structure of DNA and proteins (histones) that make up
chromosomes.
 Nucleolus: Membrane-less organelle within the nucleus.

Function
 It stores and protects the cell's genetic material (DNA).
 It controls gene transcription and regulates the synthesis of mRNA (messenger RNA) for
protein production.
 It produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembles ribosomes in the nucleolus.
 It coordinates the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
 It regulates mitosis (cell division) and meiosis (cell division in gametes) by organizing
and segregating chromosomes.

4. Mitochondria
The proteins synthesized by the proteins in mitochondria are utilized to generate
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the food. This ATP acts as the energy
currency of the cell, because of which the whole cell and body get energy. Thus,
mitochondria are called the powerhouse of the cells.
Structure
 Outer Membrane: A smooth outer membrane that surrounds the organelle.
 Inner Membrane: Highly folded inner membrane containing cristae, which increase
surface area.
 Intermembrane Space: Space between the outer and inner membranes.
 Matrix: Gel-like substance within the inner membrane, containing enzymes,
mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, and other molecules.
Function
 It produces energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
 It is responsible for regulating the metabolic activity of the cell.
 It also promotes cell multiplication and cell growth.
 It also detox ammonia in the liver cells.
 It plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death.

5. Ribosome
Ribosomes are cellular structures that play a key role in the process of protein
synthesis. They are found in all living cells, including bacteria, plants, and
animals. Ribosomes function as the site where messenger RNA (mRNA) is
translated into proteins.

Structure
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms the structural framework of the ribosome and catalyzes
peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.
 Ribosomal Proteins: Surround and stabilize the rRNA molecules contributing to the
overall structure and function of the ribosome.
  Large Subunit: Contains the peptidyl transferase center, where peptide bond formation
occurs.
 Small Subunit: Binds to mRNA (messenger RNA) and initiates translation by locating
the start codon (AUG).

Function
 Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes translate mRNA into proteins in a process called
translation.
 Elongation: Aminoacyl-tRNA molecules carrying amino acids bind to the ribosome and
form peptide bonds to elongate the growing polypeptide chain.
 Translation: Ribosomes bind to the mRNA molecule and locate the start codon (AUG)
to initiate protein synthesis.
 Termination: Ribosomes recognize stop codons (UAA, UAG, or UGA) on mRNA and
release the completed polypeptide chain.

6. Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex or Golgi body, is an organelle in
eukaryotic cells involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids.
Structure
 Cisternae: Flattened, membrane-bound sacs stacked on top of each other.
 Cisternal Space: The space enclosed by the cisternae.
 Golgi Vesicles: Small membrane-bound vesicles that bud off from the Golgi apparatus.
Function
 It helps in protein synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 It transports proteins to their target locations such as lysosomes, plasma membrane or
extracellular space.
 It helps in metabolism of lipid, such as phospholipids and glycolipids.
 It attaches sugar molecules to the proteins forming glycoprotein.
 It plays a role in the formation of lysosomes by packaging digestive enzymes synthesized
in the ER into vesicles and delivering them to the endosomal-lysosomal system.
 It is involved in the secretion of proteins and lipids from the cell through the exocytosis
of secretory vesicles.
 It helps to maintain cellular homeostasis by regulating the movement of cellular
components, including proteins and lipids.

7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a vital organelle in eukaryotic cells that plays a
central role in the synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of proteins and lipids.

Structure / Types
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER):
 Covered with ribosomes on its surface.
 Consists of interconnected membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.
 Continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.

b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER):

 Lacks ribosomes on its surface.
 Consists of tubular structures.
 Interconnected with the rough endoplasmic reticulum and other cellular membranes.

Function
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:
 It is useful in the synthesis of essential lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol.
 It is also responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones.
 It helps in metabolism of carbohydrates.
 It stores and releases calcium ions.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

 It helps in protein synthesis.
 It is responsible for protein folding.
 It is useful in protein sorting.
8. Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of enzymes capable
of breaking down all types of biological polymers—proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipids. If the cell gets damaged, then one of the lysosomes bursts and
releases some digestive enzymes. The released enzymes then digest their own cell and
ultimately the cell dies. Hence, lysosomes are called suicide bags of the cell.

