UNIT - 4 Chemistry of Electronic Materials

Syllabus 08 hours.

Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators: Introduction, Band theory and examples.

Semiconductors: production of electronic grade silicon, Refining- Float Zone method and Czochralski
process.

Memory Devices: Introduction, concepts of electronic memory. Classification of electronic memory

devices-organic/polymer electronic memory devices (organic molecules, polymeric materials, organic-
inorganic hybrid materials).

Display Systems: Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction, classification, properties and application in Liquid
Crystal Displays (LCD’s). Jablonski Diagram. Photoactive and electroactive materials, Light emitting
electrochemical cells. Nanomaterials(QLED’s) and organic materials (OLED’s) used in optoelectronic
devices.

Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators:

Introduction: Selection of materials for a specific application by a design engineer is based on its
properties. Property of a material depends on the chemical composition, inter and intra molecular
bonding forces present between atoms and molecules and also arrangement of electrons. One foremost
important property of a material employed by an electrical and electronics engineer is its electrical
conductivity. Majority of the electronics and electrical components/products are manufactured based on
electrical conductivity properties.

Based on their electrical conductivity, materials are broadly classified into

1. Conductors
2. Semiconductors
3. Insulators

The electrical conductivity of a material depends on the ability of its electrons to move within the lattice
structure of the material. If the electrons can move easily within the lattice, then it is considered to be a
good conductor of electricity. Metals like copper, gold, silver are very good conductors with conductivity
in the order of 108 Siemens/meter.

A material that resists flow of electrons (electricity) through it is called as an insulator. Plastics, rubber
and glass are very good insulators with conductivity in the order of 10-20 Siemens/meter.

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Semiconductors exhibit electrical conductivity in between conductors and insulators that is in the order
of 102 to 10-8 Siemens/meter.

[Additional information: You must have observed that handles of many electrical appliances are made
of plastics. Copper wire is used for making electrical connections. Tungsten wire is used in resistors.
Silicon and germanium are used in transistors. All this is due to varied response of materials towards
flow of electrons and electric current. ]

Electrical conductivity of solid materials is explained by a simple band theory of solids.

Band theory of solids:

We know that electrons revolving around a nucleus of an isolated atom have well defined discrete
energy levels like 1s, 2s, 2p…. during the formation of solids, a large number of atoms are brought very
close together. The energy levels of individual atoms lose their validity. The discrete energy levels of
individual atoms overlap resulting in the formation of a continuous band called energy band. These
energy bands are separated by regions which have no allowed energy levels. These regions are called as
forbidden gaps or band gaps. The highest energy band containing electrons is called as valence band and
the next higher band to it called as conduction band. According to band structure and occupancy of
electrons, In case of conductors, band gap is very small (0.1eV) and there is an overlapping of valence and
conduction band due to which electrons can easily move. In case of an insulator, the band gap is very
large (3–6 eV). It is virtually impossible to excite electrons from valence band to conduction band
crossing this high energy band gap. Therefore, application of temperature or external field cannot cause
current flow.

In case of a semiconductor, the band gap is in between a conductor and an insulator (1eV). At
absolute zero, it behaves as an insulator. But at room temperature some of the valence band electrons
gains sufficient energy to cross band gap and move to conduction band. This creates a deficiency of

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electrons in valence band. This deficiency is called as a hole and it acts like a positive charge. When
external electric field is applied, these electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band move
across the solid resulting in electrical conductivity. Thus, electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
increases with increase in temperature.

Preparation of electronic grade silicon-Refining:

Silicon chemistry is the basis for all commercial electronic devices which we are using today. The
first step in commercial fabrication of an electronic device is the synthesis of bulk polycrystalline
semiconductor material. The poly crystalline silicon (electronic grade silicon) is then used as the raw
material for the formation of single crystalline material that is processed to semiconductor wafers.

