Battery energy storage technologies overview

Review paper

Zvonimir Šimić Goran Knežević

J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Computer Science and Information Technology Osijek Computer Science and Information Technology Osijek
Kneza Trpimira 2b, Osijek, Croatia Kneza Trpimira 2b, Osijek, Croatia
[email protected] [email protected]

Danijel Topić Denis Pelin

J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Computer Science and Information Technology Osijek Computer Science and Information Technology Osijek
Kneza Trpimira 2b, Osijek, Croatia Kneza Trpimira 2b, Osijek, Croatia
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract – Battery technologies overview for energy storage applications in power systems is given. Lead-acid, lithium-ion,
nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, sodium-sulfur and vanadium-redox flow batteries are overviewed. Description, graphical
representation, advantages and disadvantages as well as technical characteristics are given for all technologies. Differences and
similarities between different battery technologies are perceived. Battery technologies are considered with respect to peak shaving,
load leveling, power reserve, integration of renewable energy, voltage and frequency regulation and uninterruptible power supply
applications. According to technical characteristics for overviewed technologies, comparison between battery storage technologies
is given through diagrams which are uniformed. Comparison is done according to specific power, specific energy, power density,
energy density, power cost, energy cost, lifetime, lifetime cycles, cell voltage and battery technology efficiency.

Keywords – battery, technologies, overview, energy storage, applications, power system, characteristics

1. INTRODUCTION [3]. Batteries are an ideal technology for continuous

energy storage applications, while flywheels and super
There is a strong growth in the development of en- capacitors are ideal for power storage applications [2].
ergy storage technologies, especially batteries, in the For large scale energy storage applications, the most
last decades. This is confirmed by the large number of suitable technology is a pumped hydro because of
available papers in which the overview of storage tech- technical maturity [4]. Batteries are the cheapest tech-
nologies and their applications is given. Some storage nology for different applications, flywheel is suitable
technologies are in use for a long time while other for short storage periods while compressed air and
technologies are under research and development. pumped hydro are suitable for large scale applications
Some technologies are widely used in commercial ap- [5]. In comparison to batteries and supercapacitors, us-
plications while others are used only for experimental ing hybrid storage technologies lead to reduction of
applications. volume, weight and costs of storage systems [1].
Energy storage is important for matching electricity Battery energy storage system (BESS) functionalities
supply to load demand, increasing power quality and can be classified at different grid levels as following:
enabling renewable technologies integration [1]. Se- generation, transmission and distribution, end-user
lection of suitable energy storage technology depends and renewable energy sources (RES) integration [6].
on power and energy capacity, the period during which Batteries are ideal for energy storage applications be-
energy needs to be available on the grid, costs, space cause of the short response time, modularity, flexible
required for technology placement and location in the installation and short construction time. Batteries can
network [2]. Power systems in the future could not be meet the requirements of Grid-level large-scale elec-
possible without storage. Pumped hydro storage was trical energy storage (GLEES) [7]. There are four main
dominant throughout history, batteries are suitable for groups in which batteries can be classified: primary
load shifting while flywheel, capacitors and supercon- cells, secondary cells, reserve batteries and fuel cells.
ductive inductors are suitable for voltage regulation Secondary cells imply rechargeable batteries such as

