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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING :-

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including
public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines,
structural components of buildings, and railways.
Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. Civil engineering is
the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and
its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics
throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several
specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials
science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project
management, and other fields.

1.2 DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING-

The various disciplines of civil engineering are-
1. ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING

An art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town creating buildings and
environments to meet the various needs such as social, cultural, economic and recreational
etc. and to provide healthy conditions for both rich and poor to live, to work, and to play
or relax, thus bringing about the social and economic well-being for the majority of
mankind is known as town planning.

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OBJECTIVES OF TOWN PLANNING-

 To create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the people.
 To make right use of the land for the right purpose by zoning
 To ensure orderly development
 To avoid encroachment of one zone over the other.

2. BUILDING MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

All the building structures are composed of various types of materials. These materials are
either referred to as building materials or materials of construction.

A builder, perhaps an architect or engineer, or a contractor needs to become familiar totally

with these building materials.These are some of the most commonly used building materials -

1. Stones
2. Bricks
3. Cement
4. Sand
5. Mortar
6. Concrete
7. Timber
8. Metals
9. Glass
10. Ceramics
11. Miscellaneous Building Materials

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3. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

It focuses on the knowledge and skills required for the planning, coordination and
successful implementation of large Projects such as design and construction of structures
and buildings, ship structures, aircraft, dams, roads, and bridges etc. It is a fusion of
engineering and management.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:-

 This field is concerned with the study of the necessary methods and techniques of
environment protection as well as the availability of the basic life elements such as
water and air with a specific level of quality to protect the mankind health and
environment.
 This includes design and construction of water distribution networks, wastewater and
storm water collection systems, water treatment plants and wastewater treatment
for reuse in industrial and agricultural fields.
 Environmental engineering involves also the study of the different techniques of
controlling air, water and soil pollution as well as the proper disposal or recycle of
solid and hazardous wastes.

5. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:-

 This field is concerned with the study of the soil properties of the construction site and
its bearing capacity.
 Geotechnical engineering is concerned also with the suitable solutions for any problem
in the soil as well as the choice of the best and secured methods of design and
construction of the foundation of engineering structures.

6. HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING-

 This field covers the basic concepts of water science and its related theorems and
applications. This includes the methods of transporting water from sources to
distribution sites through channels and pipelines, water sources and storage system,
types of dams and their design methods.
 It involves also the study of seawater movements and shore protection.

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 Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water flowing in

an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean).

7. REMOTE SENSING ENGINEERING-

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of
an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from
satellite or aircraft).
Some specific uses of remotely sensed images of the Earth include:
 Large forest fires can be mapped from space, allowing rangers to see a much larger
area than from the ground.
 Tracking clouds to help predict the weather or watching erupting volcanoes, and help
watching for dust storms.
 Tracking the growth of a city and changes in farmland or forests over several
years or decades.
 Discovery and mapping of the rugged topography of the ocean floor (e.g., huge
mountain ranges, deep canyons, and the “magnetic striping” on the ocean floor).

8. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:-

 This discipline deals with the analysis and design of concrete and steel structures,
such as multi-story buildings, bridges, towers....etc. It deals also with the study of the
durability and resistibility of such structures for live loads, wind and earthquake.
 The study involves also the study of the properties of building materials according to the
international specifications.

9. SURVEYING:-

Surveying typically involves measurements of horizontal and vertical distances between

points. It also includes descriptions of the exact characteristics of the land structure and
surface.
A surveying engineer also works to:
 provide the proper design and development of infrastructure
 protect the surrounding natural environment
 maximize the efficiency of the proposed structures

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10. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:-

Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the planning,
design, operation, and maintenance of transportation systems to help build smart, safe,
and liveable communities.
Any system that moves people and goods from one place to another falls under the scope of
transportation engineering, which includes:
 Highways and roadways
 Railways
 Oil pipelines
 Public transport systems
 Traffic control systems
 Automated transport systems
 Space transport systems