Structure
 Membrane-bound Organelles: Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles.
 Hydrolytic Enzymes: Contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes, including proteases,
lipases, nucleases, and glycosidases.
  Acidic Environment: Maintain an acidic pH (around 4.5) inside the lysosome, which is
essential for the optimal activity of hydrolytic enzymes.
Function
 It helps in digestion.
 It removes dead cells.
 It helps in protein synthesis.
 It helps in fertilization by producing some lysosomal enzymes which help in the
penetration of sperm into the layer of ovum.
 It is responsible in formation of bone cells and also their destruction depends upon
lysosomal activity.

9. Centrosome

Structure
 Centrioles: The centrosome contains a pair of cylindrical structures called centrioles.
 Pericentriolar Material: Surrounds the centrioles and consists of protein complexes,
including γ-tubulin, which serves as a nucleation site for microtubule formation.
Function
 The centrosomes help in cell division.
 They maintain the chromosome number during cell division.
 They also stimulate the changes in the shape of the cell membrane by phagocytosis.
 In mitosis, it helps in organizing the microtubules ensuring that the centrosomes are
distributed to each daughter cell.
 They regulate the movement of microtubules and cytoskeletal structures, thereby,
facilitating changes in the shapes of the membranes of the animal cell.
10. Cytoskeleton

Structure
a. Microfilaments (Actin Filaments):
 Composed of actin protein monomers arranged in a helical structure.
  Diameter: Approximately 7 nm.
 Found throughout the cell, especially near the cell periphery and in the cell cortex.
b. Intermediate Filaments:
 Composed of various fibrous proteins, such as keratins, vimentin, and lamin.
 Diameter: Approximately 8-12 nm.
 Provide mechanical strength and stability to the cell.
c. Microtubules:
 Composed of tubulin protein subunits arranged in a hollow cylindrical structure.
 Diameter: Approximately 25 nm.
 Extend from the centrosome and radiate throughout the cell.

Function
 It holds different cell organelles in place.
 It provides shape and support to the cell.
 It helps in the formation of vacuoles.
 It helps in cell signalling.
 It supports intracellular movements like the migration of cell organelles, transportation of
vesicles in and out of the cell, etc.

11. Peroxisomes

Structure
 Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
 They are enclosed by a single lipid bilayer membrane.
 Peroxisomes contain a variety of enzymes, including catalase, oxidases, and peroxidases.

Function
 They take part in lipid metabolism and catabolism of D-amino acids, polyamines and bile
acids.
 The reactive oxygen species such as peroxides produced in the process is converted to
water by various enzymes like peroxidase and catalase.

Types of Cell
Cell Division
1. Mitosis Cell Division
Mitosis is a type of cell division that occurs in somatic (body) cells. It plays a vital role in
growth, repair and maintenance of multicellular organisms.

Purpose
 To produce two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. These daughter cells
are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
Stage 1
Interphase
Before entering mitosis, a cell spends a period of its growth under interphase. It undergoes the
following phases when in interphase:
 G1 Phase: This is the period before the synthesis of DNA.
 S Phase: This is the phase during which DNA synthesis takes place.
 G2 Phase: This is the phase between the end of DNA synthesis and the beginning of the
prophase.

Stage 2
It contains four stages.
a.Prophase:
 Chromosomes condense and become visible.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down.
 Spindle fibers begin to form.

b. Metaphase:
 Chromosomes line up at the cell's equator, known as the metaphase plate.
 Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each chromosome.

c.Anaphase:
 Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell, pulled by the spindle
fibers.

d. Telophase:
 Chromatids reach the poles and decondense into chromatin.
 Nuclear envelopes reform around the chromatin, and the spindle fibers disassemble.

Stage 3
Cytokinesis
 It is process of division of mother cell into two daughter cells.

Function
 It helps to increase in cell number, leading to growth and development of tissues and organs.
 It replaces damaged or worn-out cells with new ones helping in tissue repair and regeneration.
 It helps to maintain the overall structure and function of cells.