Volume 12, Number 1, 2021 53

lead-acid batteries, alkaline batteries, lithium batteries, one storage technology cannot meet all requirements
sodium batteries, flow batteries and other batteries [8]. of a microgrid so there is a need for development of
There is a problem when batteries work in a hard envi- hybrid storage technologies for microgrid applications
ronment, especially in low temperatures which can be [19]. The number of plug-in electric vehicles is con-
overcome with implementation of specific materials, stantly growing and, in the future, electric vehicles will
but a more acceptable solution is using the combina- participate as a virtual energy storage system and this
tion of existing battery technologies [9]. The weather can reduce the need for stationary storage [20].
impact on renewables, specifically photovoltaics, can
This paper deals with battery storage technologies
be overcome with the use of energy storage systems.
overview and their grid applications. The paper is di-
Battery storage technologies, unlike other storage
vided into 5 chapters. Chapter 1 gives a short overview
technologies, are more suitable for renewable energy
of available papers which deals with battery storage
sources because of a simple and efficient way of elec-
technologies. In chapter 2, six battery technologies are
trical energy storing [10]. Lithium-ion and lead-acid
explained in the following order: lead-acid, lithium-ion.
are most suitable for RES integration applications [6].
nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, sodium-sulfur
Small scale batteries at consumption level have ability
and vanadium-redox flow batteries. In chapter 3, fol-
to solve photovoltaic variability problems. On the other
lowing grid applications are explained: peak shaving,
side, for wind generation, additional optimization of a
load leveling, power reserve, integration of renewable
storage system is required. Designing a storage system
energy, voltage and frequency regulation and uninter-
is a complex process, but it is possible to make effective
ruptible power supply, Grid applications are presented
solutions for many different applications [11].
textually and graphically. In chapter 4, comparison of
Lead-acid batteries are in use since a long time ago battery technologies is done through diagrams accord-
and all technology limits and possibilities are well ing to characteristics given in the chapter 2. Chapter 5
known and like other battery technologies, lead-acid will give conclusions about overviewed battery tech-
batteries are suitable for different grid applications nologies.
[12]. Lithium-ion technology is widely used in small
This paper will give contributions through an over-
scale portable applications because of high power
view of the most used battery technologies for differ-
and energy and low weight but it Is expensive for large
ent grid applications All technologies are overviewed
scale stationary applications [4]. Lithium-ion battery
in the same way, first textual description, then graphi-
technology is mostly used in electric vehicles because
cal representation, then advantages and disadvantag-
of a high power and energy. Main obstacles for using
es and the technology characteristics. One of the ob-
lithium-ion batteries for stationary applications are served characteristics is energy and power cost which
battery aging and efficiency drop due to aging. There will be expressed in EUR, unlike most of the reviewed
is a possibility of second use batteries for stationary papers in which it is expressed in USD. Overviewed
applications [13]. Lithium-ion battery technology has technologies will be compared through uniformed
a large potential to become one of the main technolo- diagrams. In this paper, specific power and specific
gies for grid applications because of a high efficiency, energy, then power density and energy density, then
energy density and long cycle life, but to achieve this, power and energy cost, then lifetime and the number
it is required to decrease technology costs, build effec- of lifetime cycles, then cell voltage and the efficiency
tive systems for collecting and recycling and develop for battery technologies will be compared.
new lithium technologies [14].
Research is focused on electrochemical storage tech- 2. BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES OVERVIEW
nologies. Development of battery technologies with
With the development of smart grids and microgrids
high efficiency and low cost is required for large scale
there is a growing need for energy storage in power sys-
grid applications. There are potassium-ion batteries
tems. Throughout history various storage systems have
with high energy density, but low cost in comparison to
been developed for electrical energy storage. The main
lithium-ion batteries [15]. Research and development
difference between various storage types is in a form
of battery technologies in the future will be focused
of energy in which electrical energy is stored. There
on solid state batteries, which are safe and have high
are mechanical, thermal, thermochemical, chemical,
energy density and currently used batteries with liquid
electrochemical, electrical and magnetic storage types.
electrolyte will be replaced with solid state batteries
Main mechanical storage technologies are flywheels,
[16]. Future development of battery storage technolo-
pumped hydro and compressed air. Electrical storage
gies is focused on improving storage system efficiency
technologies are capacitors and supercapacitors. Main
and decreasing investment cost [17]. Development of
chemical storage technology are hydrogen fuel cells.
storage systems should be focused on technologies
with high performance and low prices. Environmental This paper deals with batteries which are an elec-
impact of storage technologies, especially batteries, is trochemical storage technology. There are different
significant [18]. There are needs for development of mi- battery technologies, and the several types will be ex-
crogrids with energy storage systems, but using only plained. There are also flow battery technologies and