There are two methods to obtain single crystal silicon from polycrystalline Si,

1. The Czochralski method

2. The float zone technique

The Czochralski method:

The Czochralski method is also known as “crystal pulling or pulling from melt” and this is the most
preferred method of single crystal production. The following steps are involved in the process:

a. Electronic grade polycrystalline silicon crystals is taken in quartz crucible and it is placed in a
graphite container.
b. Graphite container is heated from the surrounding heater. Heat from graphite container is
transferred homogeneously to quartz crucible.
c. Polycrystalline Si in the quartz crucible is melted in an inert gas atmosphere and temperature of
the melt is kept constant roughly above the melting point of silicon (1400O C).
d. A monocrystalline small silicon rod is taken as seed crystal and it is immersed into the melt. It acts
as a starting point for the crystal formation.
e. The small seed crystal is pulled slowly (few cm/hour) out of the melt. During this process, the seed
crystal and crucible are counter rotated. The temperature of the melt is reduced when it comes in
contact with crystal seed and hence it solidifies. Thus a monocrystalline silicon is pulled out of
melted silicon.
f. The crystallographic orientation of pulled crystal is same as that of seed crystal. Thus using a
monocrystalline silicon seed crystal with the desired orientation (eg., <100> <110>, <111>), a
crystal with same orientation can be obtained.
g. The diameter of the pulled crystal depends upon pull speed and temperature of the melt.

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The float zone technique:

The float zone technique is a “crucible-free crystal growth” method or alternative to Czochralski method,
in this process the following steps are involved,

a. A polycrystalline rod is vertically placed in a chamber with inert gas atmosphere.

b. A singlecrystalline silicon is used as seed crystal and it is attached to one end of a polycrystalline
silicon rod
c. An RF coil is used to melt a small region of the polycrystalline rod from single seed crystal end.
d. As the RF coil moves, molten zone also moved along the polysilicon rod, impurities collected at the
one end and can be removed by cutting that part of the end. (Since impurities are soluble in
molten zone than in solid). Finally the molten silicon solidifies into a single crystal.
e. The crystallographic orientation of newly formed singlecrystalline silicon is same as seed crystal
(eg., <100> <110>, <111>).

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Memory Devices :

A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most electronic devices such as
computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc all have a storage device that stores data and/or programs.

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is the
storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are
stored.

Concepts of electronic memory:

 An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response and
compact in size.

 A semiconductor storage system which can be read and written when coupled with a central
processing unit (CPU, a processor).

 The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and accessing binary digital
data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”,

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Electronic memory device consists of

1. Two electrodes

2. Switching layer between two electrodes

The layer is operated from High Resistance State (HRS) to Low Resistance State (LRS) under an
external electric voltage.

The HRS can be regarded as “0” bit in data storage. (OFF)

The switching from HRS to the Low Resistance State (LRS) is equivalent to “0” to “1” binary
conversion. (ON)

If a single material (used in making memory device) provides more than two resistance states
(bistable), the storage capacity of a single memory increases exponentially.

Conventional electronic memory: In conventional silicon-based electronic memory, data are

stored based on the amount of charge stored in the memory cells. “Higher the charges available,
greater would be the data storage”.
Modern memory:
Organic/polymer electronic memory, which uses various electrical conductivity states such as ON
and OFF in response to an applied electric field.

These memory devices having,

 High storage capacity

 Fast data transfer rate
 Short access time
 Low power consumption
 Neuromorphic computing (use of artificial neurons)

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Classification of electronic memory devices:

According to the device structure, electronic memory devices can be divided into four primary
categories: transistor-type, capacitor-type, resistor-type and charge transfer type.

1. Transistor Type Electronic Memory

Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor materials. It is converted to p-type

and n-type semiconductor by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities. Transistors are made using p-
type and n-type semiconductor. A transistor is a miniature electronic component that can work either as
an amplifier or a switch.

