Module –II

Introduction to Airline Industry: History – Importance of Air cargo industry-navigation

systems – air transport system – functions – terminal area – landside operations – civil
aviation – safety and security – aircraft operator’s security program – security v/s facilitation
– ICAO security manual –training and awareness in airline – rescue and fire fighting – issues
and challenges –airline regulations

MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION TO AIRLINE INDUSTRY
HISTORY OF AIRLINE INDUSTRY
1. Early Beginnings (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century): The concept of powered
flight became a reality with the Wright brothers' successful flight in 1903. In the
years that followed, aviation pioneers like Glenn Curtiss and Louis Blériot made
significant advancements in aircraft design and technology. However, these early
flights were mostly short and experimental, not yet constituting a proper airline
industry.
2. Post-World War I (1920s - 1930s): After World War I, surplus military aircraft and
experienced pilots spurred interest in commercial aviation. Airlines started to
emerge, offering passenger and mail services. Some prominent early airlines include
KLM (1919), the world's oldest operating airline, and Air Mail Act of 1925 in the
United States which laid the foundation for airmail services.
3. Golden Age of Aviation (1940s - 1950s): The end of World War II saw rapid
advancements in aviation technology. This period witnessed the introduction of
pressurized cabins, longer-range aircraft, and the emergence of jet propulsion.
Commercial air travel became more accessible and glamorous. Airlines like Pan
American World Airways (Pan Am) and Trans World Airlines (TWA) became iconic
players during this era.
4. Jet Age (1960s - 1970s): The introduction of jetliners like the Boeing 707 and the
Douglas DC-8 revolutionized air travel, making it faster, more comfortable, and
affordable. This period saw significant expansion of global air networks and marked
the beginning of international air travel becoming accessible to a broader range of
people.
5. Deregulation and Competition (1980s - 1990s): Many governments deregulated
their airline industries, allowing for increased competition and pricing flexibility.
This led to the rise of low-cost carriers, such as Southwest Airlines in the U.S. and
Ryanair in Europe. These carriers focused on offering lower fares and point-to-point
routes, challenging the dominance of traditional legacy airlines.
 6. Technology and Global Expansion (2000s - Present): The 21st century saw further
advancements in aircraft technology, with the introduction of fuel-efficient models
like the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350. This enabled airlines to open
new long-haul routes profitably. The rise of online booking platforms and e-
commerce also transformed the way passengers purchase tickets.
7. Challenges and Innovations: The airline industry faced significant challenges,
including economic downturns, terrorist attacks, and health crises like the SARS
epidemic and COVID-19 pandemic. These events prompted airlines to adapt,
innovate, and implement safety measures. The push for more sustainable aviation
has led to research into alternative fuels and cleaner aircraft designs.
8. Future Prospects: The airline industry continues to evolve with a focus on
sustainability, digital innovation, and passenger experience. Electric and hybrid
aircraft, as well as advancements in autonomous flight technology, are being
explored. Additionally, airlines are placing more emphasis on personalized customer
services and reducing their environmental impact.
IMPORTANCE OF AIR CARGO INDUSTRY
1. Employment: Airlines, airports and air traffic control are attractive employers for
hundreds of thousands of men and women. Aviation creates a diverse working
environment with various professions. Both new entrants to the job market and
people changing careers from other sectors find a wide range of employment
opportunities in airlines, airports and air traffic control.
2. Tourism: Air transport makes a decisive contribution to people’s individual mobility.
Even long distances can be covered quickly and safely with air travel, which is why
airplanes are indispensable in private and business travel. Air transport enables
millions of people to engage in cultural exchange, and it also boosts the tourism
industry.
3. Foreign Trade: Air freight transport links the economy to global flows of goods, and
business travel enables companies to maintain contacts with customers and
suppliers. Airplanes are mainly used to transport particularly high-quality and time-
sensitive goods for which land or sea transport is not an alternative: for example,
machines, spare parts, vehicle parts, etc. Perishable and temperature-sensitive goods
such as medicines, blood preserves and organs are also preferably transported by air.
4. Humanitarian Aid: In the case of natural disasters, armed conflicts and comparable
situations, rapid action is usually required. Aid goods such as medicines, food,
drinking water and tents must reach those affected as soon as possible. Since
transport to many areas cannot be carried out by lorry and ships cannot be on site
fast enough, air transport is crucial for humanitarian aid in many crisis regions. After
all, for long distances, there is no faster means of transport than the airplane.
AIR TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The air transport system consists of three main components:
1. Airports
2. ATC (air traffic control) system
3. Airlines

➢ AIRPORTS
An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities, mostly for commercial air transport.
Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport
consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least
one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and
often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals. Larger
airports may have airport aprons, taxiway bridges, air traffic control centres, passenger
facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services.
An airport solely serving helicopters is called a heliport. An airport for use
by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base.
An international airport is an airport with customs and border control facilities enabling
passengers to travel between countries. International airports are usually larger
than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the
heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel. International
airports often also host domestic flights.

➢ AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct
aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to
aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent
collisions, organize and expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other
support for pilots. In some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role, or is operated by
the military.
Air traffic controllers monitor the location of aircraft in their assigned airspace by radar and
communicate with the pilots by radio. To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic
separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space
around it at all times. In many countries, ATC provides services to all private, military, and
commercial aircraft operating within its airspace.
The pilot in command is the final authority for the safe operation of the aircraft and may, in
an emergency, deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation
of their aircraft.
In 1920, Croydon Airport, London was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic
control. The "aerodrome control tower" was actually a wooden hut 15 ft (4.6 m) high with
windows on all four sides. It was commissioned on 25 February 1920 and provided basic
traffic, weather and location information to pilots.