1.3 Importance of Civil Engineering in Infrastructure Development of the Country:-

Civil Engineers play a major role in the infrastructure development of a country. All
structures constructed in the past exhibit the path of civilization and current infrastructures
development express the practices followed by civil engineers.
Infrastructure can be defined as activities that provide society with services necessary to
conduct daily life and to engage in productive activity and development in a country’s
economy.
In a country like India, the major infrastructural. Factors that are most significant in
accelerating the pace of economic development are energy, transport, irrigation, finance,
communications, education, and health.
The knowledge of basic areas of civil engineering can be of great use in providing the
infrastructural facilities where constructional aspects are involved for development of
regions.
 Good surface communication links such as tar or concrete rods.
 Provision of water supply distribution system i.e., construction of water storage
reservation or sumps, laying of underground pipes etc.
 Provision of a drainage system which may include construction of surface drains
as subsurface drains for the disposal of wastewater.
 Supply of electrical power for which construction of transmission line towers,
construction of electrical substations.

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 Providing inland communications lines, i.e., telephone lines etc.

 Construction of recreational places e.g., gardens, parks etc.
1.4 TYPES OF BUILDING AS PER NBC (NATIONAL BUILDING CODE):-

Any structure made for whatsoever purpose with any material, used for human habitation or
not which included foundation, plinth, walls, floor, roofs, chimney, plumbing, and building
services, Verandah, Balcony, and cornice, etc. is called a building. Buildings are classified
based on occupance and type of construction:

A. RESIDENTIAL
B. EDUCATIONAL
C. INSTITUTIONAL
D. ASSEMBLY
E. BUSINESS
F. MERCANTILE (included retail and wholeshale store)
G. INDUSTRIAL (low, moderate and high fire hazards)
H. STORAGE
I. HAZARDOUS

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1. Residential Buildings-

Any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential

purposes with or without cooking/dining. These are further classified as:
Group A-Residential
A1: Lodging or rooming houses.
A2: One or two-family private dwellings
A3: Dormitories
A4: Apartment houses
A5: Hotels (upto 4 star category)
A6: Hotels (Starred- five star and above)

(i) Lodging and rooming houses- These are buildings in which separate sleeping
accommodation with or without a dining facility but without a cooking
facility is provided. For instance, Inns, Clubs, Motels, and Guesthouses.
(ii) One or two-family private dwelling- A private dwelling which is occupied by
members of one or two-family. Maximum sleeping accommodation is provided
for 20 persons.
(iii) Dormitories- Any building in which group sleeping accommodation is provided
with or without dining facilities. e.g., School and College Dormitories, Hostels,
and Military Barracks.
(iv) Apartment Houses- Buildings in which living quarters are provided for three or
more families having independent cooking facilities and living independently of
each other. e.g., apartments, Mansions, and Chowls.
(v) Hotels -Buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided with or without
dining facilities for up to four-star categories (hotels).
(vi) Hotels (Starred) Normally five star and above by local authority.

2. Educational Buildings

Any building used for school, college, and other training institutions having a
minimum of 20 students.
(i) Schools up to Senior Secondary level Minimum students should be 20.
(ii) All others/training institute Minimum students should be 100.
3. Institutional Buildings-

Buildings that are used for medical or other treatment, care of persons suffering from
physical and mental illness, care of infants, for inmates etc are called institutional buildings

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(i) Hospital and Sanatoria -Any building which is used for the treatment of patients
e.g., hospitals, sanatoria, infirmaries, and nursing homes.
(ii) Custodial Institutions Any building used for custody and care of a person for
instance children, old age homes, orphanages, etc
(iii) Penal and mental institutions Any building which is used for housing persons
whose liberty is restricted e.g., jails, prisons, mental hospitals, etc.