54 International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Systems

one of them will be explained. In this paper the follow- Self-discharging rate [%] represents the amount of
ing battery technologies are presented: charge that is discharged when the battery is not in
use. It is not significant if battery storage is charging
• lead-acid,
and discharging all the time.
• lithium-ion,
Power rating [MW] shows power capacity of installed
• nickel-cadmium,
batteries on the same location which can be consid-
• nickel-metal hydride, ered as a single storage unit. It is important for plan-
• sodium-sulfur, ning large scale battery storage systems.
• vanadium-redox flow. Energy cost [€/kWh] defines the price of battery en-
The overview of listed battery technologies is done ergy storage per unit of energy. Prices in EUR are con-
according to different technical characteristics. Ob- verted from prices in USD.
served technical characteristics are defined below.
Power cost [€/kW] defines the price of battery energy
Cell voltage [V] is a voltage measured on the battery storage per unit of power. Prices in EUR are converted
cell between positive and negative terminals. It is very from prices in USD. Given prices are approximate and
important for stacking cells into batteries with previ- intended only for technology comparison.
ously defined voltage.
2.1 Lead-acid
Specific energy [Wh/kg] represents the available
energy of battery technology per unit of mass. It is im- Lead-acid (Pb-acid) technology has been in use for a
portant for comparing the output energy of different long time, it is easy and cheap for installation and main-
technologies with equal mass. tenance, so this is the main reason for wide use of this
Specific power [W/kg] represents the available power technology and this technology is also one of the most
of battery technology per unit of mass. It is important common for stationary applications worldwide. Lead-
for comparing the output power of different technolo- acid batteries have ability to perform a deep discharge
gies with equal mass. when it is required and the main problem with lead-acid
batteries is that battery performance largely depends
Energy density [kWh/m3] defines the available en- on temperature [21]. Nominal voltage of this technol-
ergy of battery technology per unit of volume. It is im- ogy cell is around 2 volts. Lead-acid battery technology
portant for comparing the output energy of different is based on positive and negative electrodes submerged
technologies with equal volume. into electrolyte which is a combination of sulfuric acid
Power density [kW/m3] defines the available power and water, lead dioxide is used as a positive electrode
of battery technology per unit of volume. It is impor- and lead is used as a negative electrode [12]. Lead-acid
tant for comparing the output power of different tech- battery technology cell is shown in Fig. 1.
nologies with equal volume.
Efficiency [%] shows the ratio between energy that
can be discharged from battery and energy used to
charge battery. There are losses during energy conver-
sion from electrical to electrochemical and then during
conversion from electrochemical to electrical.
Working temperature [°C] is the temperature range
at which the battery technology can operate. If tem-
perature is out of this range it can come to significant
reduction of battery performance.
Lifetime cycles [cycles] represents the number of
charge and discharge processes during which the bat-
tery keeps minimum working performance. It’s impor-
tant for applications with a lot of charging and dis-
charging processes because there are a high number
of cycles.
Lifetime [years] represents the number of years dur-
ing which the battery keeps the minimum working
performance. If lifetime is short, batteries need to be Fig. 1. Lead-acid battery cell
replaced often, which is expensive.
Some advantages of the lead-acid technology are
Maximum depth of discharge [%] represents the low cost, high cell voltage, suitability for intermittent
amount of charge that can be discharged in one cycle. charge applications and good ability of recycling. Dis-
Some technologies cannot be fully discharged. advantages are limited energy density and the number

Volume 12, Number 1, 2021 55

of lifetime cycles which is lower in comparison to other Advantages of the lithium-ion technology are long
technologies [7]. Detailed characteristics of the lead- battery lifetime, the number of lifetime cycles, high
acid battery technology are shown in table 1. energy density, low maintenance cost and there is no
memory effect. Disadvantages are high cost in compar-
Table 1. Lead-acid characteristics [4, 5, 7, 8, 19] ison to other technologies, poor performance at high
temperature and the request for protective circuits [7].
Characteristics Value
Detailed characteristics of the lithium-ion battery tech-
Cell voltage 2 – 2.1 V nology are shown in table 2.
Specific energy 25 – 50 Wh/kg
Specific power 150 – 400 W/kg Table 2. Lithium-ion characteristics [4, 5, 7, 8, 19]
Energy density 25 – 90 kWh/m 3
Characteristics Value
Power density 10 – 400 kW/m3 Cell voltage 2.5 – 5 V
Efficiency 63 – 90 % Specific energy 80 – 250 Wh/kg
Working temperature 18 – 45 °C Specific power 200 – 2000 W/kg
Lifetime cycles 250 – 2000 Energy density 95 – 500 kWh/m3
Lifetime 2 - 15 years Power density 50 – 800 kW/m3
Max. depth of discharge 80 % Efficiency 75 – 97 %
Self-discharge rate 0.1 – 0.3 % per day Working temperature 20 – 65 °C
Power rating 0 – 20 MW Lifetime cycles 100 – 10000
Energy cost 40 – 170 €/kWh Lifetime 5 - 15 years
Power cost 250 – 500 €/kW Max. depth of discharge 100 %
Self-discharge rate 0.1 – 0.3 % per day
2.2. Lithium-ion Power rating 0 – 0.1 MW
Energy cost 500 – 2100 €/kWh
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) technology is one of the most
advanced battery technologies widely used today. Cell- Power cost 1000 – 3400 €/kW
phones, smartphones, tablets, laptops, all gadgets are
powered with the Li-ion battery. There are many pros of 2.3. Nickel-cadmium
the lithium-ion technology: high power, energy capac-
ity, long battery lifetime and relatively low weight and Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) technology is in use for a
because of these pros, Li-ion technology is being used long time in applications that require a long battery
to power hybrid and electric vehicles [22]. Lithium-ion life and in difficult environmental conditions because
battery working principle is given in Fig. 2 according to this battery technology is cheap and robust. Nickel-
[13]. Li-ion cells consist of two electrodes, anode and cadmium technology is based on cathode made from
cathode. Graphite is used as anode and the lithium nickel oxide hydroxide and anode made from metallic
metal oxide Is used as cathode. The lithium salt in or- cadmium while electrolyte used for Ni-Cd batteries is
ganic solvent is used as electrolyte. Anode collector is potassium hydroxide [24]. Cross section of the nickel-
made from copper (Cu) and cathode collector is made cadmium battery is shown in Fig. 3 according to [4].
from aluminum (Al). Working principle of this technol- Ni-Cd batteries can be charged with a high charge rate
ogy is based on LI-ions moving from cathode to anode which means that the battery is charging with a cur-
when battery is in charging process and from anode to rent much higher than a nominal current is, but in this
cathode when battery is in discharging process [23]. case the charging process must be stopped when the
battery is full, otherwise the battery will heat very fast
which leads to damage. The main problem with Ni-Cd
batteries is a memory effect which means that battery
loses full capacity if it is slightly discharging and re-
charging every time during a certain period [25].

