NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

OF CENTRAL PERU
HISTORY OF
MATERIALS SCIENCE

SUBJECT: Materials Technology TEACHER:

Msc. Job Pérez Canchanya STUDENT: Daniel M.
Carlos Pacheco SEMESTER: Fifth

HUANCAYO - PERU
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INDEX:

INDEX:....................................................................................................................................2
SUMMARY:........................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION:..............................................................................................................4
GENERAL OBJECTIVE:....................................................................................................5
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:...................................................................................................5
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:......................................................................................6
1. HISTORY:.............................................................................................................6
2. MATERIALS SCIENCE:.....................................................................................7
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF MATERIALS:......................................................11
4. CLASSIFICATION:............................................................................................13
4.1. METALS:........................................................................................................13
4. 2. CERAMICS:...........................................................................................................14
4. 3. POLYMERS:..........................................................................................................14
4. 4. COMPOSITE MATERIALS:................................................................................15
4. 5. SEMICONDUCTORS:...................................................................................15
CONCLUSIONS:...............................................................................................................16
LITERATURE:..................................................................................................................17
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUMMARY:
In recent times we are witnessing a drastic transformation of the
relationships between man and materials, which will have profound
repercussions (Montoliu, 2007).
Thanks to the great advances in the theoretical understanding of the
physical and biological structure of matter, as well as progress in
experimental characterization techniques, it is now possible to define
our needs in order to begin to investigate, atom by atom, the material
that will satisfy them.
The ultimate goal of Materials Science is to research, synthesize and
develop new substances according to desired properties for specific
purposes and applications.
To achieve this objective, it is necessary to study matter from its
most intrinsic level of cohesion, that is, the chemical bond, which, as
is known, are the forces that bind atoms together to form the
different phases or material structures (Montoliu, 2007).
It is interesting to note that the use that has always been made of the
different existing materials has been conditioned by their properties.
With Materials Science, things happen the other way around, we
obtain new compounds with very specific properties predetermined
according to the use we require of them.
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION:

Materials Science is defined as the study of the substances that make

up any product. This study has had a relevant participation in the
development of human civilization and our current lifestyle. That is
why its general study is important in an era of new technologies and
products (López, 2006).
Materials technology is constantly evolving in all fields of
application, which is why it is important that a project design
engineer has a solid knowledge of this subject within his training.
New materials such as polymers and ceramics are being developed in
several laboratories, which are displacing materials conventionally
used in industry, such as wood, glass and metals.
It is absolutely necessary for a manufacturing-oriented engineer to
study a material at a molecular level and not just limit himself to its
properties and applications; since the phenomena that affect a
material occur at an atomic level (López, 2006).
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:
4- Expand our knowledge about the history of materials science,
as well as learn some fundamentals about said science. Also to
know the importance of this science from the perspective of
civil engineering, and what impacts it has on it.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
4- Master the basic theoretical concepts of the subject of
materials science that comes into play in civil engineering.
4- Detail the different types of materials that this science
determines.
4- Know what the influence of this science has been throughout
history.
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:
1. HISTORY:
Materials are probably more deeply rooted in our culture than is commonly
believed. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, entertainment and
food production, practically all segments of our daily lives, are influenced to a
greater or lesser extent by materials (Callister and Rethwisch, 2016).
Historically, the development and progress of societies have been closely
linked to the capacities of their members to produce and manipulate materials
that meet their needs. In fact, the first civilizations have been named by the
level of development of their materials (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).
Early humans had access to a very limited number of materials, provided by
nature: stone, wood, clay, hides, etc. Over time, they discovered techniques to
produce materials that had superior properties to those of natural materials;
these new materials included ceramics and various metals (Callister and
Rethwisch, 2016).
Furthermore, they discovered that the properties of a material could be altered
by heat treatments and by the addition of other substances.
In this respect, the use of materials was entirely a selection process involving
the choice, from a certain, rather limited, set of materials, of the most suitable
for an application, based on its characteristics.
It is only relatively recently that the scientific community has come to
understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and
their properties. This knowledge, acquired over the last 100 years or so, has
largely enabled them to modify or adapt the characteristics of materials
(Callister and Rethwisch, 2016).
Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with quite
specialized characteristics to meet the needs of a modern and complex society,
including metals, plastics, glasses and fibers.
The development of many of the technologies that have increased the comfort
of our existence has been closely associated with the accessibility and
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

availability of appropriate materials.