Significance of Mitosis
 It is responsible for the development of the zygote into an adult.
 Equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell.
 It is responsible for the growth and development of an individual.
 It maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
 Mitosis is required for asexual reproduction, vegetative propagation in plants and is also
responsible for the repair and regeneration of damaged tissues.
 Mitosis helps in maintaining the purity of the genome as no recombination or crossing
over takes place.
 It is responsible for the repair and regeneration of old and damaged cells in animals e.g.
gut epithelium, blood cells, etc.

2. Meiosis Cell Division

It occurs in reproductive cells (like sperm and egg cells).

Purpose
 To make cells those are different from each other and have half the number of
chromosomes as the original cell.

Stages: Meiosis has two main parts called meiosis I and meiosis II.

A. Meiosis I
It involves two sets of chromosomes (one from mom and one from dad). It is the first
division in the process of meiosis, which reduces the chromosome number by half to
produce gametes (sperm and eggs).

Prophase I

 Chromosome Condensation: Chromosomes condense and become visible.

 Synapsis: Homologous chromosomes pair up, forming tetrads (four chromatids).
 Crossing Over: Exchange of genetic material occurs between non-sister chromatids at
chiasmata.
 Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: The nuclear envelope disintegrates.
 Spindle Formation: Spindle fibers emerge from centrioles.

Metaphase I

 Tetrads Align: Homologous chromosome pairs (tetrads) align at the metaphase plate.
 Spindle Fiber Attachment: Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of homologous
chromosomes.

Anaphase I
  Homologous Chromosomes Separate: Homologous chromosomes (each still consisting
of two sister chromatids) are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
 Reduction of Chromosome Number: Each pole receives one chromosome from each
homologous pair.

Telophase I

 Chromosome Arrival: Chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell.

 Nuclear Envelope Formation: The nuclear envelope may reform around each set of
chromosomes, though this step can vary between species.
 Cytokinesis: The cell cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes (haploid).

After Meiosis I, each of the two resulting cells will undergo Meiosis II to further separate the
sister chromatids, producing four haploid gametes.

B. Meiosis II:

Meiosis II is the second division in meiosis and follows Meiosis I. It resembles a typical mitotic
division but results in four haploid cells.

Prophase II

 Chromosome Condensation: Chromosomes condense and become visible again.

  Nuclear Envelope Breakdown: If it had reformed in Telophase I, the nuclear envelope
breaks down.
 Spindle Formation: Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of the
chromosomes.

Metaphase II

 Chromosome Alignment: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.

 Spindle Fiber Attachment: Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each
chromosome (now consisting of two sister chromatids).

Anaphase II

 Sister Chromatid Separation: Sister chromatids are pulled apart toward opposite poles
of the cell.
 Chromatid Movement: Each chromatid, now an individual chromosome, moves to the
poles.

Telophase II

 Chromosome Arrival: Chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cells.

 Nuclear Envelope Formation: The nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
chromosomes.
 Chromosome Decondensation: Chromosomes begin to decondense back into chromatin.
 Cytokinesis: The cell cytoplasm divides, resulting in four haploid daughter cells, each
with a single set of chromosomes.

The end result of Meiosis II is four genetically diverse haploid gametes, each with half the
number of chromosomes as the original cell, which is ready for fertilization.

Significance
 It is responsible for the formation of sex cells or gametes that are responsible for sexual
reproduction.
 It activates the genetic information for the development of sex cells and deactivates the
sporophytic information.
 It maintains the constant number of chromosomes by halving the same. This is important
because the chromosome number doubles after fertilization.
 In this process independent assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes takes
place. Thus the chromosomes and the traits controlled by them are reshuffled.
 The genetic mutation occurs due to irregularities in cell division by meiosis. The
mutations that are beneficial are carried on by natural selection.
 Crossing over produces a new combination of traits and variations.
Tissues

A group of cells with similar shape and function are known as tissues. They form a cellular
organizational level, intermediate between the cells and organ system. Organs are then created
by combining the functional groups of tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology and
study of disease-related to tissue is known as histopathology.

