languages

1. Prakrit
 What is Prakrit?
Prakrit was the language spoken by the common people in ancient India. It was less
formal than Sanskrit and easier to understand. It was used mainly in daily
conversations, stories, and some religious texts.
 Where was it used?
Prakrit was widely spoken during the Maurya and Gupta empires (around 300 BCE –
600 CE). It is found in the early Buddhist and Jain scriptures.
 Evolution into modern languages:
Over time, Prakrit evolved into several regional languages. For example, Marathi,
Gujarati, and many other Indian languages have roots in Prakrit.
2. Sanskrit
 What is Sanskrit?
Sanskrit is one of the oldest languages in the world and is considered the classical
language of India. It was used by scholars and religious figures for writing sacred
texts and philosophical works. It’s sometimes called the “language of the gods.”
 Where was it used?
Sanskrit was mainly used in religious and scholarly contexts. It is the language of
ancient Hindu scriptures, like the Vedas, Upanishads, and epics like the
Mahabharata and Ramayana. It was also used for scientific and philosophical
works.
 Influence:
Although it is no longer widely spoken, Sanskrit has influenced many modern Indian
languages like Hindi, Bengali, and Kannada. It is still studied for its cultural,
religious, and linguistic importance.
3. Farsee (Persian)
 What is Farsee (Persian)?
Persian, or Farsee, is a language that originated in ancient Persia (modern-day Iran). It
was brought to India by Persian rulers and traders and became important during the
medieval period (Roughly 476–1450, or 500–1500 AD).
 Where was it used?
Persian became the official court language during the Mughal Empire (around the
16th century). It was used for administration, literature, and poetry. Many famous
works of history, poetry, and philosophy were written in Persian during this time.
 Influence:
Persian left a lasting impact on the development of Urdu, a language widely spoken in
India and Pakistan. Persian words and phrases were adopted into Indian languages,
and it also influenced Indian art, culture, and literature.
 Philosophys:
1. Vedic Philosophy
 What is Vedic Philosophy?
Vedic philosophy comes from the Vedas, the oldest and most sacred texts of
Hinduism. It deals with questions about life, the universe, and our place in it. It is
based on the belief in the eternal cycle of life, death, and rebirth (known as samsara).
 Key Ideas:
o Atman: The soul or the true self of a person.
o Brahman: The ultimate reality or universal spirit that connects everything.
o Karma: The idea that actions have consequences, and good or bad actions will
determine future outcomes.
o Dharma: One's duty or righteousness, which people must follow according to
their role in society.
 Goal:
The ultimate goal in Vedic philosophy is to achieve Moksha (liberation) from the
cycle of rebirth by realizing the true nature of the self (Atman) and its connection to
Brahman.
2. Lokayat (Carvaka Philosophy)
 What is Lokayat (Carvaka)?
Lokayat, also called Carvaka philosophy, is a materialistic and skeptical school of
thought that rejected the Vedas and religious ideas like the soul, karma, and the
afterlife. It believed that only the material world exists, and anything beyond that (like
gods or heaven) cannot be proven.
 Key Ideas:
o Materialism: The belief that the physical world is the only reality, and there is
no spiritual world.
o Enjoyment of Life: Lokayat encourages people to live life for the present,
enjoying pleasures and avoiding suffering.
o Skepticism: It questions religious rituals, the existence of gods, and the idea
of an afterlife.
 Goal:
Since Lokayat does not believe in an afterlife, the goal is to live life fully, enjoying
worldly pleasures, as there is no life after death.
3. Buddhist Philosophy
 What is Buddhist Philosophy?
Buddhist philosophy is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived
 around 2,500 years ago. It focuses on understanding the nature of suffering and how
to overcome it through a disciplined life.
 Key Ideas:
o Four Noble Truths:
1. Suffering (Dukkha): Life is full of suffering.
2. Cause of Suffering: Suffering comes from desires and attachments.
3. End of Suffering: To end suffering, one must give up desires.
4. Path to End Suffering: Follow the Eightfold Path, which includes
right actions, right thinking, and right speech, among others.
o Nirvana: The state of liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
 Goal:
The goal of Buddhist philosophy is to reach Nirvana—a state of peace and freedom
from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth—by overcoming desires and living a moral,
mindful life.
4. Jaina Philosophy
 What is Jaina Philosophy?
Jainism is a religion and philosophy that teaches non-violence and self-discipline. It
focuses on freeing the soul from the cycle of birth and death (similar to Hinduism and
Buddhism) but emphasizes strict moral principles.
 Key Ideas:
o Ahimsa: The principle of non-violence toward all living beings, even the
smallest creatures.
o Anekantavada: The idea that truth is complex and can be seen from different
viewpoints. No single viewpoint is complete.
o Karma: In Jainism, karma is seen as a kind of physical matter that sticks to
the soul because of bad actions. To purify the soul, one must stop
accumulating karma through self-discipline.
 Goal:
The goal in Jaina philosophy is to achieve Moksha (liberation) by purifying the soul
through right actions, non-violence, and detachment from worldly desires.