A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors, each transistor is working as a switch, which
can be switched ON or OFF. Each transistor can be in two different states and store two different
numbers, ZERO and ONE. Since chip is made of billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros
and Ones, and almost every number and letter can be stored

2. Capacitor Type Electronic Memory

A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an electric charge. It is
used to store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy.

If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary numeral,”1” and holds “0’ when the cell is discharged.

If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges dissipate slowly and memory
would be volatile.

On the other hand, if the medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in nature, can maintain
permanent electric polarization that can be repeatedly switched between two stable states (bistable) by
an external electric field. Thus, memory based on ferroelectric capacitors (FeRAM) is non-volatile
memory.

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Examples: Organic and polymeric ferroelectric materials can be used in capacitor type electronic
memory device.

3. Resistor Type Electronic Memory

Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-type

memory, or resistive random access memory (RRAM). Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a
simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal structure generally referred to as MIM structure. The
structure comprises of an insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes and
supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil). Initially, the device is under high
resistance state or “OFF” and logically “0” state, when resistance changed or under external applied field
changes to low resistance state or “ON” logical value “1”.

4. Charge transfer Type Electronic Memory

A charge transfer (CT) complex consist of two parts, one electron donor and other an electron
acceptor. It is also called as donor –acceptor (D-A) complex. The conductivity of a CT complex is
dependent on the ionic binding between the D-A components. In CT complex partial transfer of charges
occurs from donor part to the acceptor part. This results in difference in conductivity. CT complexes
exhibit bistable states due to difference in conductivity. This behaviour is used to design molecular
electronic devices.

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Examples: Organometallic complexes, carbon allotropes (fullerene, carbon nanotubes and graphene)
based polymer complexes, gold nanoparticle- polymer complexes and single polymers with intra-
molecular D-A structures are used for memory applications.

TYPES OF MEMORY MATERIALS

There are three classes of materials which can exhibit bistable states and are used in organic memory
devices. They are,
1. Organic molecules
2. Polymeric materials
3. Organic-Inorganic hybrid materials
The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory include
Good processability,
Molecular design through chemical synthesis,
Simple device structure,
Miniaturized dimensions,
Low-cost,
Low-power operation,
Multiple state properties, and
Large capacity for data storage

1. Organic molecules
There are different category of organic molecules which exhibit bistable or multistable states
when external field is applies. When a threshold voltage is applied they undergo a transition from
ON to OFF state or from OFF to ON state. All these materials can be used in organic electronic
memory devices. Few of them are mentioned here,

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 Examples:
a. Pentacene and Perfluropentacene both have a similar structure and crystal packing, but former
behaves p-type semiconductor and latter behaves as an n-type semiconductor. Therefore these molecules
together exhibit charge-transfer process that are useful for memory applications.

[Note: When all the hydrogen atoms of Pentacene are replaced by fluorine atoms the resulting molecule
is Perfluropentacene].

Pentacene Perfluropentacene

b. Zinc(II)phthalocyanine complex. In this zinc metal is acceptor and organic molecule phthalocyanine is
the donor.

2. Polymeric materials
Polymer memory refers to memory technologies based on the application of organic polymers.
Some of these technologies use variations in the resistance of carrying polymers under reading/write
command. Different architectures are based on ferroelectric polymers. The characteristics of polymer
memory are low-cost and high-performance and have the potential for 3D stacking and mechanical
adaptability. Polymer memory is the best technology among others. It is mainly because of their
expansion ability in three-dimensional spaces.

Example:

Polyimide with Donor Triphenylamine and Acceptor- phthalimide.

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 Donor: Triphenyl Amine group (TPA)
Acceptor: Phthalimide group
 A polymer known as (PEDOT) is a vital plastic was used to store the digital data as a gigabyte and
be adequately modest to rival CDs and DVDs.
 Shape memory polymers (Ex: polyvinylchloride, polyurethanes) can react to temperature, light,
pH and moisture, there are several exciting possibilities for these elements in fabrics. These
include relaxation, aesthetics, wound monitoring, security against environmental conditions,
quick controlled drug relief, and more.