Types of Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue:
Structure
 It is composed of closely packed cells arranged in one or more layers.
 It is formed by cells which cover the external parts of the body organs and lines the organ
surfaces such as the surface of the skin, the reproductive tract, the airways, and the inner
lining of the digestive tract.
Function:
 Protection: It protects against pathogens and dehydration.
 Absorption and Secretion: Epithelial cells can absorb nutrients, ions, and water from the
external environment or release substances such as hormones, enzymes, and mucus.
 Sensation: It helps to detect sensation such as touch, taste, smell, sight, and sound.
 Transportation: It helps in movement of substances across barriers. For example, the
epithelium lining the respiratory tract contains cilia that help to move mucus and waste
products out of the airways.

Easy to remember: PAST

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium:
Structure: Single layer of flattened cells with a centrally located nucleus. It is found in alveoli of
the lungs, lining of blood vessels (endothelium), and Bowman's capsule in the kidneys.
Function: It helps in diffusion and filtration.

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:

Structure: Single layer of cube-shaped cells with a centrally located nucleus. It is found in
kidney tubules, ducts of glands, and the surface of ovaries.
Function: It is useful in secretion and absorption.
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium:
Structure: Single layer of tall, column-shaped cells with elongated nuclei near the basement
membrane. It contains specialized cells such as goblet cells that secrete mucus. It is found in
the lining of the digestive tract, gallbladder, and parts of the respiratory tract.
Function: It is useful in secretion and absorption.

4. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:

Structure: It appears stratified due to nuclei being at different levels but all cells reach the
basement membrane. It is found in t
he respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi) and portions of the male reproductive tract (epididymis).
Function: It helps in secretion of mucus and movement of mucus via cilia.

5. Stratified Squamous Epithelium:

Structure: Multiple layers of flattened cells with the basal layer containing cuboidal or columnar
cells and the apical layer consisting of squamous cells. It is found in the skin (epidermis), oral
cavity, esophagus, vagina, and anal canal.
Function: It provides protection against abrasion and pathogens.

6. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium:

Structure: Multiple layers of cube-shaped cells. It is found in ducts of sweat glands, mammary
glands, and salivary glands.
Function: It provides protection, secretion and absorption.
7. Stratified Columnar Epithelium:
Structure: Multiple layers of column-shaped cells. It is rare in the body, found in parts of the
male urethra and large ducts of some glands.
Function: It provides protection and secretion.

8. Transitional Epithelium:
Structure: Variable appearance depending on tissue distension. Basal cells are cuboidal or
columnar, while apical cells are dome-shaped or squamous-like when stretched. It is found in the
urinary bladder, ureters, and parts of the urethra.
Function: It is responsible for stretching and recoiling.

2. Connective Tissues:
Structure: They are the group of tissues made up of cells separated by non-living material,
called as an extracellular matrix. This tissue provides shape to the different organs and maintains
their positions. E.g. blood, bone, tendon, adipose, ligament and areolar tissues.

Function:
 It provides structural support and maintains the shape of organs and tissues. For example,
bone tissue supports the body and protects vital organs.
 It binds organs together and connects different tissues. Ligaments and tendons connect
bones and muscles respectively.
 Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones and waste products throughout the body.
Adipose tissue stores energy in the form of fat.
 They show immune response by housing immune cells and producing antibodies. For
example, lymphoid tissue contains lymphocytes and helps defend against pathogens.

Types of Connective tissue

1. Areolar Connective Tissue:
Structure: Contains loosely arranged collagen, elastic fibers, and fibroblasts within a gel-like
ground substance.
Function: Provides support and elasticity to organs, allows for movement of leukocytes and
other cells during inflammation, and serves as a reservoir of water and salts for surrounding
tissues.

2. Adipose Tissue:
Structure: Composed of adipocytes (fat cells) with minimal extracellular matrix.
Function: Stores energy in the form of triglycerides, insulates the body against heat loss,
cushions and protects organs, and provides a source of metabolic fuel.

3. Dense Regular Connective Tissue:

Structure: Consists of densely packed collagen fibers arranged in parallel bundles, with
fibroblasts located between the fibers. Found in tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses, where it
attaches muscles to bones or other structures.
Function: Provides high tensile strength and resistance to stretching in one direction.

4. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue:

Structure: Contains densely packed collagen fibers arranged in multiple directions, providing
strength and support in all directions. Found in the dermis of the skin, joint capsules, and the
outer layer of bones (periosteum).
Function: Provides strength and support to tissues subjected to tension from multiple directions.

5. Cartilage:
Structure: Consists of chondrocytes (cartilage cells) embedded in a matrix of collagen or elastic
fibers and proteoglycans.
Function: Provides structural support, flexibility, and cushioning to joints, respiratory airways,
and other structures.

Types of Cartilage
a. Hyaline Cartilage: Found at the ends of long bones, in the nose, trachea, and bronchi.
Provides smooth surfaces for joint movement and support.
b. Elastic Cartilage: Contains more elastic fibers, found in the external ear and epiglottis.
Provides flexibility and maintains shape.
c. Fibro cartilage: Contains thick bundles of collagen fibers, found in intervertebral discs, pubic
symphysis, and certain joint capsules. Provides strength and shock absorption.

6. Bone (Osseous Tissue):

Structure: Composed of osteocytes (bone cells) embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers and
calcium salts.
Function: Provides structural support, protection for internal organs, attachment sites for
muscles, and storage of minerals (such as calcium and phosphate).

7. Blood:
Structure: Comprised of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma (a liquid
matrix).
Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.
Participates in immune responses, blood clotting, and maintenance of pH and electrolyte balance.

8. Lymph:
Structure: A clear fluid derived from interstitial fluid, containing lymphocytes and other
immune cells.
Function: Transports lymphocytes and immune cells, removes excess fluid and waste products
from tissues, and helps defend against pathogens.

3. Muscular Tissue:
Structure: Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers. These fibers contain
specialized proteins (actin and myosin) arranged in repeating units called sarcomeres, which give
muscle its striated appearance (in skeletal and cardiac muscle). Smooth muscle lacks striations.
Function:
 Helps in maintaining an erect position, or posture.
 Helps in the constriction of organs and blood vessels.
 Involved in both voluntary and involuntary movements.
 Involved in pumping blood and regulating the flow of blood in arteries.
  Controls respiration by automatically driving the movement of air both into and out of
our body.

Types of Muscular Tissue

i. Skeletal Muscle Tissue:

Structure:
 Consists of long, cylindrical, multinucleated muscle fibers (cells) arranged in parallel
bundles.
 Each muscle fiber contains myofibrils composed of repeating units called sarcomeres,
which give skeletal muscle its striated appearance.
Function:
 Responsible for voluntary movement of the body, including locomotion, manipulation of
objects, facial expressions, and breathing.
 Skeletal muscles are under conscious control and contract rapidly and forcefully.

ii. Smooth Muscle Tissue:

Structure:
 Composed of elongated, spindle-shaped cells with a single, centrally located nucleus.
 Smooth muscle cells lack striations due to the arrangement of contractile proteins.
Function:
 Involuntary muscle found in the walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, and other
structures.
 Smooth muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically, controlling the movement of
substances through organs (peristalsis), regulating blood flow, and maintaining organ
tone.

iii. Cardiac Muscle Tissue:

Structure:
 Made up of branching, striated muscle cells called cardiomyocytes, each containing a
single nucleus.
 Cardiac muscle cells are interconnected by specialized junctions called intercalated discs.

Function:
 Found exclusively in the heart, where it contracts rhythmically to pump blood throughout
the body.
 Cardiac muscle contractions are involuntary and coordinated by the cardiac conduction
system.
 The intercalated discs facilitate rapid transmission of electrical impulses between cells,
allowing for synchronized contraction of the heart.
4. Nervous Tissue:
Structure:
 Nervous tissue is composed of two main types of cells: neurons and neuroglia (or glial
cells).
 Neurons transmit electrical signals, while neuroglia support and protect neurons.
 They are the main tissue components of the brain and spinal cord in the central nervous
system.
 While, in the peripheral nervous system, the neural tissue forms the cranial nerves and
spinal nerves.

