LI –ion Cell Formats

Coin Pouch Cell

The active cell elements are circular and normally the same size as the coin cells. However,
the case of the cell is a circular pouch. Thus giving the simplicity of the coin cell for making
the active discs of material and the simplicity of a pouch cell in terms of sealing the elements
into a shell.

Cylindrical Cells

The layers of the cell are wound in a spiral. Normally these cells have the lower case as the
negative terminal and the top centre as the positive terminal.

However, a number of larger cylindrical cells have both +ve and -ve terminals on the top
surface.

The cylindrical format limits the packing density to at best hexagonal close pack.

Pouch Cells

They look like an aluminium jiffy bag with +ve and -ve terminals protruding from the edge.

They need to be supported mechanically and need a controlled pressure applied to the surface
to deliver the power and energy over their lifetime.

A module will be required that can mechanically support the cells. This needs to maintain the
required pressure, support electrical interconnections and manage the venting / failure of the
cells in a controlled manner.

A strong thermal interface to the cell is difficult to design.

Prismatic Cells

Prismatic cells are lithium-ion battery cells characterized by their flat, rectangular design.
They are typically encased in aluminum or steel, providing a sturdy and durable structure.
This design contrasts with cylindrical and pouch cells, which offers a unique set of benefits
for EV applications.

Cylindrical cells are shaped like small cylinders and are known for their mechanical stability
and ease of manufacture. Pouch cells, which are lightweight and flexible, are encased in a
soft polymer. While cylindrical cells are robust and pouch cells are versatile, prismatic cells
for EV combine the best of both worlds, offering space efficiency, high energy density, and
durability
Chemistry of Li-ion Batteries

The heart of a Li-ion battery lies in its electrochemical reactions. Here's a simplified
breakdown:

Key Components:

 Anode (Negative Electrode): Typically made of graphite, lithium titanate, or

silicon.
 Cathode (Positive Electrode): Commonly made of lithium cobalt oxide (LCO),
lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), or
lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA).
 Electrolyte: A liquid or solid material that allows the movement of lithium ions
(Li+).
 Separator: A porous membrane that physically separates the anode and cathode
while allowing the passage of lithium ions.

Working Principle:

1. Charging:
o An external power source (charger) applies an electrical current.
o Lithium ions (Li+) are extracted from the cathode and intercalate (insert
themselves) into the anode.
o Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit,
powering the device.
2. Discharging:
o The reverse process occurs.
o Lithium ions (Li+) de-intercalate from the anode and move back to the
cathode.
o Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the internal circuit of the
device, providing power.

Key Chemical Reactions (Simplified):

 Charging:
o Anode: Li+ + e- → Li (lithium ions gain electrons and become lithium atoms)
o Cathode: LiCoO2 → Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe- (lithium ions are released from
the cathode)
 Discharging:
o Anode: Li → Li+ + e- (lithium atoms lose electrons and become lithium ions)
o Cathode: Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe- → LiCoO2 (lithium ions re-enter the
cathode)
 .

Liion Battery Chemistry Diagram

This continuous movement of lithium ions and electrons between the anode and cathode is
what enables Li-ion batteries to store and release electrical energy

Safe Operating Area (SOA) of Li-ion Batteries

The Safe Operating Area (SOA) of a Li-ion battery defines the range of operating conditions
(voltage, current, and temperature) within which the battery can operate safely without
degradation or risk of failure. Exceeding the SOA can lead to:

 Thermal runaway: A chain reaction of overheating that can cause fire or explosion.
 Capacity fade: A gradual loss of battery capacity over time.
 Increased internal resistance: Leading to reduced performance and efficiency.

Key Parameters of SOA:

1. Voltage:
o Overvoltage: Exceeding the maximum voltage limit can cause plating of
lithium metal on the anode, leading to irreversible damage.
o Undervoltage: Discharging below the minimum voltage can damage the
cathode and cause capacity loss.
2. Current:
o Overcurrent: Excessive current draw can lead to rapid heating and potential
thermal runaway.
o Overcharge/Overdischarge Current: High currents during charging or
discharging can accelerate aging and reduce battery life.
3. Temperature:
o High Temperature: Operating at high temperatures can accelerate aging
reactions and increase the risk of thermal runaway.
o Low Temperature: Low temperatures can reduce battery capacity and power
output.
Importance of SOA:

 Ensures Battery Safety: Prevents catastrophic failures like thermal runaway.