3. Organic-Inorganic hybrid materials

Generally organic-inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing inorganic
materials. Inorganic materials used are allotropes of carbon like fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene
and metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles and inorganic quantum dots (QDs).

A. Organic–Carbon allotrope hybrid materials

Polymers containing electron donors such as thiophene, fluorine, carbazole and aniline derivatives can
be combined with fullerenes to obtain a charge transfer hybrid materials with donor-acceptor ability and
electrical bistable states. Fullerenes exhibit high electron-withdrawing ability and can capture up to six
electrons. They are used in warm memory effect devices.

B. Organic–Inorganic Nanocomposites

These are hybrid electronic memory devices in which organic polymer with appropriate functional
group is clubbed with metal nanoparticles, quantum dots and metal oxide nanoparticles. An example is a
composite of 8-hydroxyquinoline containing polymer with gold nanoparticles sandwiched between two
metal electrodes. Bistable electronic transition states are observed when an electric field is applied due to
charge transfer between Au nanoparticles and 8-hydroxyquinoline.

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Display Systems:
Liquid crystal Displays (LCD):

INTRODUCTION: Liquid crystals find application in the areas of science and engineering, particularly in
display systems of modern electronic gadgets. Devices using liquid crystal displays have the advantage of
low power consumption and hence are widely used in display devices of mobile communication
appliances, aircraft cockpit, laptops and related electronic equipment’s.

Matter can be classified as solids, liquids and gases.

SOLIDS: In crystalline solids atoms are closely packed in a regular fixed arrangement and exerts a strong
force of attraction. They have both positional and orientational order. They are anisotropic.
LIQUIDS: Molecules move randomly and exerts a weak intermolecular force. They are isotropic.
LIQUID CRYSTALS: Is an ordered liquid state of matter where the molecules have orientational order but
only partial positional order. Hence the extent of molecular ordering is between highly ordered
crystalline solid state and highly disordered liquid state. It is often referred as “mesogenic phase”.
They have molecules in constant motion which orient in a preferred called “director”, however they lack
positional order.

Liquid crystal is a state of matter whose properties are between those of conventional liquids and
those of solid crystals.

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Examples:

Liquid crystals exist both in the natural world and in technological applications. Lyotropic LCs abound in
living systems; many proteins and cell membranes are LCs, as well as the tobacco mosaic virus. LCs in the
mineral world include solutions of soap and various related detergents, and some clays.
Widespread liquid-crystal displays (LCD) use liquid crystals.

Classifications:
Liquid crystals are classifed into two main catagories, namely,
1. Thermotropic liquid crystals
2. Lyotropic liquid crystals

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals

The class of compounds that exhibit liquid crystlline behaviour on variation of temperatire alone are
referred to thermotropic liquid crystals. The temperature range at which some liquid crystals are stable
are given below,

Cholesteryl benzoate 145.5 Oc TO 178.8Oc

p-azoxyphenetole 137 Oc to 167 Oc
p-azoxyanisole 116 Oc to 135 Oc
Anisaldazine 165 Oc to 180 Oc

Thermotropic liquid crystals are further classified as,

a) Nematic liquid crystals
b) Chiral Nematic liquid crystals
c) Smectic liquid crystals

a) Nematic liquid crystals

Nematic (Greek nematos = thread like) liquid crystals are formed by compounds that are optically
active. The molecule have elongated shape and are approximately parallel to one another. In this phase
the molecules maintain a preferred orientational direction but positional order is completely absent and

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they can diffuse throughout the sample. An example of a nematic liquid crystals is para-azoxyanisole
(PAA) which exhibits liquid crystalline behavior in the temperature range of 118oC to 135oC.