Fig. 3. Nickel-cadmium
Fig. 2. Lithium-ion technology working principle battery cross section

56 International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Systems

 Advantages of NiCd technology are low maintenance
cost, the number of lifetime cycles, suitability for long-
term storage and ability to resist electrical and physical
stress. Disadvantages are high cost in comparison to
the lead-acid technology, limited energy density, toxic
and caustic elements in batteries and the memory ef-
fect [7]. Detailed characteristics of NiCd battery tech-
nology are shown in table 3.

Table 3. NiCd characteristics [4, 5, 7, 8, 19]

Characteristics Value

Cell voltage 1.2 – 1.3 V

Specific energy 30 – 80 Wh/kg

Specific power 80 – 300 W/kg

Energy density 15 – 150 kWh/m3

Power density 40 – 140 kW/m3

Efficiency 60 – 90 %

Working temperature - 40 – 50 °C
Fig. 4. Nickel-metal hydride battery cross section
Lifetime cycles 1000 – 5000

Lifetime 10 - 20 years Table 4. NiMH characteristics [4, 5, 7, 8, 19]

Max. depth of discharge 80 % Characteristics Value
Self-discharge rate 0.2 – 0.6 % per day Cell voltage 1.2 – 1.35 V
Power rating 0 – 40 MW Specific energy 40 – 110 Wh/kg
Energy cost 680 – 1300 €/kWh Specific power 200 – 300 W/kg
Power cost 420 – 1300 €/kW Energy density 40 – 300 kWh/m3

Power density 10 – 600 kW/m3

2.4. Nickel-metal hydride Efficiency 50 – 80 %

Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) technology has been Working temperature – 30 – 70 °C

used in several applications such as energy storage for Lifetime cycles 300 – 1800
smart energy systems, robust battery systems which
Lifetime 2 - 15 years
work at high temperatures, hybrid electric cars and
public transport [26]. Ni-MH battery cell cross section Max. depth of discharge 100 %
with the main parts is shown in Fig. 4 according to [27]. Self-discharge rate 5 – 20 % per day
Nickel-metal hydride technology is based on the nega-
Power rating 0.01 – 3 MW
tive electrode made from hydrogen-absorbing alloys
which have the possibility to absorb releasing hydro- Energy cost 170 – 640 €/kWh
gen and the positive electrode made from nickel oxy- Power cost 200 – 470 €/kW
hydroxide. There is a separator which separates positive
and negative electrodes to prevent shorting between
electrodes. Electrolyte used in this technology is potas- 2.5. Sodium-sulfur
sium hydroxide (KOH). There is a current collector made Sodium-sulfur (NaS) battery technology is one of the
of metal which minimizes the internal battery resistance. most suitable for use in energy storage systems be-
To release gases produced during the overcharging or cause of the high energy density [29]. NaS battery cell
shorting there is a self-sealing safety vent [28]. cross section is shown in Fig. 5 according to [29]. This
Some advantages of NiMH technology are long bat- technology is based on the use of sodium as anode and
tery lifetime, high number of lifetime cycles, good per- sulfur as cathode, electrolyte is beta alumina ceramics.
formance at the high temperatures, high energy density, For this technology is interesting that electrolyte is also
good ability of recycling and the high tolerance to bat- a separator. NaS technology has a low internal cell resis-
tery overcharging and over discharging. Disadvantages tance because of the use a ceramic electrolyte and this
are high cost in comparison to the lead-acid technology is good for two reasons. With the low resistance, power
and bad performance at the low working temperatures to weight ratio is being increased and heat produced
[7]. Detailed characteristics of NiMH battery technology during the charging process is being decreased [30].
are shown in table 4. Typically working temperature of the sodium-sulfur