 Maximizes Battery Life: Operating within the SOA helps to prolong the battery's
lifespan and performance.
 Optimizes Performance: Ensures that the battery delivers optimal performance and
efficiency.

Efficiency of Li-ion Batteries

The efficiency of a Li-ion battery is typically measured in terms of its round-trip efficiency.
This represents the ratio of the energy output to the energy input during a complete charge-
discharge cycle.

Key Factors Influencing Efficiency:

 Internal Resistance: Higher internal resistance leads to greater energy losses as heat
during charging and discharging.
 Temperature: Extreme temperatures (both high and low) can reduce efficiency.
 State of Charge (SOC): Efficiency can vary slightly depending on the SOC.
 Charge/Discharge Rate: High charge/discharge rates can increase internal resistance
and reduce efficiency.
 Aging: As the battery ages, its internal resistance increases, leading to lower
efficiency.

Typical Round-Trip Efficiencies:

Li-ion batteries generally exhibit high round-trip efficiencies, typically ranging from 80% to
90%. This means that for every 100 units of energy put into the battery during charging, 80-
90 units can be effectively used during discharge.

Improving Efficiency:

 Advanced Materials: Research and development of new materials for electrodes and
electrolytes can help reduce internal resistance and improve efficiency.
 Thermal Management: Effective thermal management systems can maintain optimal
operating temperatures, improving efficiency and safety.
 Optimized Charging/Discharging Protocols: Implementing smart charging and
discharging strategies can minimize energy losses.

Importance of Efficiency:
High efficiency is crucial for maximizing the utilization of energy stored in Li-ion batteries,
especially in applications where energy conservation is critical, such as electric vehicles and
grid-scale energy storage.

By continuously improving the efficiency of Li-ion batteries, we can enhance their overall

performance and contribute to a more sustainable energy future.

Aging of Li-ion Batteries

Li-ion batteries, despite their remarkable performance, undergo a gradual degradation process
known as "aging." This leads to a decline in their performance over time, impacting their
capacity, power output, and lifespan.

Two Primary Types of Aging:

1. Calendar Aging: This refers to the degradation that occurs even when the battery is
not actively being used (i.e., simply stored). Factors contributing to calendar aging
include:
o Self-discharge: A slow, continuous loss of charge due to internal chemical
reactions.
o Temperature: High temperatures accelerate aging reactions within the
battery.
o State of Charge (SOC): Storing the battery at a fully charged or fully
discharged state can accelerate aging.
2. Cycle Aging: This type of aging occurs due to the repeated charging and discharging
cycles. Key mechanisms include:
o Solid-Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Layer Growth: A layer forms on the
anode surface, consuming lithium ions and increasing internal resistance.
o Loss of Active Material: Active materials in the electrodes can degrade or
dissolve, reducing capacity.
o Electrolyte Degradation: The electrolyte can decompose over time, leading
to increased impedance and reduced performance.

Impact of Aging:

 Reduced Capacity: The battery can hold less charge over time, leading to shorter
usage times between charges.
 Increased Internal Resistance: This leads to slower charging and discharging times,
as well as reduced power output.
 Increased Self-Discharge: The battery loses charge faster when not in use.
 Safety Concerns: In extreme cases, aging can lead to increased safety risks, such as
thermal runaway.
Mitigating Aging Effects:

 Optimal Storage Conditions: Store batteries at moderate temperatures and moderate

SOC levels.
 Avoid Extreme Temperatures: Minimize exposure to high or low temperatures
during use and storage.
 Moderate Charging/Discharging Rates: Avoid excessively fast charging or
discharging.
 Regular Maintenance: Perform regular checks and calibrations to maintain optimal
performance

CHARACTERISTICS

State of Charge (SOC) Characteristics of Li-ion Batteries

Definition:

 SOC represents the remaining available capacity of the battery, expressed as a

percentage of its maximum capacity.
 Essentially, it indicates how much charge is left in the battery.

Key Characteristics:

 Range: Typically ranges from 0% (fully discharged) to 100% (fully charged).

 Dynamic Nature: SOC is constantly changing as the battery is used (discharged) or
recharged.
 Non-Linearity: The relationship between SOC and battery voltage is not linear. This
means that the voltage change per unit of SOC can vary depending on the current
SOC level.
 Temperature Dependence: Temperature significantly influences the voltage-SOC
relationship. Higher temperatures generally result in a lower voltage for a given SOC.
 Aging Effects: Aging of the battery can affect the voltage-SOC curve, making it more
difficult to accurately estimate SOC.
 Measurement Challenges:
o SOC is an internal state of the battery and cannot be directly measured.
o Accurate estimation requires sophisticated algorithms and techniques.