Function:

 Response to stimuli.
 Stimulates and transmits information within the body.
 Plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.
 Maintains stability and creates an awareness of the environment.
 Nervous tissue is involved in controlling and coordinating many metabolic activities.
 Types of Nervous tissue

1. Neurons:
Structure:
 Neurons consist of three main parts: the cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon.
 The cell body contains the nucleus and organelles.
 Dendrites are branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons or sensory
receptors.
 The axon is a long, slender projection that transmits electrical impulses away from the
cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Function:
 Neurons are responsible for transmitting electrical and chemical signals (nerve impulses)
throughout the body.
 They integrate and process incoming signals, generate action potentials (nerve impulses)
and transmit these impulses to other neurons, muscles or glands.
 Neurons help in sensory perception, motor control, cognition and communication within
the nervous system.

2. Neuroglia (Glial Cells):

Structure:
 Neuroglia are non-neuronal cells that provide support, insulation, and nourishment to
neurons.
 They are smaller and more numerous than neurons and are divided into several subtypes:
a. Astrocytes: Star-shaped cells that provide structural support to neurons, regulate the
extracellular environment, and maintain the blood-brain barrier.
b. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) / Schwann Cells (PNS): Produce myelin, a fatty substance that
wraps around axons to insulate them and enhance the speed of electrical impulse
conduction.
c. Microglia: Act as immune cells within the central nervous system (CNS), removing debris,
pathogens, and dead cells through phagocytosis.
d. Ependymal Cells: Line the cavities of the brain and spinal cord (ventricles and central canal)
and produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which cushions and protects the CNS.
e. Satellite Cells: Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS), providing structural support and regulating the microenvironment around neurons.

Membranes
Structure:
 Membranes are thin sheets of tissue composed of epithelial cells and connective tissue.
 They can be categorized into several types based on their location and function, including
mucous membranes (lining body cavities that open to the exterior), serous membranes
(lining body cavities not open to the exterior), and synovial membranes (lining joint
cavities).

Functions:
 Protection: Membranes provide a protective barrier against physical, chemical, and
microbial damage.
 Secretion: Some membranes secrete mucus, serous fluid, or synovial fluid to lubricate
and protect surfaces.
 Absorption and Exchange: Membranes can absorb nutrients, gases, and other
substances from their surroundings.
 Sensation: Certain membranes contain sensory receptors that detect stimuli such as
touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. For example, mucous membranes in the nasal
cavity contain receptors for detecting odors.

Types of Membrane
1. Mucous Membranes
Location: Mucous membranes line body cavities and structures that open to the exterior
environment, such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
Structure: Mucous membranes consist of an epithelial layer (often stratified or pseudostratified
columnar epithelium) supported by connective tissue (lamina propria).
Function: Mucous membranes secrete mucus, a viscous fluid that helps to lubricate and protect
the surface of the epithelium. They also play a role in absorption and secretion.

2. Serous Membranes
Location: Serous membranes line body cavities that are not open to the exterior, such as the
pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities.
Structure: Serous membranes consist of two layers: a parietal layer, which lines the cavity wall,
and a visceral layer, which covers the organs within the cavity. These layers are composed of
simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) supported by connective tissue.
Function: Serous membranes secrete a serous fluid that lubricates the surfaces of the
membranes, reducing friction between organs as they move within their respective cavities.

3. Synovial Membranes
Location: Synovial membranes line the cavities of freely movable joints (synovial joints).
Structure: Synovial membranes are composed of connective tissue containing specialized cells
called synoviocytes. They lack a true epithelial layer.
Function: Synovial membranes secrete synovial fluid, a lubricating and nourishing fluid that
helps reduce friction between the articulating surfaces of bones within the joint cavity.
Additionally, synovial membranes aid in the exchange of nutrients and waste products between
the joint cavity and surrounding tissues.

Glands:
Structure:
 Glands are specialized structures composed of epithelial cells that secrete substances.
 They can be classified into two main types:
a.Exocrine glands: Secretes enzymes into ducts that lead to body surfaces or cavities
b. Endocrine glands: Secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Functions:
 Secretion: Glands produces enzymes, hormones, sweat, saliva, mucus, and oil. Exocrine
glands secrete their products externally (e.g., sweat glands), while endocrine glands
release hormones that regulate bodily functions.
 Regulation: They regulate physiological processes such as metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and homeostasis.
 Protection: Sweat produced by sweat glands helps regulate body temperature and excrete
waste products while mucus secreted by mucous glands lubricates and protects epithelial
surfaces.

