Module I

Introduction to Land Surveying

Basic Principle of Surveying

Land Surveying is the first step of starting a new civil engineering project, is a very
important branch of civil engineering. To understand the techniques of surveying
a student must carefully study the basics of it. To start learning surveying one must
start with the definition of surveying and its importance.

What is Land Surveying?

Land survey could be defined as part of measuring as area on the earth and
represent it to some suitable scale of paper. These pieces of papers are called
maps or plan depending on the scale to which they are drawn.

Benefits of Land Surveying

Many civil engineering firms and organizations rely on the benefits of land
surveyors to improve their projects with the following:

 Increased boundary accuracy:

One of the many land surveying benefits is helping civil engineers establish
accurate boundaries for a piece of land. With the right property boundaries
established, a civil engineering team can better plan out construction and
development. Accurate boundaries also help teams avoid legal disputes
with people who own land near their project, saving time and raising public
satisfaction with a project.

 Greater understanding of topography:

Before civil engineers begin a project on a piece of property, they need to
know its topographical details. A land survey ensures engineers have a
better understanding of topography, such as determining if the land has
any structural or soil issues or if it is prone to flooding. By gaining a greater
understanding of a plot’s topography, the civil engineering team can
determine if their project is feasible and safe before they begin
development.

 Better property division:

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 When a civil engineering firm makes their proposals to local authorities, they
need to ensure they’re not building on private property. A land survey gives
them better property division by clearly showing where public property
starts and ends.

 Improved construction preparation:

Before a civil engineer OKs construction, a land survey can give them
various data about the plot. This land survey’s data can help civil engineers
ensure any structures are placed in the ideal location and that any
necessary preparation has been completed prior to construction. With this
data, a civil engineer can provide their construction team more accurate
plans and help them better prepare for construction.
 More accurate value estimation:
Land surveyors can also help civil engineers and other professionals
determine how much a piece of property is worth. By having a detailed
land survey, you can more accurately value a property based on its
landscape, hardscape and location details.

Who is a Surveyor?
A surveyor is a person that carryout surveys, especially one whose occupation is
surveying land. That is determining the size, shape, or boundaries of pieces of land

Some the work of surveyor includes:

1. Determine height and distance (Leveling)

2. Setting out building, sewers, drains and road way
3. Determines the volumes of regular and irregular figures
4. Prepare a finish detailed drawing

These operations involve the application of practical mathematician

knowledgeable in geometry and trigonometry and possess a fair ability for
drawing and painting.

Types of Land Surveying

Land Surveying can mainly be classified into 2 groups-

 Plane Surveying

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  Geodetic or Trigonometrical Surveying

Plane Surveying
Plane surveying deals with small areas on the surface of the earth assuming the
surface of the land to be plane. So curvature of the earth is neglected. Plane
surveying can further be subdivided in the following ways:

Chain Surveying

 Area to be surveyed is divided into a number of triangles

 The length of the sides are measured and the interior details recorded
 Whole are then plotted on a drawing sheet to a suitable scale to produce
the map

Traverse Surveying

 The plot of the plan is enclosed by a series of straight lines making angles
with each other.
 The length of the lines and angles are measured and plotted with details on
a drawing paper to a suitable scale to produce the map

Ordinary Leveling

 The elevations of different points on the earth surface are determined.

 Provides all the elevation data needed for construction activities

Geodetic Surveying

Geodetic surveying deals with vast areas, so curvature has to be considered.

Geodetic surveying can be subdivided in the following ways:

Triangulation

 A network of well-defined triangles is formed on the plot of land to be

surveyed.
 One of the lines is considered as the baseline, all other lines and angles are
then measured accordingly.

Reciprocal Leveling

 Used in leveling across streams, gullies, and other obstructions to eliminate

instrumental errors
 Level readings are taken from two setups at two different points
 The difference in levels between two sites with obstructions is determined
through this survey

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Tacheometry or Stadia Surveying

 A telescopic sight instrument is used to measure distances

 It incorporates a theodolite controlled by an operator and a level staff held
by another surveyor at a distance.
 Both vertical and horizontal distances are computed through stadia (the
two horizontal markings on a theodolite) readings

Photographic surveying

 Maps are prepared from photographs taken from suitable camera stations;
the stations can be even airplanes.
 The output is a map, a drawing or a 3D model of some real-world scene or
object.

Uses of Land Surveying

Some of the numerous functions of land surveying are given below.

 Topographical maps showing hills, rivers, towns, villages, forests etc. are
prepared by land surveying.
 For planning and estimating new engineering projects like water supply and
irrigation schemes, mines, railroads, bridges, transmission lines, buildings etc.
surveying is required.
 Cadastral Map showing the boundaries field houses and other
properties are prepared by surveying.
 Engineering map showing the position of engineering works like roads,
railways, buildings, dams, canals etc. are prepared through surveying.
 To set out a work and transfer details from map to ground knowledge of
surveying is used.