4. Assembly Buildings

Any building in which a minimum of 50 persons gathers for recreational, amusement, social,
religious, patriotic purposes e.g., theatres, assembly halls, exhibition halls, museums,
estaurants, places of worship, etc.
These are classified into 7 types:
(i) The building having theatrical or motion pictures or any other stage having fixed
seats for over 1000 persons.
(ii) The building having theatrical or motion pictures or any other stage having fixed
seats for up to 1000 persons.
(iii) Buildings without a permanent stage having an accommodation for 300 or more
persons but no permanent seating arrangements.
(iv) All other structures including temporary structures designed for assembly of
peoples.
(v) Buildings having mixed occupancies of assembly and mercantile
(vi) Underground and elevated mass rapid transit system.

5. Business Buildings

Any buildings used for the transaction of business, professional establishments, service
facilities, etc. are termed as business buildings.
These are further divided into 5 types –
(i) Offices, banks, professional establishments etc.
(ii) Laboratories, clinics, research establishments and libraries etc.
(iii) IT parks, call centers etc.
(iv) Telephone exchange
(v) Broadcasting stations, TV stations and air traffic control towers.

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6. Mercantile Buildings
Any building which is used as a shop, store, market, etc. is known as mercantile buildings.
These are further classified as:
(i) Shops, stores, departmental stores, markets (covered area up to 500 sq. m ).
(ii) Shops, stores, departmental stores, markets (covered area more than 500 sq. m).
(iii) Underground shopping centres, storage and service facilities

7. Industrial Buildings

Any building in which products or materials are fabricated, assembled, manufactured, or

processed. For instance, assembly plants, industrial laboratories, power plants, pumping
stations, etc.
 Buildings for low hazard industry –

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured that have low

combustibility.

 Buildings for moderate hazard industry-

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured which will burn with
moderate rapidity.

 Buildings for high hazard industry-

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured which will burn with
extreme rapidity and results in hazardous situations.

8. STORAGE BUILDINGS
 Any building which is used for storage of goods, ware or merchandise, vehicles or
animals. e.g., warehouse, cold storage, garages, stables, etc.

9. HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS

 Buildings which are used for storage, handling, manufacture, or processing of highly
combustible or explosive material. For instance, manufacture of explosives and
fireworks, storage of highly flammable liquids, storage of LPG, rocket propellants,
etc.

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1.5 SELECTION OF SITE FOR BUILDINGS :-

1. The soil of site should have good bearing capacity. Hard strata should be available
at reasonable depth, around 1.2m to1.5m depth from ground level.
2. The site should be on elevated ground. It should have slope towards front street to
afford good facility of drainage.
3. Sites nearer to ponds ,pools of water, water logged areas must be avoided as they
remain in damp condition .
4. Sites near to high voltage power transmission lines are avoided.
5. Sites very nearer to big shopping complexes , markets, railway station ,airport are
avoided
6. The surrounding of site should be pleasing and calm.
7. The orientation of site should be such that it receives natural light and air in
plenty.
8. The location of site is such that the common facilities like school, transportation,
medical facilities etc are within reasonable range.
9. Sites in developed colonies should be preferred.
10. The layout of the colony should be approved by local authorities. This will help in
getting essential facilities like water , drainage ,electricity, telephone connection
etc easily.
1.6 COMPONENTS OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

Building component means any subsystem, subassembly, or other system designed for use in,
or as part of, a structure, which may include structural, electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and
fire protection systems and other systems affecting health and safety.
The basic function of a building is to provide structurally sound and environmentally
controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and contents.A building is combination of
various components. A Civil Engineer should have good knowledge of execution of each and
every component with respect to design layouts given by Architect.