Architecture

1. Vedic Period Architecture

  What is Vedic architecture?
The Vedic period (around 1500–500 BCE) was an early period in Indian history when
society was largely agrarian, and architecture was simple and functional. Buildings
were mostly made of materials like wood, bamboo, and clay, reflecting the practical
needs of the time.
 Key Features:
o Homes: People lived in huts made of wood and thatched roofs. These were
basic shelters built to protect from the elements.
o Altars and Temples: Temples in the Vedic period were very simple, often just
open spaces where religious rituals were performed. Vedic rituals, such as fire
sacrifices (Yajna), were performed on simple altars made of bricks.
o Use of Natural Resources: The buildings were built in harmony with nature,
using locally available materials. Temples were often open spaces to
accommodate large gatherings for religious ceremonies.

2. Buddhist Architecture
 What is Buddhist architecture?
Buddhist architecture developed as Buddhism spread across India and beyond,
beginning around the 3rd century BCE. It focuses on creating spaces for worship and
meditation, with structures designed to represent the teachings of the Buddha.
 Key Features:
o Stupas: These are large, dome-shaped structures that hold relics (sacred
objects) related to Buddha or other important Buddhist figures. The Great
Stupa at Sanchi is one of the most famous examples. The stupa represents the
enlightened mind of the Buddha and is often surrounded by pathways for
devotees to walk around while meditating.
o Viharas: Buddhist monasteries where monks lived and studied. These were
usually simple structures with individual rooms for monks and an open
courtyard for communal activities.
o Chaityas: These are prayer halls with a stupa at the end, used for meditation
and rituals. Ajanta Caves have some beautiful examples of Chaityas, with
elaborately carved pillars and ceilings.
o Rock-Cut Caves: Buddhist monks created intricate cave temples by carving
into hillsides, such as the caves at Ajanta and Ellora. These caves were used
as monasteries, temples, and places of learning, and they contain detailed
sculptures and paintings depicting the life of Buddha.

3. Jain Architecture
  What is Jain architecture?
Jain architecture focuses on creating temples and monuments that reflect the Jain
principles of non-violence, purity, and simplicity. Jain temples are known for their
incredible attention to detail, with finely carved stone and delicate designs.
 Key Features:
o Temples: Jain temples are often built from marble or sandstone and feature
intricate carvings on walls, pillars, and ceilings. The Dilwara Temples at
Mount Abu in Rajasthan are famous for their extraordinary marble work, with
every inch of the temple covered in detailed carvings.
o Pillars and Mandapas: Jain temples often have beautifully carved pillars and
open spaces called mandapas (pavilions) used for prayers and religious
ceremonies. The pillars are usually covered in detailed artwork, depicting
stories from Jain scriptures.
o Tirthankara Sculptures: Jain temples are filled with sculptures of the
Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers), who are revered in Jainism. These statues
are usually calm and serene, reflecting the peaceful nature of the religion.
o Temples in Hills: Many Jain temples are located in hills or mountains, like
Shatrunjaya at Palitana in Gujarat. These temple complexes are built on
mountain slopes and require pilgrims to climb up as an act of devotion.

4. Hindu Temple Architecture

 What is Hindu temple architecture?
Hindu temples are complex structures that serve as the homes of gods and goddesses.
They are designed to be a place where humans and deities can interact through rituals
and prayers. The architecture evolved over centuries, with distinct styles in the north
and south of India.
 Key Features:
o Shikharas (Towers): A central feature of Hindu temples is the Shikhara, a
tall tower that rises above the main shrine (where the deity is kept). In the
north of India, the tower is usually curved, while in the south, the towers
(called Gopurams) are more pyramid-shaped and often adorned with colorful
sculptures.
o Mandapas (Halls): Hindu temples have open halls or mandapas, where
devotees can gather for prayers and rituals. These halls are often supported by
intricately carved pillars, featuring scenes from mythology or stories about the
gods.
o Garbhagriha (Sanctum): The Garbhagriha is the innermost part of the
temple, where the idol of the main deity is kept. This is the most sacred part of
the temple, and only priests are allowed to enter it. Devotees can view and
worship the deity from outside this sanctum.
o Carvings and Sculptures: Hindu temples are covered with detailed carvings
that depict gods, goddesses, animals, and mythological stories. For example,
the Khajuraho Temples in Madhya Pradesh are famous for their detailed
erotic sculptures that celebrate life and devotion.
o Water Tanks: Many Hindu temples, especially in the south, have large water
tanks or ponds that are used for rituals, bathing, and purification before
entering the temple.