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The Metric System of Measurement

The metric system has been standardize and the system international (SI) set out
the basic and drive units which have been agreed internationally.

The following units are most important to a surveyor.

Quantity Recommended SI unit Other unit which may be

used

Length Kilometer (Km) Centimeter (cm)

Metre (m)

Millimetre (mm)

Area Square metre (m2) Square centimeter (cm2)

Square millimetre (mm2) Hectare (10,000 m2) (ha)

Volume Cubic metre (m3) Cubic centimeter (cm3)

Cubic millimetre(mm3)

Mass Kilgramme (Kg)

Gramme (g)

Milligramme (mg)

Capacity Cubic metre (m3) Litre (l)

Cubic millimetre(mm3) Millitre (ml)

It is necessary to see exactly how mass volume and capacity are related. The
table below Show the basic relationship from which others may be deduced.

Volume Mass Capacity

1 cubic metre 1000 litres 1000 litres

1 cubic decimetre 1 kilogram 1 litre

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 1 cubic centimetre 1 gramme 1 millilre

Notes: Linear measurement should be written in three decimal places to avoid

confusion, unless required otherwise.

Angular measurement

In many countries of the world, angles are measure in degree, which is a

sexagesimal unit. Degrees are subdivided into minute and seconds, in exactly the
same manner as time.

Thus, there sixty minute in one degree and sixty-second in one minute.

Examples:

1. Find the sum of the following measurements:

a. 1 metre and 560 millimetres
b. 15 metres and 31 centimetres
c. 25 metres and 9 centimetres and 8 millimetres

Answer:
a. 1.000 + 0.560 = 1.560 m
b. 15.000 + 0.310 = 15.310 m
c. 25.000 + 0.090 + 0.008 = 25.098 m

2. Calculate the area (in hectares) of rectangle plot of ground measuring 85

m long by 160m wide

Answer:
85.000 x 160.000 = 13600.000 m2 ÷ 10000 = 1.360 ha.

3. Find the values of:

a. 56o 35’ 20’’ - 15o 19’ 45’’
b. 14o 35’ 52’’ - 12o 39’ 23’’

Answer:
a. 56o 35’ 20’’ - 15o 19’ 45’’ = 45o 15’ 35’’
c. 14o 35’ 52’’ - 12o 39’ 23’’ = 26o 74’ 75’’ = 27o 15’
15’’

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Surveying Mathematics

The following formulae are given because of their general usefulness in everyday
situations. Fundamental trigonometrically Ratios
In the figure, angle B is a right angle. Sides a, b, and c lies opposite the angles A,
B, and C

1. Sin A = a/b

2. Cos A = c/b

3. Tan A = a/c

4. Cosec A = b/a = 1/Sin A

5. Sec A = b/c = 1/Cos A

6. Cot A = c/a = 1/Tan A

The following formulae are given because of their general usefulness in everyday
situations. Fundamental trigonometrically Ratios

The following formulae are applied in both acute and obtuse triangles

7. Sin Rule: a/Sin A = b/Sin B = c/Sin C = 2R (R = radius of circumscribing

circle)

8. Cosine Rule: a2 = b2 + c2 - 2ab CosA

9. Area Rule: Area of triangle ABC = ½ ab SinC

10. Tangent half angle formulae: Tan (A-B)/2 = (a-b)/(a+b) x Cot c/2

11. The ‘ S ’ formulae: Area of triangle ABC =

Or CosA/2 = /

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 Where s = (a + b + c) / 2

Example 4
A triangle plot of ground has been surveyed by measuring line AB = 231 m and the
altitude 164.0 m. Calculate the area of the plot in hectares.

Area ABC = ½ base x altitude

= 115.5 x 164 = 18942 m2
= 1.894 hectares
Example 5
Calculate the largest angle of the triangle whose sides on a plot of ground are:
AB = 210 m, AC = 110 m and BC = 205 m

Solution:
The largest angle will be ACB since it is opposite the longest side.
By Cosine Rule:
Cos C = (a2 + b2 – c2) / 2ab
= (2052 + 1102 - 2102) / 2 x 205 x 110
= 77o 09’ 00’’

Note: Classwork 1

In a simple triangulation scheme several triangle have been linked to produce the
following figure. The base line AB has been measured by tapes, and the various
triangles by a theodolite. Calculate the distance DE across the river.

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 Module 2
Plan Scales

The outcome of land survey is usually the production of a scaled drawing (plan or
maps). The scale of a map depends upon the purpose for which the map is
required. A scale of a map is the ratio between any distance on the map and the
actual distance on the ground.