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The following are the basic component parts of a residential building:-

1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Walls and columns
4. Sills, lintels and chejjas
5. Doors and windows
6. Floors
7. Roofs
8. Steps, stairs and lifts
9. Finishing work
10. Building services.
11. Parapet

The functions of these elements and the main requirement of them are discussed below-
1. Foundation:
Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts

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with digging the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the
building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and
requirements are:
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

2. Plinth:
 The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called
plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to
support wall above floor level. At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is provided. It is
usually 75 mm thick plain concrete course.
 The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of
dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at
least 150 mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage
system can be made.
3.Walls and Columns:-
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure vertically
downwards to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this wall performs the following functions
also:
(a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
(b) It provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

4. Sills, Lintels and Chejjas:-

 A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is placed over 50
mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course
is called as sill.
 Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window
openings to transfer the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame is
not stressed unduly. The width of lintels is equal to the width of wall while
thickness to be provided depends upon the opening size.

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 Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from
the rain. They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are
provided as chejjas. The projection of chejja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm.
Sometimes drops are also provided to chejjas to improve aesthetic look and also to
get additional protection from sun and rain.
5. Doors and Windows:-
 The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and to deny
the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The
size of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the
largest object likely to use the door.
 Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located at
a height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the
window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used to
determine the size and the number of windows is for every 30 sq. m of inside volume
there should be 1 sq. m window opening.
6. Floors:-
 Floors are the important component of a building. They give working/useful area for
the occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick bats, waste stones, gravel
and well compacted with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top. A lean concrete
of 1 : 4 : 8, 100 mm thick is laid. On this a damp proof course may be provided. Then
floor finishing is done as per the requirement of the owner.
 Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course
finished with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is mosaic or marble finishing. Other
floors are usually of R.C.C. finished as per the requirements of the owner.
7. Roof:-
 Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building. It
should be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof cover
easily. But they do not give provision for the construction of additional floor. Tiled
roof gives good thermal protection. Flat roofs give provision for additional floors.
Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants. Water tanks can be easily placed over the
flat roofs.

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8. Step, Stairs and Lifts:-

 Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are
required at doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is ideal size
for steps. In no case the size of two consecutive steps be different. Number of steps
required depends upon the difference in the levels of the ground and the floor.
 Stairs give access from floor to floor. They should consist of steps of uniform sizes.
In all public buildings lifts are to be provided for the conveniences of old and
disabled persons.
 In hostels G + 3 floors can be without lifts. Lift is to be located near the entrance.
Size of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available
with capacity 4 to 20 persons.
10. Finishing:-
 Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing
with plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles.
The function of finishing work is:
o Give protective cover
o Improve aesthetic view
o Rectify defective workmanship
o Finishing work for plinth consists in pointing while for floor it consists in
polishing.
 Building Services:-
 Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and
construction of cupboards and show cases constitute major building services.
 For storing water from municipal supply or from tanker a sump is built in the house
property near street. From the sump water is pumped to overhead tanks placed on or
above roof level so as to get water all the 24 hours. Plumbing work is made so as to
get water in kitchen, bathrooms, water closets, sinks and garden taps. For draining
rain water from roofs, down take pipes of at least 100 mm diameters should be used.
Proper slopes should be given to roof towards down take pipe. These pipes should be
fixed at 10 to 15 mm below the roof surface so that rain water is directed to the down
take pipe easily.

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 The sanitary fittings are to be connected to stone ware pipes with suitable traps and
chambers. Stone ware pipes are then connected to underground drainage of municipal
lines or to the septic tank.
 Many carpentry works are required for building service. They are in the form of
showcases, cupboards, racks etc.
 Electric supply is essential part of building services. The building should be
provided with sufficient points for supply of lights, fans and other electric gadgets.

11.Parapet:-
 The parapet is a minor wall around the edge of a roof, balcony, terrace, or stairway,
usually covering the roof’s perimeter. It protects the top and pre-built structures from
corrosion and degradation.

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 STEEL

Contents: Use of steel in buildings, types

Steel is an important alloy of iron and carbon. It is highly elastic, ductile, malleable and
weldable. Steel has high tensile and compressive strength and also stands wear and tear much
better.