Types of glands

1. Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands secrete their products through ducts to external or internal surfaces. These
glands are responsible for secreting substances like enzymes, sweat, or mucus. Key types
include:

 Sweat Glands: Produce sweat, which helps regulate body temperature and remove waste.
 Salivary Glands: Produce saliva, which aids in digestion and keeps the mouth moist.
 Mammary Glands: Produce milk in females for feeding infants.
 Pancreatic Glands: Produce digestive enzymes that are released into the small intestine.
 Sebaceous Glands: Produce sebum (oil) that lubricates the skin and hair.

2. Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands secrete their products (hormones) directly into the bloodstream, which then
carries these hormones to target organs or tissues. Key endocrine glands include:

 Pituitary Gland: Often called the "master gland," it controls other endocrine glands and
regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
 Thyroid Gland: Produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and
development.
 Parathyroid Glands: Regulate calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism.
 Adrenal Glands: Produce hormones like adrenaline, cortisol, and aldosterone, which are
involved in stress responses, metabolism, and electrolyte balance.
 Pancreas (endocrine part): Produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar
levels.
 Ovaries: Produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate female reproductive
functions.
 Testes: Produce testosterone, which regulates male reproductive functions and secondary
sexual characteristics.

3. Mixed Glands

Some glands have both endocrine and exocrine functions. For example:

 Pancreas: As mentioned, it has an endocrine function (insulin and glucagon) and an

exocrine function (digestive enzymes).

Cartilage
Structure:
 Cartilage is a firm, flexible connective tissue consisting of chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers, proteoglycans, and water.
 It lacks blood vessels and nerves and receives nutrients and oxygen through diffusion from
surrounding tissues.
Functions:
 Support and Structure: Cartilage provides structural support and maintains the shape of
body structures such as the nose, ears, trachea, and joints. It acts as a cushion between
bones, reducing friction and absorbing shock during movement.
 Flexibility and Mobility: Cartilage allows for smooth and frictionless movement of joints
by providing a smooth surface for articulation. It also allows for flexibility and
deformation under pressure, such as during compression of the vertebral column.
 Growth and Development: Cartilage serves as a template for bone formation during
embryonic development and growth. It forms the precursor to bone in the skeleton
(cartilage model) and helps regulate bone growth and shape.
 Healing and Repair: Cartilage has limited regenerative capacity due to its avascular
nature. However, it can undergo slow repair through the production of new matrix by
chondrocytes.

Types of cartilage

1. Hyaline Cartilage:
Structure:
 Hyaline cartilage has a smooth, glassy appearance under the microscope.
 It consists of a dense network of collagen fibers embedded in a firm, gel-like matrix of
proteoglycans and water.
 Chondrocytes, the cells responsible for maintaining cartilage, are dispersed within the
matrix.

Function:
 Hyaline cartilage provides structural support with some flexibility.
  It covers the ends of bones at joints, reducing friction and providing smooth movement.
 It also forms the skeleton of the fetus before bone development and supports respiratory
structures like the trachea and bronchi.

2. Elastic Cartilage:
Structure:
 Elastic cartilage contains abundant elastic fibers in addition to collagen fibers.
 These elastic fibers give it a more elastic and flexible structure compared to hyaline
cartilage.
 Chondrocytes are also present within the matrix.
Function:
 Elastic cartilage provides both support and elasticity.
 It maintains the shape of structures like the external ear (pinna) and the epiglottis in the
throat, allowing them to return to their original shape after deformation.
 It also supports the auditory (Eustachian) tubes.

3. Fibrocartilage:
Structure:
 Fibrocartilage contains dense bundles of collagen fibers within its matrix, making it
extremely durable and strong.
 Chondrocytes are fewer in number compared to hyaline and elastic cartilage.
Function:
 Fibrocartilage is specialized for areas subjected to heavy pressure and tension.
 It provides shock absorption and structural support in locations such as the intervertebral
discs.
 It also helps stabilize joints and distribute forces during movement.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is the primary function of the cell membrane?

