Lesson III.

Communication Processes, Principles and Ethics

Communication Models

Why is it important that you know the communication models? You will realize
their importance because they will help you understand how a communication
process works. It only by knows the flow of communication that you will be
able to make the communication process effective.

A model is often abstract. It is a representation of a real-world phenomenon

applied to different forms. The interplay of variables in the model is presented
graphically. Try to assess later what comprises the communication models
and what variables are common to each of them.

There are many conceptual models for human communications but in this
lesson, you will be exposed to only four: (1) Aristotle’s model; (2) Laswell’s
model; (3) Shannon- weaver’s model: and (4) David Berlo’s model of
communication.

ARISTOLE’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

Classical rhetoric dates back to ancient Greece during the time of Plato,
Aristotle, and the Greek Sophists who were great rhetoricians. Effective public
speaking was an important consideration in the study of communication. They
were good argumentation and debate and speech was characterized by
repartee.

Aristotle emphasized that there are three variables in the communication

process: speaker, speech, and audience as illustrated in the communication
flow below:

Note that the speaker variable here is very important. Without the speaker,
there will be no speech to be produced. Depending on the profile of the
audience, the speaker adjusts his/her speech. Some considerations for the
audience demographics are age, sex, background, culture, race, religion,
gender, social and economic status, and political orientation or inclination,
among others. Even beliefs, views and attitudes also play an important role
when talking about audience consideration since oftentimes; the audience
brings these with them when they decode a message in any given situation.
LASWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

In 1948, Harold Dwight Laswell described communication as being

focused on the following Ws: Who says What in Which channel to Whom
and with What effect as seen in the model below:

The whole process of communication begins with the communication begins

with the communicator (who) sending out a message (what) using a medium
(in which channel) for a receiver (to whom) experiencing an effect (with what
effect) afterwards. The process may be analyzed through the content sent,
the medium used, as well as the effect on the recipient of the message.

While this model is similar to Aristotle’s in the sense that both are linear and
have the same components, Laswell’s also differs in that there are five
variables involved, with the addition of two: medium and effect.

SHANNON-WEAVER’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver’s model of
communication was introduced in 1949, a year after Laswell’s, for Bell
Laboratories, originally, it was conceptualized for the functioning of the radio
and television serving as a model for technical communication and, later on,
adopted in the field of communication and, later on, adopted in the field of
communication. In this model, other components such as noise, reception,
destination, and feedback have been identified. Other terms such as
information source for the sender, transmitter for the encoder, decoder
(reception), and receiver (destination) were introduced.

Could you explain the communication flow in the preceding model? How
different is it from the first two models discussed earlier?
BERLO’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

David Berlo’s model conceptualized in 1960 is probably the most well-

known among the communication models. Initially, Berlo’s model was called
SMCR which stands for sender of the message, sent through a channel or
medium to a receiver. However, it was modified later on to include noise,
hence the acronym SMCRN.

The major variables involved in the communication process are (1) source, (2)
message, (3) channel, and (4) receiver.

The source being the originator of the message acts as the encoder. As such,
the encoder should practice communication skills such as listening, speaking,
reading and writing. His/Her attitude towards the audience or the subject as
well as his/her knowledge about the topic on hand likewise count along with
the social system that he/she is in which includes values, beliefs, and
practices, and culture.

The second variable which is message includes (1) content; (2) elements such
as the language used and gestures employed; (3) treatment or the manner
by which the message is transmitted; and (4) structure which refers to the
arrangement of parts or flow of the message. The code shows how the
message is sent: that is, the language (verbal code) used and the
accompanying gestures (non-verbal code) employed. Note that there should
be no mismatch between verbal and non-verbal codes.

The third variable is channel refers to the different senses: seeing, hearing,
smelling, tasting, and touching. Finally, the fourth variable is receiver, the one
who decodes the message. Note that the components of this last variable are
similar to those of the first since for communication to be effective, both the
source and the receiver should have good communication skills.

General Principles of Effective Communication

Since communication is a two-way process, it is important that you know the
principles to be observed to make it effective. For both oral and written
communication, you should be able to apply the following principles:

1. Know your purpose in communicating. Are you communicating

basically to inform, to entertain, or to persuade? While you may have more
than one purpose, there is still a more dominant objective or reason why you
communicate?

2. Know your audience. In both speaking and writing, you should know
your audience as it will dictate the speaking or writing style you are going to
employ. Consider the age, educational background, profession, culture, and
other salient features of your listeners or readers.

3. Know your topic. You communicate essentially because you want to

share something. In speaking situations, speakers are invited because they
have something to share. This also applies to writing. You write because you
wish that other people learn something from you. You may then utilize
several or multiple communication techniques to easily catch the attention of
the audience.

4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation. The

environment in which your speech or writing is to be delivered determines the
kind of language you will use.

5. Work on the feedback given to you. Once you receive comments from
the listeners/readers, work on them. Take kindly to criticisms. In the long run,
constructive criticisms will prove beneficial to you as you learn to address
them.

Principles of Effective Oral Communication

1. Be clear with your purpose. You should know by heart your objective in
communicating.

2. Be complete with the message you deliver. Make sure that your
claims are supported by facts and essential information.

3. Be concise. You do not need to be verbose or wordy with your statements.

Brevity in speech is a must.

4. Be natural with your delivery. Punctuate important words with the

appropriate gestures and movements. Exude a certain degree of confidence
even if you do not feel confident enough.

5. Be specific and timely with your feedback. Inputs are most helpful
when provided on time.
Principles of Effective Written Communication: The 7Cs

1. Be clear. Be clear about your message. Always be guided by your purpose

in communicating.

