Technology brief

Protected springs

Natural springs can provide water that is as clean as

groundwater, but without needing to pump it up to
the surface. However, this water can be easily polluted,
which is why springs need to be protected. Technology
can also make them more accessible to people.

WaterAid/Vlad Sokhin
The water source
Water quantity
A spring forms when the top level of water underground – the
water table – meets the ground surface.
The hydrogeology determines how much water flows. It may pour Springs are common in
out of a single hole (the ‘eye’) or seep along a line. mountainous areas and can
Groundwater levels vary less than surface water and are provide safe water to remote
much more constant than rainwater. Quantities may change rural communities
seasonally as the water table slowly rises and falls but they will
be fairly stable on a daily basis. The spring is fed by an aquifer
(groundwater stored underground), which is recharged by
rainfall. Springs near the top of a hill may only flow in the wetter
months, as the aquifer is small. Low flowrates can be enhanced by
improving the spring.
Springs are not always in a convenient location. Improving access
at the source or piping the water to communities (usually through
gravity water systems – see Gravity water systems technology
brief) increases the amount of water available for people.
Water quality
Groundwater is a source of clean water, although it sometimes
has a high mineral content. Near the surface, it can become
polluted. And once it reaches the surface, the pollution risk
increases. This is why spring protection is essential.

1/ Protected springs
 Steps to protect a spring The retaining wall and platform may appear
to be protecting the spring, but the really
The various technical aspects of a protected important part is behind the wall. When the
spring are designed to prevent contamination, hole is dug to expose the spring, the area is
improve access or both. Unlike boreholes or carefully excavated. The water is allowed to flow
gravity-flow water systems, springs can be to clear away the silt until the eye of the spring
improved in stages, with each element providing is found. The area around the eye is filled with
another contamination barrier or better access. small stones or gravel. This acts as a reservoir
and allows the water to flow easily into a slotted
The catchment area above the spring captures pipe. This pipe has lots of holes in it to let the
the rainwater that feeds the spring. Polluting water through but keep the stones out. On top
activities in this area must be limited, especially of this is a layer of clay or plastic sheeting. This
close to the spring. Building toilets and using is the main protection for the spring. It stops
agricultural chemicals should be banned. water from the surface reaching the eye of the
Livestock and people can be prevented from spring. A sheet of plastic or layer of sand might
going uphill from the spring by fencing off the be laid between the clay and gravel to stop the
area. Surface runoff from the wider catchment clay being washed down into the spring.
area needs to be diverted away from the area
above the spring with a ditch and/or a bund Most of the construction skills required
(raised mound). to protect and maintain a spring are
straightforward, but excavating the eye does
Trying to scoop up water as it seeps into a pool need care as this cannot be inspected after
is difficult and it will quickly get muddy. Digging the spring is protected, so experience and
into the hillside allows the water to be captured supervision are useful here.
and channelled into a pipe. A retaining wall will
hold back the soil and a platform will stop the
area becoming muddy. The pipe needs to be
set so it is slightly higher than water containers
used locally. Too low and the containers will
not fit, too high and water will be wasted. The
platform should drain excess water back to the
original stream.

2/ Protected springs
 Additional steps with the arms of the Y going along the trenches
and the base of the Y leading to the spout.
To further improve water quality, activities
around the spring should be limited. Bathing Adding a tank
and laundry should take place downstream. This
can be encouraged by building bathing shelters Another way to increase yields is to build a tank.
or laundry slabs close by – but downhill of the This fills up at night when water use is low. An
spring. Livestock watering should take place overflow is needed for when the tank is full.
even further downhill. The stored water is then used in daytime. Taps
are included to stop the water draining away,
If the spring is located close to the community, and people need to know these taps should be
access to it can be improved. Steps and a path turned off when not being used. Sometimes a
encourage people to approach the spring from tank with a porous rear wall is built instead of a
below, reducing the chance of contamination. retaining wall. Water then seeps in over a wide
This makes access easier, especially in the wetter area. This is called a spring box.
seasons, in the dark, and for people with limited
mobility. Treating water
Springs are often connected to gravity water The water should not need treating if protection
systems, where water is captured and piped is in place. However, this protection is only
downhill to a more convenient collection point as good as the weakest part of the system.
from a reservoir or stand posts. The collection of water is a likely point of
contamination. Hygiene education helps
If the flow rate is low (especially in the drier promote safe storage of water. If the quality
seasons), queues will form. This wastes people’s is poor in the wetter months or people in the
time and can reduce the amount of water used household have health issues (for example, HIV/
for hygiene practices. One way to increase the AIDS), then household water treatment may be
flow is to ensure all the spring water is captured needed.
when the eye is excavated. This is why this stage
of construction needs careful observation. If
the water is flowing from several eyes or seeps
out along a line, then a long trench might be
needed. This is filled with gravel as before and
slotted pipes are put in. These form a Y shape

 ey features of a
K
well-protected spring
source (WHO, 2020)