Advancement in the understanding of a type of material is often the precursor
to the progression of a technology. For example, the evolution of the
automotive industry would not have been possible without the availability of
inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute.
Today's sophisticated electronic devices are based on components made from
materials called semiconductors.

2. MATERIALS SCIENCE:
Materials science deals with both the fundamental knowledge of different
materials and their manufacturing processes, as well as their applications
(Domínguez, 2014).
On the other hand, materials engineering is related to the applied knowledge of
materials, which enables their conversion into market products, and there is no
clear boundary that separates it from materials science.
Until a few decades ago, talking about materials of technological interest was
equivalent to talking about metals.
With the replacement of traditional ceramic, composite and polymeric
materials by new ones belonging to these same categories, metals have lost
part of their predominance, and as shown in Figure 1.1, this trend will continue
in the coming years (Domínguez, 2014).
In Figure 1.1 we can see how 10,000 years before Christ the relative
importance of metals (width on that axis) was minimal and only gold was
known, while that of polymers and ceramics was very important due to the use,
fundamentally, of skins (polymer) and stones (ceramic).
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FIGURE 01: Importance of materials.

SOURCE: Google Images

Likewise, we can see the enormous growth of metals, which reached a

maximum around 1950, before gradually losing relative importance until
today. On the other hand, polymers suffered a progressive decline until 1950,
but since then their relative importance has been increasing, first with the
appearance of polyesters and then with that of high-temperature polymers
(Domínguez, 2014).
On the other hand, composite materials are increasing their relative importance
with the appearance of composite ceramics. Finally, ceramics, which began to
be of great importance, reached a minimum, coinciding with the maximum for
metals, and then increased slowly, but with good future projections, due to the
continuous improvements achieved in their toughness.
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Another important feature, which is enabling evolution of the

materials, refers to the emergence of new synthesis and processing processes.
A significant example is powder metallurgy technology, which is one of those
that enables rapid solidification processes, allowing mixtures of materials
(metallic, composite and ceramic) with properties that are impossible to
achieve through traditional methods. Among the most recent examples are
nanotechnology and mechanical alloying techniques (Domínguez, 2014).
Therefore, there are two main paths leading to the synthesis of a new material,
obviously ruling out good luck or a timely mistake that lead to unexpected
results in some cases. One of them consists of trying to find new materials by
adding other elements that enter into their composition. The other path is based
on the use of new technologies applied to existing materials. Normally a
combination of both paths occurs.
However, the path does not end with the synthesis of the desired material, but
is actually the beginning of a long process of development and
characterization. Thus, it is necessary to characterize the material in multiple
aspects, such as: atomic structure, microstructure, mechanical and physical
properties, etc. Additional factors, such as reproducibility of properties,
absence of aging effects and developments of manufacturing processes, are no
less important. All of these factors require extensive research before the
product reaches full commercial development.
Typically, the emergence of a new material is due to the use of a new process
(e.g. rapid solidification) and/or the demand for new applications (as is the
case with superalloys for use at high temperatures). However, this is not
always the case, as is the case with shape memory alloys, which when they
were discovered had no immediate application, and some time had to pass until
they began to be applied in the sensor area. In the end, the factor that will
determine the degree of acceptance of the material and its future scope is the
economic one, which is usually linked to the material having an innovative use
(Domínguez, 2014).
The emergence of new materials should not mean neglecting the contribution
of traditional materials which, thanks to new developments and manufacturing
processes, have proven their adaptability and are irreplaceable by other "new"
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