USE OF STEEL IN BUILDING WORKS:

Steel can be used for various purposes in building works –

1. As structural material in trusses , beams, etc

2. As non-structural material for grills, doors, windows etc
3. In steel ,pipes , tanks etc
4. In sanitary and sewer fittings, rainwater goods etc
5. Corrugated sheets
6. As reinforcement for concrete

STEEL AS A REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE-

Although plain concrete is very strong in compression , it is very weak in tensile

strength .So, steel is being used in concrete reinforcement . It is equally strong in compression
and tension. The steel for reinforcing bars of other forms of round bars varying in diameter
from 5 to 40 mm , sometimes bars of other forms as mentioned above are also used.
Reinforced cement Concrete (RCC) is more rigid, highly durable and fire resistant. It posses
high tensile strength and it is economical in ultimate cost.

TYPES OF STEEL SECTION:

1.Mild Steel-

 It has a carbon content of about 0.23 -0.25% .

 For bars with a diameter of minimum 20mm, a higher value of this carbon content is
acceptable.
 Size ranges from 6mm up to 32mm (6,12,16,20,25 &32mm) depending on length and
diameter.
 The ultimate tensile strength is 250 N/mm^2 & young modulus is 2*10^5 N/mm^2 for
this material.
 Reinforcement in concrete was a typical usage for it window bars , grills & steel gates
are example of this type of materials.
2.HYSD bars-
 High yielding strength deformed bars
 Two types of HYSD bars termed as Fe-415 and Fe-500 tensile strength N/mm62.
 Have ribs on the surface make bond between concrete and steel greater.
 Bars come in diameter 8,10,12,16,20,22,25,28 & 32mm
 The bars are now being used as reinforcement instead of mild steel bar because their
higher strength in tensile & bond is stronger. These are called wind bars.

3.HIGH TENSILE BARS-

 Made with 0.8% carbon and .6% manganese as well as small amount of silicon,
sulphur, phosphorous to make them strong.
 The bars have tensile strength as high as 1400 to 1900 n/m^2 . The young modulus
steel is also same as that of mild steel.
 In prestressed concrete, reinforcing is provided by high tensile bars.

Fig- Types of steel

MARKET FORMS OF STEEL :

1.Angle Section-
Angle section may be of equal legs or unequal legs. Equal angles available in sizes
20mm*20mm*3mm to 200mm*200mm*25mm . The corresponding weights per meter lengths
are .95Kg to 73.60 kg. Unequal angles varies size forms 30mm*20mm*3mm to
200mm*150mm*18mm. Corresponding weights are from 1.10kg to 46.90 kg. Angle sections
are extremely used in structural steel work especially in the construction of steel roof trusses
and filler joist floors.

2.Channel Section –

Channel section consist of a web and two flanges. A channel section is designated by the
height of the web and width of flanges. It varies size from 100mm*45mm to 400mm*100mm .
The corresponding weight per meter length are respectively 5.80 kg to 49.40 kg. The ISI has
classified channel sections as junior channel, light channel and medium channel. It used as
structural members in steel framed structures.

3.Corrugated Sheets –

These are formed by passing steel sheets through grooves. These grooves bend and press steel
sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets. They are usually galvanized and known as
GI sheets. They are usually used in roof covering.

4.Expanded metal –

This form of steel is available in different shapes and sizes. It is prepared from sheets of mild
steel, which are machine cut and drawn out or expanded. These are widely used for
reinforcing concrete in foundation , roads, floors and bridges etc.

5. Flat bars –

These are available in suitable widths varying from 10mm to 400mm with thickness varying
from 3mm to 40mm. They are widely used in construction of steel grillwork for windows and
gates.
6. I sections –

These are known as rolled steel joists and beams. The two flanges connected through a web.
They are available sizes from 75mm*50mm at 6.10kg to 600mm *210mm at 99.50Kg. Beams
are suitable for columns are available in H sections 150mm*100mm to 600mm*250mm size.