Volume 12, Number 1, 2021 57

batteries is between 300°C and 350°C. Reason for high ing principle of the VRFB technology is shown in Fig. 6
temperature is to keep electrodes in a liquid state. High according to [33]. VRFB technology is based on two
temperature decreases efficiency of the cycle which in- tanks in which vanadium ions electrolytes are stored,
creases the number of operation cycles. [31] one electrolyte is positive and the other is negative.
Flow of electrons is caused by oxidation and reduc-
tion processes in the ion selective membrane through
which electrolytes are being pumped. Response time
of this technology is fast because electrolyte flow does
not change, regardless of whether battery is charging
or discharging [33].

Fig. 5. Sodium-sulfur battery cell cross section

Advantages of sodium-sulfur technology are high en-

ergy density, high number of lifetime cycles, capability of
pulse power and good resistivity to self-discharging. Dis-
advantages are high cost and high temperature required
for battery operation [7]. Detailed characteristics of sodi-
um-sulfur battery technology are shown in table 5.
Fig. 6. Vanadium-redox flow battery working
Table 5. NaS characteristics [4, 5, 7, 8, 19] principle
Characteristics Value
Advantages of the vanadium-redox flow battery
Cell voltage 1.8 – 2.71 V
technology are high operating safety, high number
Specific energy 150 – 240 Wh/kg of lifetime cycles, low operation and maintenance
Specific power 90 – 230 W/kg cost and deep discharging capability. Disadvantages
Energy density 150 – 350 kWh/m3
are low energy density and the large space required
for technology placement [7]. Detailed characteristics
Power density 1.2 – 50 kW/m3 of the vanadium-redox flow battery technology are
Efficiency 75 – 90 % shown in table 6.
Working temperature 300 – 350 °C
Table 6. VRFB characteristics [4, 5, 7, 8, 19]
Lifetime cycles 2500 – 40000

Lifetime 10 - 15 years
Characteristics Value
Max. depth of discharge 100 % Cell voltage 1.2 – 1.4 V
Self-discharge rate 0 % per day Specific energy 10 – 130 Wh/kg
Power rating 0.05 – 34 MW Specific power 50 – 150 W/kg
Energy cost 250 – 420 €/kWh Energy density 10 – 33 kWh/m3
Power cost 850 – 2500 €/kW Power density 2.5 – 33 kW/m3
Efficiency 75 – 90 %

2.6. Vanadium-redox flow battery Working temperature 5 – 45 °C

Lifetime cycles 10000 – 16000
Vanadium-redox flow battery (VRFB) is a new tech-
Lifetime 5 - 15 years
nology which promises a lot because of the very good
characteristics. This technology has a long lifetime, Max. depth of discharge 100 %
very fast response time and long storage time which is Self-discharge rate 0 % per day
ideal for long-term energy storage. Power and energy Power rating 0.03 – 3 MW
of VRFB are independent, power depends on the num- Energy cost 130 – 850 €/kWh
ber and size of the cells and energy depends on the
Power cost 500 – 1300 €/kW
available electrolyte, respectively tank size [32]. Work-