materials. Furthermore, it must be taken into account that, in general, many of

the so-called new materials tend to be limited to restricted areas, because they
tend to be more expensive (Domínguez, 2014).
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF MATERIALS:
It is sometimes useful to divide the discipline of materials science and
engineering into two distinct domains: materials science and materials
engineering. Strictly speaking, materials science involves the investigation of
the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials.
In contrast, materials engineering involves, on the basis of these structure-
property correlations, the design or engineering of the structure of a material to
achieve a given set of properties. From a functional perspective, the role of
materials science is to develop or synthesize new materials, while materials
engineering seeks to create new products or systems that use existing materials
and/or develop techniques for processing materials. Most graduates of
materials programs are trained in both materials science and engineering
(Callister and Rethwisch, 2016).
At this point, structure is a confusing term that deserves some explanation.
Typically, the structure of a material refers to the arrangement of its internal
components. Subatomic structure considers the electrons within individual
atoms and their interactions with their nuclei. At the atomic level, structure
refers to the organization of atoms or molecules among themselves. The next
major structural domain, containing large groups of atoms packed together, is
called microscopic, meaning that the object can be observed using some type
of microscope. Finally, the structural elements that can be seen with the naked
eye are called macroscopic.
The notion of property requires an elaborate description, linked to the fact that,
in service, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that induce some type
of response. Thus, for example, a sample or specimen subjected to the action
of external forces may experience deformation, while a polished metal surface
reflects light. The property of a material is expressed in terms of the kind and
magnitude of response to a specific stimulus imposed. In general, property
definitions are usually independent of the shape and size of the material.
Virtually all relevant properties of solid materials can be grouped into six
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical and

chemical. For each of them there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of
provoking different responses.
Mechanical properties refer to deformation under an applied load or force;
examples include elastic modulus (stiffness), strength, and toughness. For
electrical properties such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the
stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented
in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties
demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field.
For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic radiation or light;
refractive index and reflectivity are representative optical properties (Callister
and Rethwisch, 2016).
Finally, chemical properties refer to the chemical reactivity of materials. The
chapters that follow discuss the properties found within each of these six
classifications. In addition to structure and properties, two other important
components are involved in materials science and engineering, namely
processing and performance. Regarding the relationships of these four
components, the structure of a material depends on how it is processed
(Callister and Rethwisch, 2016).
Furthermore, the performance of a material is a function of its properties.
Thus, the interrelationship between processing, structure, properties and
performance is as schematically represented in Figure 1.2. Throughout this
text, the relationships between these four components will be highlighted in
terms of design, production and use of materials.

FIGURE 1.2: The four components of the discipline of materials science and
engineering and their interrelationship.
SOURCE: Introduction to Materials Science

4. CLASSIFICATION:
In order to be able to gauge the importance of each material and deduce future
trends, it is essential to have knowledge of them, an issue that will be
addressed throughout this book. However, it is possible, based on general
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

knowledge, to classify existing materials based on their properties, which will

initially determine usage trends.
Traditionally, materials have been divided into two large groups: structural and
functional. However, the division is not perfectly defined, and there are many
cases in which structural materials must perform functional tasks and vice
versa.
4.1. METALS:
It should be considered that approximately 75% of the chemical
elements of the periodic table are metallic elements, which are
characterized by having low valence, that is, 1, 2 or at most 3 electrons
in their last energy shell. Also, a pure metal and an alloyed metal must
be distinguished. Pure metal such as aluminum, copper, tin, zinc,
magnesium, manganese, titanium, iron, antimony, gold, silver, platinum,
among others; and they are called pure metals because they represent the
majority in the chemical composition, and this majority is determined by
the application, so it could have a presence of 98% Copper and the
remaining 2% of other chemical elements that in this case are called
impurities, which by the way must be controlled because the higher their
percentage, the properties of the metal are moving away from the
theoretical or fundamental properties. The design of alloyed metals is
based on achieving unique properties that cannot be obtained with a
single metal. This is why copper can exist as bronze if combined with
tin, or brass can be obtained if combined with zinc. But metallurgy has
reached such high levels of specification that bronze alloys also exist for
very special applications.
4. 2. CERAMICS:
Ceramic materials are of inorganic and non-metallic composition
formed by the elements: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon and boron
joined by an ionic bond. Ceramics have relatively high melting points,
low thermal and electrical conductivity and are very brittle. Among its
most common applications in engineering are as insulators and
refractories in the metallurgical industry, coatings and parts in gas
turbine engines, and in the manufacture of containers for chemical
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