Methods for SOC Estimation:

 Coulomb Counting: Integrating measured current over time to estimate the total charge
consumed or delivered.
 Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) Method: Measuring the battery voltage after a resting period
to estimate SOC.
 Kalman Filtering: A sophisticated algorithm that combines measurements from multiple
sensors (voltage, current, temperature) to estimate SOC.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Techniques: Utilizing machine learning algorithms to learn
complex relationships between battery parameters and SOC.
Challenges in SOC Estimation:

 Accuracy: Achieving high accuracy in SOC estimation can be challenging due to

factors like aging, temperature variations, and non-linear behavior.
 Computational Complexity: Some estimation methods can be computationally
intensive, especially for real-time applications

Depth of Discharge (DOD) Characteristics of Li-ion Batteries

Depth of discharge (DOD) is a crucial parameter for understanding and managing Li-ion
batteries. It represents the percentage of the battery's total capacity that has been discharged.

Key Characteristics of DOD:

1. Impact on Cycle Life:

o High DOD: Frequent deep discharges (e.g., discharging the battery
completely) significantly accelerate aging and reduce the overall cycle life of
the battery.
o Moderate DOD: Maintaining a moderate DOD range (e.g., 20-80%)
generally leads to longer battery life.
o Shallow Cycles: Frequent shallow discharges (e.g., only using a small portion
of the battery's capacity) can also contribute to premature aging, although to a
lesser extent than deep cycles.
2. Effect on Performance:
o High DOD: Can lead to a temporary decrease in available power and an
increase in internal resistance.
o Low DOD: May not fully utilize the battery's capacity, potentially leading to
underutilization of the energy storage system.
3. Battery Chemistry Dependence:
o Lithium-ion chemistries: Exhibit varying sensitivities to DOD. Some
chemistries (like LFP) can tolerate deeper discharges better than others (like
LCO).
4. Application-Specific Considerations:
o Electric Vehicles: Balancing range requirements with the need to preserve
battery life often involves optimizing DOD strategies.
o Portable Electronics: Users may prioritize convenience over maximizing
battery life, leading to frequent deep discharges.
o Grid-Scale Energy Storage: DOD management is critical for maximizing
energy storage capacity and ensuring long-term system reliability
SOC (State of Charge) refers to the current charge level of a battery, expressed as a
percentage of its total capacity. In simpler terms, it is a measure of how much energy is left in
the battery relative to its full capacity. SOC is an important parameter in battery management
systems (BMS) for managing energy storage, charge/discharge cycles, and ensuring the
longevity and efficiency of the battery.

Key Concepts of SOC:

1. Percentage of Remaining Charge:

o 100% SOC means the battery is fully charged and at its maximum capacity.
o 0% SOC means the battery is completely discharged and has no usable energy
left.

For example, if a battery has a total capacity of 100 Ah (amp-hours) and has 50 Ah of
charge remaining, the SOC would be 50%.

2. Calculation of SOC: SOC is not always straightforward to measure directly, as it

involves tracking the energy input/output and various parameters of the battery (e.g.,
voltage, current, temperature, and internal resistance). There are several methods to
estimate SOC:
o Voltage-based estimation: A commonly used method where the voltage of
the battery is measured, and a relationship is established between the voltage
and SOC. However, this is less accurate, especially for chemistries like
lithium-ion, which have relatively flat discharge curves.
o Coulomb Counting (current integration): In this method, the SOC is
calculated by integrating the charge (current) flowing in and out of the battery
over time. This method is more accurate but requires precise current
measurements and can drift over time due to inaccuracies in measurement or
loss of calibration.
o Impedance Spectroscopy: This method estimates SOC by analyzing the
battery’s internal impedance (resistance) and how it changes with
charge/discharge cycles.
o Model-based methods: These methods use complex models to predict SOC
based on inputs like voltage, current, temperature, and other characteristics.
3. Importance of SOC in Battery Management:
o Energy Management: SOC is used to optimize the performance of a battery
in various applications like electric vehicles (EVs), uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS), and renewable energy systems. By knowing the SOC, systems
can determine how much energy is available for use, when to recharge, and
how much time the system has before a recharge is needed.
o Battery Life Optimization: Properly managing the SOC is essential for
maximizing battery life. Both overcharging and deep discharging (high DoD)
can shorten the lifespan of a battery. Keeping the SOC within optimal limits
(e.g., 20-80% for lithium-ion batteries) can help ensure longer service life.
o Safety: For many types of batteries, especially lithium-ion, maintaining the
correct SOC is critical to prevent overcharging or deep discharge, both of
which can lead to dangerous situations such as thermal runaway, fires, or
damage to the battery.
o .
4. SOC in Applications:
 o Electric Vehicles (EVs): EVs use SOC to estimate the remaining range or
driving distance before needing a recharge. Accurate SOC is crucial for users
to plan their trips and charging cycles.
o Renewable Energy Systems: In solar energy systems with batteries, SOC
helps in understanding how much energy is available from the battery and how
much can be used before needing recharging from the grid or solar panels.
o Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): UPS systems rely on SOC to ensure
they have enough charge to provide backup power during an outage.