3/ Protected springs
 Issues to consider costs. The overall costs need to include the need
to protect the catchment area above the spring,
Physical issues so farmers may need to be compensated in
some way if their activities are restricted.
The building materials used to protect a spring
are commonly available. Mortar and stone or Social issues
concrete are needed to construct the retaining
Springs occur on a hillside, so access for people
wall and platform. Water-grade pipes should
with limited mobility may be difficult. The design
be used as they need to last a long time. If a
should consider accessibility – paths and steps
perforated pipe is not available, a series of saw
can help but piping water to a convenient
cuts along the pipe will work well. Taps are
location is better.
needed to manage water flows if a tank is used.
Gravel, clay and materials for a fence may be There can sometimes be land ownership issues
available locally. around springs, so this should be carefully
investigated and discussed with communities
Environmental issues before proceeding.
The presence of a spring is essential. They are Often springs can only supply a limited number
only found in certain areas, and have a fixed of people. They cannot be enlarged to meet the
position. The spring should be naturally clean needs of a growing population, although adding
and run all year round. The flow rate should extra storage may be useful to cope with peak
be measured during the dry season when at demands.
its lowest, to work out how many people can
be supplied – ideally, flow records over several Management issues
years should be used. Small springs are unlikely
Protected springs are normally suitable for small
to be regularly measured, so ask people living
communities rather than individual households
nearby how often it dries up, if at all. Community
or towns. In some locations, multiple springs
members will have valuable knowledge on how
can be connected to a gravity water system to
the flow of the nearby springs has changed over
provide more water. External support is needed
the years, including whether springs have dried
to ensure the technology is appropriate. The
up or been affected by natural disasters, like
operational cost can be low, but assistance
earthquakes and landslides.
may be needed for capital and replacement
As the spring water needs to be kept clean, costs, especially where springs are piped to
protected springs are generally not suitable for communities.
urban areas (unless water is piped from a large
If a tank is used, people need to be educated to
spring above the area) or where people live
keep it shut when not in use. This tank will need
above the spring (unless water treatment can be
cleaning occasionally.
provided).
The spring area does also need to be kept
The changing climate may make springs less
in good repair, so either community work or
reliable, so keeping flow records will be useful
paying a caretaker is required.
for monitoring the spring.
Regular sanitary inspections can ensure
Economic issues continued protection of the water, especially
Springs are one of the cheapest water sources looking at the area around the spring. This can
to develop, requiring only simple construction be used to identify maintenance activities.
and basic maintenance, with low operational

4/ Protected springs
 WaterAid/Timor Leste
Case study – Protected
springs in Timor-Leste

The mountainous geography of Timor-Leste

means many communities rely on water from
groundwater springs to meet their needs.
WaterAid works with communities and local
government authorities to protect these water
sources and build systems to bring them
closer to people’s houses. However, poor water

WaterAid/Timor Leste
quality due to microbiological contamination
is common where protection measures for
springs are not well maintained.
An example of this is the small mountainous
community of Toloa Boro, in Liquica district,
where 33 households rely on a gravity water
system fed from a spring, built in 2014. The contamination and encourage additional
community water management committee spring-protection measures, such as the
is responsible for maintaining the system. construction of drains and fencing off of the
However, it was identified that they needed springs.
support as routine water quality monitoring
of the water source indicated the presence In 2016, WaterAid and local partner NGO
of E.Coli bacterium at quantities greater than and municipal government staff tested the
2,400CFU/100ml. Discussions with community WSP approach with the community members
leaders indicated that the community was of Toloa Boro. This included water quality
focused on the provision of a large quantity testing, awareness raising in the community
of water and water quality was poorly about why water quality is important, hazard
understood, and they faced barriers accessing identification and control measures, supporting
materials for maintenance. the community to further protect the spring,
and monitoring the impact. The improvement
The Government of Timor-Leste has created in water quality can be seen in the graph
policy and guidance for community-led water below, with E.Coli significantly reduced after
safety plans (WSPs); however, these have implementing WSP in 2016.
not been widely implemented yet. These
plans can identify potential hazards to water

Top: Poorly maintained

spring in Toloa Boro, Liquica
3000
E Coli (CFU/100ml)

Above: Community
members improving the
2000 protection of their spring
Left: Toloa Boro
1000
microbiological water quality
results
0
2014 2014 2015 2016
Year of water quality test
5/ Protected springs
 Useful resources WaterAid is an international not-for-profit,
determined to make clean water, decent
For more information on protecting springs,
see: toilets and good hygiene normal for
everyone, everywhere within a generation.
Meuli C and Wehrle K (2001). Spring catchment
[online]. St. Gallen, Switzerland. SKAT. Available
at: http://skat.ch/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/
Handbook_Volume4.pdf.
For more information on sanitary inspection
forms, see:
World Health Organization (2020). Spring source
management advice sheet [online]. Available at:
https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
water-quality/safety-planning/spring-source/en/

Part of a series of WaterAid technology briefs available

at www.wateraid.org/uk/technology

WaterAid (2021). Technology brief: Appropriate

technologies for sustainable and inclusive water and
sanitation services. London. Available at: washmatters.
wateraid.org/publications/technology-resources

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6/ Protected springs