If 10 mm on a plan represent a ground distance on 10 km, the scale would be very

small and there would be very little detail shown (a page in an Atlas). If however,
the same 10 mm represent only a distance of 1 m on the ground the scale would
be large and even small detail could be shown.

Method of showing scale

The scale of a plan or map can be shown in three ways:

1. I may simple be expressed in words

For example, 1 cm represent 1 m. By definition of scale, this simple mean

that 1 cm on the plan represents 1 m on the ground.

2. By drawn scale

A line is drawn on the plan and divided into convenient intervals such that
distances on the map can be easily obtained from it. If the scale 1 cm
represent 1 m is used, the scale in the figure would be used

The figure is an example of an open divided scale in which the primary

divisions (1.0 m) are shown on the right of the zero. The zero is positioned
one unit from the left of the scale and this unit is subdivided into secondary
divisions. An alternative method of showing a scale is to fill the divisions, thus
making a filled line scale, an example is show below

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 3. By a representative fraction

In this method of showing scale, a fraction is used in which the numerator

represents the number of units on map or plan (always 1) and the
denominator represents the number of the same units on the ground. With
a scale on 1/100, shown as 1:100, since there are 100 cm in 1.0 m. A
representative fraction (RF) is an international way of showing scale.

Example 1:
If 1 cm on a map represent 10 m on the ground. What will be the RF scale?

= = 1:1000

Example 2:
Calculate the scale of a plan where 1 mm represents o.5 m on the ground.

Scale = =
! .#

= = = 1:500
# #

Example 3:
If the RF on map is 1:120, how many units on the ground do 2 maps units represent?

RF = 1:120
i.e. 1 unit = 120 units
Therefore 2 units = 2 x 120 = 240 units

Example 4:
If the RF on map is 1:1200, how far apart would two points be on the map if their
actual ground distance is 360 m?

RF = 1:1200
(i.e. 1 m on the map equal 1200 m on ground. x
m on the map equal 360 m on ground or)
=
$ %&

Therefore x = 360/1200 = 0.3 m = 300 mm

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Conversion of Areas by Representative Fractions

The area of a parcel of land in a survey work drawn on a scaled plan is measured
by an instrument called a planimetre. The planimetre measures area in square
centimeter (cm2) and the actual ground area have to be calculated.

If the RF scale on a plan is very large, say 1:4, one unit on the plan will represent
four units on the ground. A square on 1 unit on the plan will represent a ground
area on 4 units x 4 units. From these facts emerges a simple formula:

Plan scale = 1:4

Plan Area = 1x1 = 12 = 1 sq. unit
Ground Area = 4x4 = 42 = 4 sq. units
! '
=
! ('

!
Plan Area =
('

= Ground Area x
('

= Ground Area x ( ( ) 2 or (1:4)2

Hence the formula;

Plan Area = Ground Area x (RF) 2

Example 5:
The scale of a plan is 1:4. If a square on the plan measures 3 by 3 units, what is the
corresponding area?
RF = 1:4
Plan Area = 3x3 = 9 sq. units
Using the formula
Plan Area = Ground Area x (RF) 2

9 = GA x ( )2
(

9 x 16 = GA = 144 sq. units

Example 6:
An area was measured on a plan by a rule as 250 mm x 175 mm. Calculate the
ground area in square metre if the scale is; (i) 1:2000 and (ii) 1:500

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Solution;
i. Plan area = (250 x 175) mm2

$# )#
= m2

RF = 1:2000 (i.e. 1 mm on plan equal 2000 mm on ground)

(RF) 2 = * +2 = * +
$ (

Using the formula;

Plan Area = Ground Area x (RF)2

$# )#
= Ground Area x * +
(

$# )#
Ground Area = x 4000000 = 175000 m2
RF = 1:500
Plan Area = Ground Area x (RF)2

$# )#
Ground Area = x 500 x 500 = 10937.5 m2

Example 7:
A plot of land was surveyed and found to have an area of 2000 m2. If it is plotted
on a plan, scale 1:500, what will be the plan area in mm2 ?

RF = 1:500 (i.e. 1 mm on plan equal 500 mm on ground)

Ground Area = (2000 x 1000 x 1000) mm2

Plan Area = Ground Area x (RF)2

= Ground Area x * +2
#

= 2000 x 1000 x 1000 x * + = 8000 mm2

# #

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Example 8:
A plot of land is in the form of a rectangle in which the length is twice the breath.
When surveyed, it was found to have an area of 16722.54 m2. Calculate the length
of the sides as on a plan whose scale is 10560

Solution

Plan Area = Ground Area x (RF)2

= 16722.54 x * + 2 (m2)
#&

= 16722.54 x 1000 x 1000 x * + (mm2)

#& #&

= 149.96 mm2

Let the dimensions be 2x by x

Then Area = 2x2
Therefore 2x2 = 149.96 mm2
x2 = 75.00 mm2
x = 8.66 mm

Therefore, plot measurement is 8.66 mm x 17.32 mm

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 Module 3
Linea Surveying
Linear surveying or chain surveying is probably the most elementary method of
surveying, relying purely on the accurate determination of length. No attempt is
made to obtain angular measurements.