b) Chiral (Twisted) Nematic Phase

Chiral or Twisted nematic liquid crystals are formed from optically active compounds having chiral
centers. Compared to nematic phase where all the molecules are approximately parallel to one another,
in chiral nematic phase, the molecules arrange themselves so as to form a helical structure. In this
mesophase, the director is therefore not fixed in space in a nematic phase, but rotates throughout the
sample forming a helical pattern as it changes its direction just like the motion of a nut on a screw. The
distance travelled by the director as it completes one full turn is called pitch of the liquid crystal. In other
words, the pitch length is the distance travelled when it gets turned by 360 0. The twisted pattern repeats
throughout the liquid crystal phase.
Examples: cholesteryl benzoate, cholesteryl myristate and cholesteryl formate which exhibit chiral
nematic phase.

c) Smectic mesophase
In smectic mesophase, there is a small amount of orientational order and also a small amount of
positional order. The molecules are arranged in regular spaced layers (positional order). Within the layer
they tend to point along the director (orientational order).

Based on the orientation of the director there are three types of smectic phases. If the director is
perpendicular to the planes it is called smectic A, if the director makes an angle other than 90 0 is called
smectic C and if the director is perpendicular to the smectic plane with the molecules themselves into a
network of hexagons within the layer is called as smectic B.

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D) Discotic liquid crystalline phase

Liquid crystal phase is shown by molecules which have disc like or plate like structures. These are
referred as discotic or columnar liquid crystals.

Example: Benzene-hexa-n-alkanoates showing discotic phase.

2. Lyotropic liquid crystals

Some compounds transform to a liquid crystal phase when mixed with a solvent. They have both polar
lyophilic and non polar lyophobic end. They are amphiphilic compounds. Such amphiphilic molecules
form oredered strucutres in both polar and non polar solvents. They are usually obtained by mixing the
compound in a solvent and increasing the concentration of compound till liquid crystal phase is observed.
Such liquid crystals are called lyoptropic liquid crystals. The formation of lyotropic mesophase is
dependent on the concetration of either the component or the solvent.

Example: soap molecules (soap – water mixture)

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Liquid Crystal Behaviour:
Electro-optic effects in liquid crystals

Effect of light and effect of electric field on liquid crystals are important for the optoelectronic display
applications.

Effect of electric field:

The director in a liquid crystals is free to point in any direction. But when a film of liquids crystal is
placed between two plates and an electric field is applied across them, then the director is forced to point
along a particular direction. The deformity begins at a threshold value of the applied field and increases
with increase in the strength of the field. The transition (deformity) is important in the operation of the
liquid crystal displays (LCD) because the transition brings a significant change in the optical
characteristics of the liquid crystals.

Effect of Light:

When plane polarized light is made to pass through two crossed polarizers, no light emerges out. This is
because, the light emerging from the first polarizer is completely absorbed by the second polarizer and
hence appears dark.

We can make the plane polarized to pass through two crossed polarizers by placing a twisted nematic
liquid crystals in between two polarizers.

For example if a display is obtained by placing liquid crystal in between two polarizers and two
polarizers are placed inclined to each other at an angel of rotation by liquid crystals. If a source of light
radiation is kept below first polarizer, it passes through it and rotated by liquid crystal and passes
through the second polarizer. Hence, it gives bright appearance to display.

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Now, if an electric field is applied between two polarizers, then liquid crystal molecules will arrange
themselves to applied field and hence the rotation of plane of the polarized light is also affected. Thus,
light passing through first polarizer cannot pass through second polarizer and it give appearance to
display.

Properties of liquid crystals :

1. They exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference between refractive index parallel to
the director and refractive index perpendicular to the director. These two properties are important for
the electro-optic effects in liquid crystals.

2. The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.

3. Because the molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to change their
orientation slightly.

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4. Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.

5. Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.

6. Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, exhibits thermal expansion (Thermal Imaging).