A) DNA replication B) Protein

synthesis
C) Regulating the movement of substances in and out of the cell D) Energy
production

2. During which phase of mitosis do chromosomes line up along the equatorial plane of
the cell?

A) Prophase B) Metaphase C) Anaphase D) Telophase

3. What is the main difference between mitosis and meiosis?

 A) Mitosis results in four daughter cells, while meiosis results in two.
B) Mitosis involves the division of germ cells, while meiosis involves somatic cells.
C) Mitosis results in two daughter cells, while meiosis results in four genetically diverse
cells.
D) Mitosis is a type of cell differentiation, while meiosis is a type of cell division.

4. Which type of epithelial tissue is best suited for absorption?

A) Simple cuboidal epithelium B) Simple columnar epithelium

C) Stratified squamous epithelium D) Transitional epithelium

5. Which type of connective tissue is primarily responsible for storing energy in the
form of fat?

A) Adipose tissue B) Cartilage C) Bone D) Blood

6. Which type of muscular tissue is involuntary and found in the walls of internal
organs?

A) Skeletal muscle B) Cardiac muscle C) Smooth muscle D) Striated

muscle

7. Which part of a neuron is responsible for receiving signals from other neurons?

A) Axon B) Dendrite C) Soma D) Synapse

8. What is the function of the lysosomes within a cell?

A) Protein synthesis B) Cellular respiration

C) Digestion of macromolecules D) DNA replication

9. Which type of connective tissue forms the structural framework for organs and
supports tissue?

A) Loose connective tissue B) Dense connective tissue C) Cartilage D)

Blood

10. During which stage of meiosis does crossing over occur?

A) Prophase I B) Metaphase I C) Anaphase I D) Telophase I

11. Which epithelial tissue type forms the outer layer of the skin?

A) Simple cuboidal epithelium B) Simple columnar epithelium

C) Stratified squamous epithelium D) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
 12. What is the primary role of the cell’s mitochondria?

A) Synthesis of proteins B) ATP production

C) Storage of genetic material D) Cellular digestion

13. Which of the following best describes the structure of a glandular epithelium?

A) Single layer of cells B) Multiple layers of cells

C) Cells with large vacuoles D) Cells organized in a specific pattern for
secretion

14. Which type of cartilage is most commonly found in the respiratory tract and nose?

A) Hyaline cartilage B) Elastic cartilage C) Fibrocartilage D) Fibrous

cartilage

15. What is the function of the extracellular matrix in connective tissues?

A) Storage of genetic information B) Providing structural and biochemical

support
C) Cellular energy production D) Protein synthesis

16. In which stage of mitosis do sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite
poles?

A) Prophase B) Metaphase C) Anaphase D) Telophase

17. Which type of connective tissue acts as a shock absorber and is found in
intervertebral discs?

A) Adipose tissue B) Hyaline cartilage C) Fibrocartilage D) Elastic cartilage

18. What type of epithelial tissue is found lining the small intestine?

A) Simple squamous epithelium B) Simple cuboidal epithelium

C) Simple columnar epithelium D) Stratified squamous epithelium

19. What is the primary function of microvilli on the surface of epithelial cells?

A) Cell communication B) Absorption C) Protection D) Secretion

20. Which type of muscle tissue is striated and found in the heart?

A) Skeletal muscle B) Cardiac muscle C) Smooth muscle D) Epithelial

muscle
 21. What is the role of the Golgi apparatus in a cell?

A) Energy production B) Protein modification and packaging

C) Lipid synthesis D) Cellular digestion

22. Which phase of the cell cycle is characterized by DNA replication?

A) G1 phase B) S phase C) G2 phase D) M phase

23. Which of the following best describes the function of connective tissue?

A) Covers and protects surfaces B) Transmits electrical signals

C) Supports and binds other tissues D) Enables movement

24. Which type of connective tissue has a gel-like matrix and is found in the ear?

A) Hyaline cartilage B) Elastic cartilage C) Fibrocartilage D) Adipose

tissue

25. Which membrane structure is responsible for selectively allowing substances to pass
through the cell membrane?

A) Phospholipid bilayer B) Nuclear envelope C) Endoplasmic reticulum D)

Ribosome