58 International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Systems

3. GRID APPLICATIONS OF A BATTERY STORAGE Peak shaving with the use of a battery storage is
shown in Fig. 7. When the power demand is low, energy
With growth of the amount of distributed generation, price is also low, and energy can be stored in batteries
passive distribution grids become active. It means that and when the power demand is high, energy price is
energy flows are in two ways, from generation, over also high and peak load can be partially or fully covered
transmission grid to distribution grid and in the op- with energy from batteries [18].
posite way, from distribution grid to transmission grid.
Operation of an active distribution grid is more compli- 3.2. Load leveling
cated then operation of a passive grid, especially if dis-
tributed generation is intermittent, such as photovoltaic Load leveling is not much different from peak shav-
and wind. There is a demand for additional energy stor- ing. Booth applications have similar working principles.
age which has ability to support grid functionality and Energy is being stored in batteries during low power de-
stability. In conventional power systems, load profile is mand and being used from batteries during high power
divided on a base load, which is covered from baseload demand. Peak shaving has a task to level the load profile
power plants and on a variable load, which is covered only during peak power demand while load leveling has
from load following power plants. Variable load can be a task to level the entire load profile during the entire
partially covered from energy storage so there is less day [18]. Load leveling uses low price energy from base
need for regulation power plants. Batteries are more ac- generation to cover high price peak energy demand.
ceptable for voltage and frequency regulation applica- Like the peak shaving, load leveling can give profit to the
tion than regulation power plants because of the fast customers, because the use of stored energy during high
response on voltage and frequency changes. Batteries price periods and make customers less dependent on
are being used in the following grid applications: the electricity market during peak periods [34]. Load lev-
eling with the use of a battery storage is shown in Fig. 8.
• peak shaving,
• load leveling,
• power reserve,
• integration of renewable energy sources,
• voltage and frequency regulation,
• uninterruptible power supply.

3.1. Peak shaving

Highest demand for electrical energy appears in the

evening during winter because of the high amount of en-
ergy is required for heating and in the middle of the day Fig. 8. Load leveling with using of a battery storage
during summer because of the high amount of energy
is required for cooling. Grid utility operators have intro- It can be assumed that load leveling requires much
duced different prices of electricity depending on energy higher battery capacity than peak shaving applications
demand. When demand is high, price is higher and when because peak shaving is covering consumption during
demand is low, price is lower. Methods for reducing con- only a few hours a day while load leveling is covering
sumption of electrical energy when demand is at peak consumption more hours a day.
are called the peak shaving and it can be done in different
ways. First method is switching off appliances that are not 3.3. Power reserve
in use and installing heating systems with thermostat to
reduce power demand, second method requires the in- When grid operators predict the load demand for
stallation of additional generators to achieve peak power the day ahead it can happen that actual load demand
demand and third method is using batteries to cover con- is less than predicted load demand and it also can hap-
sumption during peak power demand [16]. pen that actual load demand is higher than predicted.
There is a possibility to install a battery storage system
that will store energy excess when the actual load de-
mand is less than predicted and cover actual load de-
mand when it is higher than predicted load demand
as shown in Fig. 9. Battery storage systems are ideal for
this application because of the fast response time [16].
Reserve in the power system is important because
reserve supports the power system from the unaware
load reducing when load demand is high. Battery stor-
age is a much better solution for spinning reserve than
synchronous generators which must be synchronized
Fig. 7. Peak shaving with using of a battery storage with the grid during startup and this makes them slow.

Volume 12, Number 1, 2021 59

More reserve capacity leads to better system reliability,
but it is necessary to find the optimal reserve capac-
ity due to high installation price. In the future, electric
vehicles connected to the charging stations will also be
able to provide reserve in the power system [18]. Pro-
viding a reserve service to the grid operator has a finan-
cial benefit for battery storage owners. Grid operators
and reserve providers enter a contract that defines the
amount of energy which must be available to feed into
the power system and the energy price at which the
operator will buy energy from the reserve provider. Fig. 10. Photovoltaic with a battery storage