7.Plates-
The plate sections of steel varies from 5 to50 mm thickness. They are mainly used for
purposes-
  To connect steel beams for extension of the length
 To serve as tension members of steel roof truss.
 To form a built up sections of steel.

8.Ribbed torsteel beams-

They are varies from 6 to 50 mm size. They are widely use in reinforcement in concrete
structure such as buildings , bridges, roads, irrigation works. These bars have ribs on their
surface and they are produced by controlling twisting.

Fig- Various c/s of steel

9. T-sections –
It consists of flanges and web. They are available from size 20mm*20mm*3mm to
150mm*150mm*10mm size. These sections are widely used as members of steel root truss
and to form built up sections.

Fig- Steel T-Section

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 MORTAR

Contents: Cement mortar: Constituents, Preparation

Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water. When water is
added to the dry mixture of binding material and the inert material, binding material develops
the property that binds not only the inert material but also the surrounding stones and bricks.

TYPES OF MORTAR

 CEMENT MORTAR
 LIME MORTAR
 SURKI MORTAR
 GAUGED MORTAR
 MUD MORTAR

CEMENT MORTAR

Cement mortar composite has wide application in masonry work, plastering,repairing

damaged concrete, patching or filling, rendering, floor leveling, andthe development of precast
products.The composite is composed of binder,sand, water, and fibers with a maximum.size of
fine-grain material of 2 mm. The binder may be cement, mineral with polymeric or chemical
admixtures .
CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT MORTAR:-

Cement mortar should be composed of cement, sand, and water, be well-mixed, and have the
proper consistency to obtain a dense, homogeneous lining that will adhere firmly to the
substances surface. Cement-mortar lining should be applied by spinning, mechanical
placement (line traveling), the pneumatic process (shotcrete or gunite), and hand troweling.

PREPARATION:-

 Selection of Raw Materials

 Proportion of cement mortar
 Mixing of ingredients
1.SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS:-

 The production of cement mortar can be done with a variety of materials, but it is
important to choose the correct ones for the job based on the construction's kind and
intended use.
 Mortar is created using Portland cement. For most construction tasks, ordinary
Portland cement is best. Lime is Sand must be of good quality and devoid of
contaminants like clay, dust, iron oxide, etc. Before combining it with cement, it needs
to be thoroughly cleaned. used to make composite mortars.
 Sand gives concrete strength and resistance to breaking and shrinkage. It gives mortars
bulk, which makes it affordable. It would be not only very expensive but also useless
to use simply cement.

2.PROPORTION OF CEMENT MORTAR:-

The Proportion means the relative quantity of different components to be mixed to make good
mortar, or simply the ratio between different materials.

Following are the proportions of cement mortar which is commonly recommended for
different works:

01. Masonry Construction:-

 For ordinary masonry work with brick/ stone as a structural unit. – 1:3 to 1:6
 Forreinforced brick work – 1:2 to 1:3.
 For all work in moist situations – 1:3
 For Architectural work – 1:6
 For load bearing structures – 1:3 or 1:4

02. Plaster Work:-

 For External Plaster and Ceiling Plaster – 1:4

 Internal Plaster (If sand is not fine i.e. Fineness Modulus> 3) – 1:5
 For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available) – 1:6

03. Flooring Work:

 Mortar ratio of 1:4 to 1:8 (cement: sand, water to be judgmental), for 5 to 7 times
thickness of verified tiles, should be given as bed between RCC floor and tiles.

04. Pointing Work:

 For pointing work proportion of cement mortar should be 1:1 to 1:3

3. MIXING OF INGREDIENTS:-

 Sand and cement are appropriately combined in a dry environment to create cement
mortar. After that, water is gradually added and combined using a shovel. Clay and
other pollutants should not be present in the water.Either manually (Hand Mixing) or
mechanically mixing cement mortar is an option (Machine Mixing). Hand mixing is
frequently employed in modest projects. When mortar is needed in big amounts and
must be used continuously, mechanical mixing is necessary.