2. Be concise. Always stick to the point and do not beat or run around the
bush. Be brief by focusing on your main point.

3. Be concrete. Support your claims with enough facts. Your readers will
easily know if you are bluffing or deceiving them because there is nothing to
substantiate your claims.

4. Be correct. It is important that you observe grammatical correctness in

your writing. Always have time to revise and edit your work. Even simple
spelling errors may easily distract your readers.

5. Be coherent. Your writing becomes coherent only when you convey a

logical message. The ideas should be connected to each other and related to
the topic. Make sure that you observe a sound structure that will present a
smooth flow of your ideas. Use transitional or cohesive devices so that the
ideas cohere with one another.

6. Be complete. Include all necessary and relevant information so that the

audience will not be left wanting any information. Always place yourself in the
shoes of the audience, who is always interested to receive new information.

7. Be courteous. The tone of your writing should be friendly. Avoid any

overtone/undertone or insinuation to eliminate confusion and
misinterpretation.

Intercultural Communication

According to science, each person is genetically unique. Except for identical

twins, each person has a unique genetic composition. This uniqueness
becomes even more heightened because of individual experiences. Humans
are formed by forces other than genetics. Family background, religious
affiliations, educational achievements, socio-cultural forces, economic
conditions, emotional states, and other factors shape human identities.
Because of this, no two people can ever be exactly the same.

This situation – the diversity of people and cultures – impacts communication.

People interacting with those coming from unfamiliar cultures may have
difficulties in communication. Most people tend to conclude that
miscommunication results from a speaker’s lack of proficiency in language.
What is not realized in fact that with even with excellent language skills,
people may still experience miscommunication.
How then do we approach intercultural communication? The following reading
text talks intercultural communication. Before reading the text, look up the
meanings of the following words and phrases that are used in the selection.

- Take for granted - Cultural overtones

- Cultural biases - Durable bond
- Domestic workforce - Grossly disloyal
The Handshake

Country or Type of Handshake

Region
United States Firm Handshake
France Soft Handshake
Germany Firm Handshake, for men, traditionally, accompanied by
a slight bow
Japan Handshake with arm firmly extended, accompanied by a
bow
Middle East Handshake and free hand placed on the forearm of the
other person
Source: Varner, I., & Beamer, L. (2011). Intercultural communication in the
global workplace. 5th ed. USA:McGraw-Hill, p. 230.

Greetings

Like handshakes, greeting rituals also vary from culture to culture. Japanese
women bow differently from Japanese men. “Could you describe how the bow
is done by Japanese and the German as illustrated in the drawings?

The German bow that is termed as diener means a bow to and in recognition
of an authority. Thus, when a person bows, he/she is actually sending the
message at your service.

The Globalization Phenomenon

‘Globalization’ and global are terms we often encounter today. These terms
are associated with realities outside territories of nation-states. All countries
are engaged in globalization. Very few (if any) societies are unaffected by this
phenomenon. Because of this, we need to understand exactly what it is, and
more importantly, how it impacts communication.
The following reading text provides information about globalization. Before
reading the text, research on these terms:

- Reuters
- International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- Paris Agreement on Climate Change
- Oxfam

What is Globalization Anyway?

By Alex Gray (World Economic Forum, 2017)

How Globalization Works?

(1) In simple terms, globalization is the process by which people and goods
move easily across borders. Principally, it’s an economic concept – the
integration of markets, trade and investments with few barriers to slow the
flow of products and services between nations. There is also a cultural
element, as ideas and traditions are traded and assimilated.
(2) Globalization has brought many benefits to many people. But not to
everyone.

Functions of nonverbal communication

1. Complementing
Nonverbal communication can be used to complement verbal communication.
What you say with words can be reinforced with nonverbal communication.
For example:
 Saying, “Get out!” while pointing at the door.
 Saying “Yes” while nodding head.
 Saying, “Please help me!” while folding hands.
If we remove the nonverbal aspects from the above messages, they may
weaken. You’re more likely to believe that someone needs help when they
fold their hands.
2. Substituting
Sometimes nonverbal communication can be used to replace words. Some
messages typically communicated using words can be transmitted solely via
nonverbal signals.
For example:
 Winking at your crush instead of saying, “I like you.”
 Nodding head without saying “Yes”.
 Putting your index finger on your mouth instead of saying, “Keep
quiet!”
3. Accenting
Accenting is highlighting or emphasizing a part of the verbal message. This is
usually done by changing how you say a word compared to other words in a
sentence.
For example:
 Saying, “I LOVE it!” with a louder “love” shows that you genuinely love
it.
  Saying “That’s brilliant!” in a sarcastic tone referring to something that
isn’t brilliant.
 Using air quotes to emphasize part of the message you don’t like or
disagree with.
4. Contradicting
Nonverbal signals can sometimes contradict verbal communication. Since
we’re likely to believe a spoken message when nonverbal signals complement
it, the contradictory nonverbal message gives us mixed signals.
This can lead to ambiguity and confusion. We tend to rely more on nonverbal
signals to figure out the real meaning in these situations.2
For example:
 Saying “I’m okay” in an angry, passive-aggressive tone.
 Saying, “The presentation was fascinating” while yawning.
 Saying, “I’m confident this plan will work,” while crossing arms and
looking down.
5. Regulating
Nonverbal communication is used to regulate the flow of communication. The
receiver can control the utterances of the sender.
For example:
 Leaning forward to communicate interest and encourage the speaker
to keep talking.
 Checking time or looking at the exit to communicate you want to leave
the conversation.
 Nodding head quickly while the other person speaks, signaling them to
hurry up or finish.
6. Substituting
Its function is to replace the verbal message of the speaker. It is used to use
non-verbal equivalent the message.