Application of Liquid Crystals:

1. Liquid crystal displays are common in calculators, digital watches, oscillaographic systems,
television displays using L.C. screens has also been developed. Cholesteric liquid crystals have also
been used for novelty items such as toys and decorative materials.
2. Cholesteric liquid crystal substances, when applied to the surface of the skin, have been used to
locate veins, arteries, infections, tumors and the fetal placenta which are warmer than the
surrounding tissues.
3. Liquid crystals are widely used in cosmetic industry in manufacturing of liquid crystal makeup
removers, lipsticks etc.
4. Liquid crystals are using extensively in pharmaceutical industries.
5. Liquid crystal polymers are used as fire resistant, optical cables etc.

Jablonski Diagram:

The Jablonski diagram is widely used in fluorescence spectroscopy to illustrate the excited states
of a molecule and the radiative and non-radiative transitions that can occur between them.

Once a molecule has absorbed energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, there are a number
of routes by which it can return to ground state

The following graphic, termed a Jablonski diagram, shows a few of these processes.

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Fluorescence:

By releasing energy in the form of light, a molecule in the S1 state can instantly fall to a low vibrational
level of the So state. Fluorescence is the name for this phenomenon, which occurs within 10 -9 seconds.
[Definition: Emission of electromagnetic radiation, usually visible light, caused by excitation of atoms in
a material, which then reemit almost immediately (within about 10−8 seconds)]

Phosphorescence:

A molecule in the T1 state can return to the So state by releasing heat via intersystem crossing or light. If
the light is emitted, the process is known as phosphorescence. T1 states have significantly longer lifetimes
than S1 states. Because of the greater energy difference between S1 and So than between T1 and So.
(Definition: The emission of radiation in a similar manner to fluorescence but on a longer timescale, so
that emission continues after excitation ceases).

Internal conversion (IC) is the radiationless transition between energy states of the same spin state
(compare with fluorescence-a radiative process).

Intersystem crossing (ISC) is a radiationless transition between different spin states (compare to
phosphorescence).

Vibrational relaxation, the most common process, for most molecules Vibrational relaxation occurs
very quickly (<1 x 10-12 seconds).

PHOTOACTIVE AND ELECTROACTIVE MATERIALS:

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Organic materials used in optoelectronic devices are referred as photo and electroactive organic
materials.
Photoactive materials: Photoactive materials belong to the huge field of photonics, where materials that
actively interact with light are tuned and optimized to achieve effects such as light emission (LEDs and
lasers, just to name the most common ones) or light detection, with related signal amplification (e.g., in
photomultipliers) and processing operations. Alternatively, they can be used to develop light-sensitive
circuits and switches (such as with photoresistors), or more generally, to convert light into an electrical
signal (i.e., to build photodiodes).

Example: Organo-halide perovskite solar cells

Electroactive Materials: An electroactive material exhibits a change in size or shape when stimulated by
an electric field. The most common applications of this type of material are in actuators, sensors and
artificial muscles. A typical characteristic property of an electroactive material is that they will undergo a
large amount of deformation while sustaining large forces.

Examples: Carbon Nanotube, Copolymer, Polypyrrole etc.

Organic materials used in optoelectronic devices are referred as photo and electroactive organic
materials. They are also called as organic semiconductors. When these materials are used in devices, they
exhibit opto-electronic phenomena as:

a. Absorption emission of light radiation in the wavelength region from ultraviolet to near infrared
b. Photo-generation of charge carrier
c. Transport of charge carrier
d. Injection of charge carriers from the electrodes
e. Exhibit excellent optical properties

Organic light emitting diodes (OLED’S)

Working Principle of OLEDs:

Organic light emitting diode (OLED) is a carrier injection type electroluminescent device that uses
organic materials. The emission mechanism of the OLED is similar to inorganic light emitting diode,
which is usually called an LED. Therefore it is called as Organic light emitting diode (OLED)

OLED devices consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode and organic layers (multiple organic
layers) are placed between two electrodes. When a voltage is applied to an OLED device through anode
and cathode, charge carriers are injected from the electrodes to the organic layers. Anode injects holes

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(positive charges) and cathode injects electrons (negative charges) to the system. The holes and electrons
are transported to an emission site and recombined. Organic materials in the emission site are excited by
recombination of holes and electrons. When the excited organic material returns to its ground state, then
emission occurs.