The principle of Trilateration is employed on linear surveys. The area to be surveyed

is divided into series of well shaped triangle all of whose sides are measured. As a
triangle is the simplest geometrical figure to plot, a plan can be readily and easily
constructed from a trilateration survey.

Linear Measuring Equipment

All linear measuring equipment has clear legible graduations and definite
figuring.

Steel Tape:
These tapes are made from high quality white enameled steel which will not
crack or peel and is rustless. The tape is 9.5 mm wide and 0.20 mm thick with
black graduations and red whole figures. It is graduated throughout in metres
and decimals figured at 100 mm intervals, each 100 mm being subdivided into
fine graduations of 5 mm.

Synthetic Tape:
These tapes are now being made of fiberglass coated with PVC. They are very
hard wearing and durable and are superior to the conventional woven tapes.
The tape is graduated throughout in metre and decimals, the finest graduation
being 10 mm.

Ranging Rods:
These are two metre long, round, wooden poles, graduated into 200 mm
divisions, alternately painted red and white. They have a pointed metal shoe for
penetration into the earth.

Marker Arrow:
These are made from steel wire, 375 mm long, pointed at one end and having a
30 mm loop at the other, to which is tied a piece of brightly coloured cloth. They
are made up in sets of ten. Both instrument are shown in the figure below

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Step Chaining
This is an alternative method of measuring horizontal distances on a slope,
without using angle-measuring instrument. This is a practical or field method
where horizontal distances are obtained directly.

Three men are required, one leader, one follower, and one observer. The
follower’s duty is to aligning the leader, holding the end of the tape on the marks
left by the leader, and collecting the arrows.

Once aligned by the follower, the leader holds the tape horizontally.
Considerable tension is required to straighten the tape to avoid sagging. The
horizontal position is estimated by the observer, who signals to the follower and
leader when the position has been attained. On receiving the signal, the leader
drops a marker arrow, thus referring the horizontal distance to the ground.

When the observer has noted the length of the first step in his book, the second
and third steps are measured are measured and procedure repeated until the
whole line has been measured. The summation of the steps will produce the
required horizontal distance.

The length of the step which can be adopted is limited by the slope gradient. At
no time should the tape be above the leader’s eye level. As the gradient
increases the length of the slope must therefore decrease.

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Slope Measurement

If the inclined distance is considered as being the hypotenuse of a right-angle

triangle the plan or horizontal length will be found thus.

In ABC, AC is the measured length and AB is the plan length.

Triangle ABC is right angled at B.
Therefore AB = AC cosine X
Difference in level = AC sine X

The angle of inclination is obtained by using form of clinometers. The most

common instrument is the Abney level.

Examples of Slope Conversion

Example 1:
Calculate the plan length for a measurement of 123.3 m along a gradient of 2o 4’

Solution

Plan Length = Slope Length x Cos L

= 126.3 x Cos 2o 34’ = 126.174 m

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Example 2:
Calculate the difference in level between the survey stations in the previous
example.

Solution

Difference in level = Slope Length x Sin L

= 126.3 x sin 2o 34’ = 5.68 m

Example 3:
Calculate the plan length where a distance has been measured along a slope of
1 in 3 and found to be 149.5 m.

Solution
Plan Length = Slope Length x Cos L
%
= 149.5 x = 141.840 m
√

Example 4:
A straight line ABCD was measured in three sections along the slope. The angles
were measured by Abney level and the following observations obtained.

Angle of
Line Length (m) slope
AB 205.00 +6o 30’
BC 115.90 +2o 00’
CD 96.40 -5o 00’

Determine the plan length of line AD; thereafter calculate the gradient of the road
to be made between point A and D.

Solution

Plan Length = Slope Length x Cos <

AB 205.00 x cos 6o 30’ = 203.68

BC 115.90 x cos 2o 00’ = 115.83
CD 96.40 x cos 5o 00’ = 96.03

Total Length AD = 415.54

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Difference in level = Slope Length x Sin <

AB +205.00 x sin 6o 30’ = +23.21

BC +115.90 x sin 2o 00’ = +4.04
CD -96.4 0 x sin 5o 00’ = -8.40

Total Length AD = +18.85

- .. / 0
Gradient =
- ..

1 2.2#
= = 1 in 22.04 rising
( #.#(

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