products (acids and bases) due to its high resistance to corrosion.

4. 3. POLYMERS:
Polymers are pure materials, generally known as long-chain
macromolecules (large molecules) from the polymerization process.
When polymers are mixed with some type of additive (they lose their
purity), they are technically called plastics or resins (although they are
generally classified as polymers). Currently, most polymers used in
industry are synthetic products such as plastic and nylon, although they
can be of natural origin such as rubber or wax. (muscle fiber is
considered a natural polymer). Plastics are a very diverse class of
materials (there are more than 15,000 of them), with a wide variety of
properties and forms of manufacture; as are their applications in most
industries, replacing materials such as paper, glass and wood; also in
scientific fields, such as in the manufacture of prostheses for parts of the
human body.
4. 4. COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
Although these are classified among polymers, composite materials
form a very distinct class of materials. Also called composites, they are
a macroscopic combination of metallic, polymeric or ceramic materials
that have an identifiable interface or contact surface (they are not
homogeneously fused). One of these materials is called the matrix
(usually the main or most abundant one) and the other is known as filler
or reinforcement. One of the most common composite materials is
reinforced plastic; where the matrix is a plastic and the reinforcement
can be a metal, ceramic or polymer in the form of particles, short fibers
or long continuous fibers.
4. 5. SEMICONDUCTORS:
In this era of electronic technology, semiconductors have become
indispensable in humanity's way of life. Developed in the environment
of space vehicles and intercontinental missiles under the need for small,
lightweight and low power consumption electronic devices.
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

A semiconductor material is one that has an electrical resistance

between 1 and 100 ohms/centimeter; they can be (relatively) pure
elements such as germanium and silicon or organic and inorganic
compounds such as some polymers. The most commonly used in the
electronics industry are pure elements, which when cooled from the
liquid state, their atoms are arranged in crystals covalently linked by
four valence electrons. In compounds the number of electrons can vary,
although it is almost always an even number.
The resistivity of elemental or compound semiconductor materials can
be intentionally changed by adding very small amounts of impurities to
the crystal. For comparison, a silicon considered pure by ordinary
standards has one impurity atom for every 5×10^8 silicon atoms. The
most common elements used to contaminate silicon are boron,
aluminum and phosphorus.

CONCLUSIONS:

- The study of materials science is important because it allows us to

determine the characteristics of the materials to be used and is
intrinsically linked to the importance of construction materials in
civil engineering.
- The history of materials science indicates that this field has been
constantly advancing, achieving success hand in hand with
technology. important discoveries.
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LITERATURE:

- Callister, W. and Rethwish, D. (2016). Materials Science and

Engineering, Editorial Reverté, S. A, Ninth Edition. Retrieved from:
https://www.reverte.com/media/reverte/files/book-attachment-
2717.pdf
- Dominguez, P. (2014), Introduction to Materials Science.
Recovered of:
http://portal.uned.es/Publicaciones/htdocs/pdf.jsp?articulo=0135149
CU01A02
- Lopez, S. (2006), Materials Science Course [Graduation Thesis].
San Carlos University of Guatemala. Guatemala City, Guatemala.
- Montoliu, F. (2007), Materials Science. Retrieved from:
file:///C:/Users/HP%7D/Downloads/70923-Text%20de%20l'article-
91263-1-10-20071025.pdf