3.5. Voltage and frequency regulation

In the power system it is required to maintain volt-

age and frequency to keep the power system stability.
Voltage is regulated with the reactive power and fre-
quency is regulated with the active power. Voltage and
frequency changes in power systems with integrated
renewables are more significant and occur more often
so there is a need for advanced voltage and frequency
regulation systems [37].
Fig. 9. Battery power reserve Grid voltage should be maintained within defined
value range at consumption level. Grid voltages, out
3.4. Integration of renewable energy sources of range, may cause some electrical devices malfunc-
tion or even damage [37]. If voltage is lower than the
Renewable energy sources nowadays are pres-
nominal value, injection of the reactive power is re-
ent worldwide and their share in total production of
quired and if voltage is higher than the nominal value,
electrical energy is in constant growth. Integration of
absorption of the reactive power is required. In con-
renewable energy sources, especially wind and solar,
ventional power systems voltage regulation is done
causes economical and technical challenges for grid
by static or synchronous compensation which injects
operators [5]. Renewable energy sources are variable,
reactive power in the grid when needed. There is ability
intermittent and unpredictable so they are harder to
to install the battery storage which can absorb reactive
integrate in the power system [35]. It is more difficult to
power to decrease voltage when voltage is high and
operate the power system and keep stability because
inject the additional reactive power to increase voltage
of power fluctuations [36]. Intermittency and variability
when voltage is low.
of the renewable energy sources are primarily caused
by weather changes. In the case of photovoltaics, it of- Frequency in grid should be maintained within de-
ten happens that clouds reduce solar radiation which fined value range and it can be done with balance
leads to decreased generation from photovoltaics. In between load and power generation [38]. When load
the case of wind power, wind speed is variable which power is higher than generated power, frequency is
leads to constant variability in generation from wind. lower than the nominal value and injection of the addi-
tional active power in grid is required. When generated
Intermittency and variability can be compensated
power is higher than load power, frequency is higher
with implementation of a battery storage system which
than the nominal value and decrease of generated
is necessary for the off-grid photovoltaic and wind pow-
power or increase of load power is required. In con-
er. On the other side, for on-grid photovoltaic and wind
ventional power systems frequency regulation is done
power, a battery storage is welcome because it allows
by increasing or decreasing generator output power.
integration of higher amounts of distributed genera-
There is an ability to install a battery storage which
tion. During power outages caused by weather chang-
can absorb power excess from the grid to decrease fre-
es consumption can be covered from energy stored in
quency when it is too high and inject power to the grid
batteries which are distributed in the power system. As to increase frequency when it is too low.
the amount of distributed generation will be increased,
capacity of installed battery storage also needs to be 3.6. Uninterruptible power supply
increased because for higher amounts of solar and
wind generation, more battery storage will be needed Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) have a task to
to cover consumption during power outages. Fig. 10. supply electrical and electronic equipment with con-
shows the case in which energy excess produced from stant power during power outages or state of emer-
photovoltaic during sunny days can be used later in the gency. UPS are usually used in the critical applications
evening to cover higher energy demand. where the main power supply interruption, even for a

60 International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Systems

short time, can have serious, or even dangerous, con-
sequences [39]. Critical applications are: control and
monitoring systems in substations, power plants and
industrial facilities, emergency lighting, medical equip-
ment, computer systems, data centers, telecommuni-
cation systems and base stations, airports, lighting and
signalization in tunnels, etc.
Main parts of a typical UPS system are battery bank,
rectifier, inverter and static switch [40]. Battery banks
have a task to store electrical energy which will be used
during power outages, lead-acid technology was usual-
ly used and now, lithium-ion technology is often in use.
Rectifiers are used to connect AC grids with DC batter-
ies and enable to charging batteries with energy from
the grid. Inverter is used to connect DC batteries with AC
load and enable to supply load with energy from batter-
ies. Static switch has a task to bypass converters when
the rectifier or inverter are not working and enable to
power load with energy directly from the grid. Fig. 11. Specific power to specific energy

4. BATTERY TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON

Comparison of overviewed battery technologies

is done according to technical characteristics given
in table 1 – 6. Comparison of characteristics is given
through following six diagrams which are uniformed
for better technology comparison. The first four dia-
grams are two-dimensional, one technology charac-
teristic is shown on x-axis while another is showed on
y-axis. The last two diagrams are one-dimensional, bat-
tery technologies are shown on x-axis while technol-
ogy characteristic is shown on y-axis.
Diagram which shows specific power and specific
energy for different battery storage technologies is
presented in Fig. 11. Lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nick-
el-metal hydride and vanadium-redox flow battery
have the low specific power and specific energy. Sodi-
um-sulfur technology has the low specific power, but
the high specific energy, from 150 to 240 Wh/kg. For Fig. 12. Power density to energy density
the lithium-ion battery technology, specific energy is
from 80 to 250 Wh/kg and specific power is from 200
to 2000 W/kg, which is more than other technologies.
Diagram which shows power density and energy
density for different battery storage technologies is
presented in Fig. 12. Vanadium-redox flow battery has
very low power density, from 2.5 to 3 kW/m3 and very
low energy density, from 10 to 33 kWh/m3. It is because
a large space needed for two electrolyte tanks place-
ment. For li-ion technology, energy density is from 95 to
500 kWh/m3 and power density is from 50 to 800 kW/m3,
which is more than other technologies.
Diagram which shows power cost and energy cost for
different battery storage technologies is presented in
Fig. 13. Most expensive battery technology is lithium-
ion with power cost from 1000 to 3400 €/kW and en-
ergy cost from 500 to 2100 €/kWh. Battery technology
with the lowest price is lead-acid with power cost from
250 to 500 €/kW and energy cost from 40 to 170 €/kWh. Fig. 13. Cost of battery technologies

Volume 12, Number 1, 2021 61

 A diagram which shows the lifetime of battery tech-
nologies is presented in Fig. 14. Lifetime for the lithium-
ion is from 5 to 15 years and the number of lifetime
cycles is from 1000 to 10000. Nickel-cadmium battery
technology has the longest lifetime, from 10 to 20 years.
Sodium-sulfur battery technology has the greatest num-
ber of lifetime cycles, from 2500 to 40000.