SOC Estimation Challenges:

 Voltage Fluctuations: As a battery discharges, its voltage changes, but not in a linear
way across different chemistries. This makes it hard to estimate SOC accurately with
voltage alone.
 Temperature Effects: Temperature can significantly affect the battery's voltage and
internal resistance, which complicates SOC estimation.
 State of Health (SOH): The health of the battery can impact how accurately the SOC
is estimated. As batteries degrade over time, their voltage and current characteristics
change, which may require recalibration of SOC estimation techniques.

BALANCING IN BATTERIES

Active and passive balancing are two different methods used to manage the charge
distribution across individual cells in a battery pack, ensuring that each cell operates within
its optimal voltage range. These techniques are commonly used in Battery Management
Systems (BMS), particularly for large battery packs, such as those found in electric vehicles
(EVs), solar energy storage systems, and UPS (uninterruptible power supplies).

Passive Balancing

How It Works:

 Passive balancing works by dissipating excess energy from higher-voltage cells in the form of
heat to bring all cells in the battery pack to an equal charge level.
 Typically, this is done through resistor-based discharge. If a cell is charged more than the
others, the system will discharge that cell using a resistor, converting the excess energy into
heat.

Key Characteristics of Passive Balancing:

 Discharge Excess Energy: The balancing system essentially wastes excess energy by turning
it into heat. The resistors are used to bleed off energy from the "stronger" cells.
 Simplicity and Cost: Passive balancing is simpler to design and more cost-effective, making it
a popular choice for less complex systems.
 Less Efficiency: Since energy is dissipated as heat, passive balancing is less energy-efficient.
It essentially wastes power, which can be a significant drawback for large battery systems.
  Slow Process: Passive balancing is typically slower than active balancing, as it relies on small
adjustments made by dissipating energy.

Pros of Passive Balancing:

 Simple and Cost-Effective: The design is straightforward and inexpensive.

 Fewer Components: Fewer electronic components are required.
 Widely Used: Common in lower-cost applications like consumer electronics and lower-end
electric vehicles.

Cons of Passive Balancing:

 Energy Waste: Energy is wasted in the form of heat, leading to lower overall efficiency.
 Limited for Larger Systems: For large battery packs, such as those in EVs, passive balancing
becomes less effective and more wasteful.

Active Balancing

How It Works:

 Active balancing works by redistributing energy from higher-voltage cells to lower-voltage

cells, instead of dissipating it as heat.
 In this process, energy from more charged cells is transferred to cells that are undercharged,
ensuring that all cells are charged more evenly.

Key Characteristics of Active Balancing:

 Energy Redistribution: The goal is to balance the charge across all cells without wasting
energy. The system uses various techniques (e.g., DC-DC converters, inductors, capacitors,
etc.) to move energy between cells.
 Higher Efficiency: Because active balancing doesn't waste energy as heat, it is more energy-
efficient than passive balancing.
 More Complex: Active balancing requires more advanced circuitry, like DC-DC converters,
capacitors, or inductive elements, which make the system more complex and costly to
implement.
 Faster Balancing: Active balancing can typically balance cells faster because it directly moves
energy between cells instead of slowly discharging the excess from higher cells.

Pros of Active Balancing:

 Energy-Efficient: Since energy is not wasted as heat, active balancing is more energy-
efficient, which is crucial in large battery systems.
 Improved Battery Life: By keeping the cells balanced, the battery operates more efficiently,
which can improve the overall lifespan of the battery pack.
 Faster Process: Active balancing can quickly redistribute energy and keep the cells more
consistently balanced.
Cons of Active Balancing:

 Higher Cost: Active balancing systems are more complex and require more advanced
components, making them more expensive.
 More Complex Design: The design and implementation are more intricate, requiring
additional hardware like DC-DC converters or other energy transfer mechanisms.
 Potential for Reliability Issues: The increased complexity can lead to potential failures or
reliability issues if not designed properly.