The emission frequency and Emission colours in an OLED depends upon the energy gap between the
excited and ground states.

Properties of OLEDs:

OLEDs exhibit several unique features,

1. OLED devices have solid and planar structure. Therefore OLED display panels are very thin, flat
and lightweight.
2. OLED devices have self-emission property and hence their devices have high contrast ratios and
wide viewing angles.
3. The response time of OLEDs is as fast as micro or nanosecond order. Therefore OLED displays can
produce sharp moving images. (Extremely attractive compared with LCD).
4. In OLEDS, the emission is from organic materials. Using variety of different organic materials
various colour can be generated. Therefore full- colour images can be obtained.
5. The power consumption of OLED displays is very low.
6. The efficiency of the OLEDs is very high.
7. High vision, high resolution are possible.

Application of OLEDs:
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have a wide range of applications due to their unique properties,
including high contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and flexibility. Here are some of the applications of
OLED:

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1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and other
electronic devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive
lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in wearable
devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays, interior
lighting, and taillights.
5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and medical imaging.
They offer bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help improve medical procedures and
diagnosis

Quantum dot light emitting diodes (QLEDs)

Working Principle of (QLEDs):

QLEDs are a form of light emitting technology for creating large area displays that could have
applications for TVs, cell phones and digital cameras. QLEDs are going to be next generations display
technology after OLED displays. The structure of QLED is similar to the fundamental design of OLED. But
the difference is that the light emitting is from the quantum dots, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe)
nanocrystals.

A QLED devices consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode and quantum dot layer are placed
between two electrodes. When a voltage is applied to a QLED device through anode and cathode, charge
carriers are injected from the electrodes to the QD layer. Anode injects holes (positive charges) and
cathode injects electrons (negative charges) to the system. The holes and electrons are transported to an
emission site and recombined. QD material in the emission site are excited by recombination of holes and
electrons. When the excited QD returns to its ground state, emitting photons.

Properties of QLEDs
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QLEDs are superior to other display technologies like liquid crystal displays (LCDs), OLEDs and plasma
displays due to ideal blend of features like,

 Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant colors due to
their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific color when they are excited by a light source or
an electrical current.

 Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because they do not
require as much backlighting.

 High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference between the
darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting in more detailed and lifelike images.

 Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they do not suffer
from the same issues of backlight burnout or color fading over time.

 Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which means that they can display fast-
moving images without motion blur or ghosting.

 Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of flexible displays
that can be bent or curved

[Note: These unique properties of QDs are mainly due to the nano size crystals. QDs are nanocrystals
whose excitation and emission is basically different from the OLEDs, because they obey quantum
mechanical principles and dimensional confinement for the charge carriers (electrons, holes).]

Applications of QLEDs:

 Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors, smartphones,
and other electronic devices. They offer superior image quality and color accuracy compared to
traditional LCD displays.

 Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including automotive
lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting. They offer energy-efficient and highly customizable
lighting options.

 Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to
produce high-resolution and accurate images.

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 Virtual and augmented reality: QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual and augmented reality
applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate colors, which can enhance the immersive
experience.

 Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital billboards and
signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals

Light Emitting Electrochemical Cells:

A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC or LEEC) is a solid-state device that generates light from
an electric current electroluminescence. LECs are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected by
(e.g. sandwiching) an organic semiconductor containing mobile ions. Aside from the mobile ions, their
structure is very similar to that of an organic light emitting diode (OLED).

Example: Pd(II) hydrazine complexes, phenanthrene-imidazole based ionic molecules.

Model Questions:
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