Fig. 16. Efficiency of battery technologies

According to diagrams in Fig. 11 – 16, the overall

table of compared technology characteristics is given.
Table shows overall comparison between overviewed
battery technologies according to most important
technical characteristics. Through diagrams, ten bat-
Fig. 14. Lifetime of battery technologies tery technical characteristics are compared as follows:
specific energy and specific power, energy density and
power density, energy cost and power cost, lifetime
Fig. 15 shows cell voltage for different battery tech-
and lifetime cycles, cell voltage and the last, efficiency.
nologies. Nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and
Values in the overall table are shown in grayscales. The
vanadium-redox flow battery have lowest cell voltage.
best technology characteristics are shown in a darker
Sodium-sulfur and lead-acid have some higher cell
shade and the worst technology characteristics are
voltage, Highest cell voltage has the lithium-ion tech-
shown in a lighter shade.
nology, from 2.5 to 5 V.
5. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, six battery technologies, that are most

often used for grid applications, are overviewed. Main
characteristics of the lead-acid, lithium-ion, nickel-
cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, sodium-sulfur and
vanadium-redox flow batteries are presented and their
characteristics are compared. It cannot be concluded
that one technology is better than others. Some bat-
tery technologies are suitable for different applications
while others have a specific application in which they
have proved very good. All battery technologies are
good for implementation in moderate climate condi-
tions but only few technologies can withstand imple-
mentation in extreme climate conditions.
Lead-acid is in use for a long time and the main ad-
vantage of this technology is the very low price. Lead-
acid technology is suitable for different stationary ap-
plications because of good efficiency and the high cell
Fig. 15. Cell voltage of battery technologies voltage. But lead-acid battery technology has the low
number of lifetime cycles. Lithium-ion is now the most
Fig. 16 shows efficiency of different battery technolo- advanced and the most used battery technology. Ac-
gies. Nickel-metal hydride has lowest efficiency, from cording to the overall table, lithium-ion battery tech-
50 to 80 %. Highest efficiency is of the lithium-ion tech- nology is the most suitable for different applications
nology, from 75 to 97 %. because of highest specific power and energy, highest

62
 Table 7. Comparison of battery technologies

Characteristics Pb-acid Li-ion NiCd NiMH NaS VRFB

Specific energy [Wh/kg] 25 – 50 80 – 250 30 – 80 40 – 110 150 – 240 10 – 130

Specific power [W/kg] 150 – 400 200 – 2000 80 – 300 200 – 300 90 – 230 50 – 150

Energy density [kWh/m3] 25 – 90 95 – 500 15 – 150 40 – 300 150 – 350 10 – 33

Power density [kW/m3] 10 – 400 50 – 800 40 – 140 10 – 600 1.2 – 50 2.5 – 33

Energy cost [€/kWh] 40 – 170 500 – 2100 680 – 1300 170 – 640 250 – 420 130 – 850

Power cost [€/kW] 250 – 500 1000 – 3400 420 – 1300 200 – 470 850 – 2500 500 – 1300

Lifetime [years] 2 – 15 5 - 15 10 - 20 2 - 15 10 - 15 5 - 15

Lifetime cycles [cycles] 250 – 2000 100 – 10000 1000 – 5000 300 – 1800 2500 – 40000 10000 – 16000

Cell voltage [V] 2 – 2.1 2.5 – 5 1.2 – 1.3 1.2 – 1.35 1.8 – 2.71 1.2 – 1.4

Efficiency [%] 63 – 90 75 – 97 60 – 90 50 – 80 75 – 90 75 – 90

power and energy density, highest cell voltage and 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

highest efficiency. But lithium-ion battery technology
This work was funded by the European Union
has the highest price in comparison to other technolo-
through the European Regional Development Fund’s
gies. Operational Programme Competitiveness and Cohe-
Nickel-cadmium is good because of the ability of op- sion under project KK.01.1.1.04.0034 Connected Sta-
eration in extreme conditions with very low and high tionary Battery Energy Storage.
temperatures, but because of bad environmental im-
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