Comparison Between Active and Passive Balancing

Feature Passive Balancing Active Balancing

Discharges excess energy as heat

Method Redistributes energy between cells
via resistors

Efficiency Low (energy is wasted as heat) High (energy is conserved by redistributing)

Higher (complex design and more

Cost Lower (simple design)
components)

Speed Slower (gradual balancing) Faster (efficient energy transfer)

Complexity Simple (fewer components) Complex (requires advanced components)

System Size Best for smaller battery packs or

Best for large, high-performance systems
Suitability low-end systems

Significant (energy is wasted as

Heat Generation Negligible (no waste heat)
heat)

Consumer electronics, low-cost Electric vehicles, renewable energy storage,

Use Cases
applications high-end applications
 OTHER BATTERIES

NCM batteries

NCM batteries, short for Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide batteries, are a popular
type of lithium-ion battery widely used in various applications, particularly in electric
vehicles (EVs).

Composition:

 The cathode of an NCM battery is composed of a mixture of nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co),
and manganese (Mn) oxides.
 The specific ratio of these elements varies depending on the desired characteristics.
Common NCM chemistries include:
o NCM 111: Equal proportions of nickel, cobalt, and manganese.
o NCM 811: Higher nickel content (80% Ni, 10% Co, 10% Mn) for higher
energy density.
o NCM 622: Another common composition with a balanced ratio of nickel,
cobalt, and manganese.

Characteristics:

 High Energy Density: NCM batteries offer a good balance between energy density,
power output, and stability.
 Long Cycle Life: They exhibit a relatively long cycle life, meaning they can
withstand many charge-discharge cycles before significant degradation.
 Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of applications, including EVs, power tools,
and consumer electronics.
 Cost-Effective: Generally more cost-effective than some other high-energy-density
chemistries like NCA.

Advantages:

 High Energy Density: Enables longer driving ranges in electric vehicles.

 Good Performance: Offers a good balance of energy density, power output, and
cycle life.
 Widely Available: NCM batteries are widely manufactured and readily available.

Disadvantages:

 Safety Concerns:
o Higher nickel content can increase the risk of thermal runaway at high
temperatures.
o Requires careful thermal management and safety mechanisms.
 Cobalt Dependence: Reliance on cobalt can raise concerns about supply chain issues,
ethical sourcing, and cost fluctuations.
Applications:

 Electric Vehicles: Widely used in various EV models, from passenger cars to buses.
 Power Tools: Powering cordless drills, saws, and other power tools.
 Consumer Electronics: Found in some laptops, drones, and other high-performance
devices.

NCA BATTERIES

NCA batteries, short for Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide batteries, are a high-
performance type of lithium-ion battery.

Composition:

 The cathode of an NCA battery is composed of a mixture of nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co),
and aluminum (Al) oxides.
 Typically, NCA batteries have a very high nickel content (around 80%), with smaller
amounts of cobalt and aluminum.

Characteristics:

 Very High Energy Density: NCA batteries boast the highest energy density among
common Li-ion chemistries, allowing for longer driving ranges in electric vehicles.
 High Power Output: They can deliver high power, making them suitable for high-
performance applications.
 Long Cycle Life: NCA batteries generally exhibit a longer cycle life compared to
some other high-energy-density chemistries.

Advantages:

 Excellent Energy Density: Enables longer driving ranges and higher energy storage
capacity.
 High Power Output: Suitable for applications requiring high power delivery, such as
high-performance electric vehicles.
 Good Cycle Life: Offers a relatively long lifespan, minimizing the need for frequent
battery replacements.

Disadvantages:

 Safety Concerns:
o The high nickel content can increase the risk of thermal runaway at high
temperatures.
o Requires robust thermal management and safety mechanisms.
 Cost: NCA batteries are generally more expensive to manufacture than some other
Li-ion chemistries due to the higher cost of materials.
 Environmental Concerns: Reliance on nickel and cobalt can raise concerns about
supply chain issues, ethical sourcing, and environmental impact.
Applications:

 High-Performance Electric Vehicles: Primarily used in high-performance EVs, such

as Tesla vehicles, where energy density and power output are critical.
 Aerospace Applications: NCA batteries are used in some aerospace applications due
to their high energy density and reliability.
 Consumer Electronics: Found in some high-end laptops and other devices requiring
high energy storage.