➢ AIRLINE
An airline is a company that provides air transport services for
traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may
form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements, in which they
both offer and operate the same flight. Generally, airline companies are recognized with
an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.
The first airline was the German airship company DELAG, founded on 16 November 1909. As
of 2019, the largest airline by passengers carried and fleet size was the American Airlines
Group, while Delta Air Lines was the largest by revenue. Lufthansa Group was the largest by
number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-kilometres, Turkish Airlines by
number of countries served and UPS Airlines by number of destinations served.

FUNCTIONS OF AIRPORT SYSTEM

The air transport system serves several important functions, including:
1. Passenger Transport: Air travel enables people to quickly and efficiently move over
long distances, connecting cities, countries, and continents. It facilitates business
trips, tourism, family visits, and more.
2. Cargo Transport: Air transport plays a vital role in transporting goods, including
high-value and time-sensitive items, perishable goods, pharmaceuticals, electronics,
and other products across the globe.
3. Global Connectivity: Air travel provides a network of routes that connect even
remote and isolated areas, contributing to the globalization of trade, culture, and
communication.
4. Emergency Response: During natural disasters, medical emergencies, or
humanitarian crises, air transport helps deliver aid, medical supplies, and personnel
to affected regions quickly.
5. National Security and Defence: Military and security organizations use air transport
for troop deployment, strategic mobility, intelligence gathering, and rapid response
to threats.
6. Tourism and Leisure: Air travel makes tourism accessible, boosting local economies
and cultural exchange by allowing people to experience different regions and
cultures.
 7. Business and Trade: Air transport supports international trade by providing a fast
and efficient way to transport goods and establish business connections worldwide.
8. Time Efficiency: Air travel is the fastest mode of transportation over long distances,
saving time compared to other modes like road or sea transport.
9. Medical Services: Medical air transport facilitates the movement of patients
requiring specialized treatment, organ transplants, or medical evacuation to
medical centers with advanced facilities.
10. Research and Exploration: Air transport supports scientific research, exploration,
and data collection in fields such as meteorology, geography, and environmental
science.
11. Education and Training: Air transport enables international students to access
educational institutions in different countries and supports pilot training programs.
12. Cultural Exchange: Air travel allows people from different cultures to interact,
fostering cross-cultural understanding and promoting diverse experiences.
TERMINAL AREA
An airport terminal is a building at an airport. It is where passengers are able to get on and
off aircraft. Inside the terminal, passengers can buy tickets, leave or pick up their luggage, and
be checked by security staff. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes through gates
are usually called concourses.
LANDSIDE OPERATIONS
Airports are divided into landside and airside areas. The landside area is open to the public,
while access to the airside area is tightly controlled. The airside area includes all parts of the
airport around the aircraft, and the parts of the buildings that are accessible only to
passengers and staff. Passengers and staff must be checked by security before being permitted
to enter the airside area. Conversely, passengers arriving from an international flight must
pass through border control and customs to access the landside area, where they can exit the
airport. Many major airports will issue a secure keycard called an airside pass to employees,
as some roles require employees to frequently move back and forth between landside and
airside as part of their duties.
"Landside operations" at an airport refer to the areas and activities that take place outside
the secure airside portion of the airport. In simpler terms, landside operations pertain to the
parts of the airport that are accessible to the general public, passengers, and airport visitors.
These areas are not restricted to aviation personnel and are where most passengers'
interactions with the airport occur.
CIVIL AVIATION
"Civil aviation" refers to the branch of aviation that deals with non-military aircraft
operations, including commercial airlines, general aviation, and various other activities
related to civil aircraft. It encompasses all aspects of aviation that are not related to military
or defense purposes.
Located at Rajiv Gandhi Bhavan at the Safdarjung Airport in New Delhi, the Ministry of Civil
Aviation is responsible for formulation of national policies and programmes for the
development and regulation of the Civil Aviation sector in the country. It is responsible for
the administration of the Aircraft Act, 1934, Aircraft Rules, 1937 and various other legislations
pertaining to the aviation sector in the country.
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the regulatory body in the field of Civil
Aviation, primarily dealing with safety issues. It is responsible for regulation of air transport
services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety, and
airworthiness standards. The DGCA also co-ordinates all regulatory functions with the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
AVIATION SAFETY AND SECURITY
1. Aviation Safety: Aviation safety focuses on minimizing the risk of accidents and
incidents during all phases of flight, including takeoff, cruising, and landing. Key
components of aviation safety include:
• Aircraft Design and Maintenance: Ensuring that aircraft are designed,
manufactured, and maintained to high safety standards is essential. Regular
inspections, maintenance checks, and adherence to manufacturer guidelines
help prevent technical failures.
• Pilot Training and Qualifications: Well-trained and qualified pilots are crucial
for safe flight operations. Training covers a wide range of skills, including
aircraft handling, emergency procedures, and decision-making in various
scenarios.
• Air Traffic Control (ATC) Services: Efficient coordination by air traffic controllers
helps maintain safe separation between aircraft, prevent collisions, and
provide guidance during critical phases of flight.
• Regulations and Oversight: Regulatory authorities, such as the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States and similar agencies in other
countries, establish and enforce safety standards for aircraft, operators, and
aviation personnel.
• Investigation and Analysis: In the event of accidents or incidents, thorough
investigations are conducted to determine the causes. Lessons learned from
these investigations contribute to improvements in aviation safety.
 2. Aviation Security: Aviation security focuses on preventing unauthorized access, acts
of terrorism, and unlawful interference with aircraft and airport facilities. Key
components of aviation security include:
• Screening and Security Checks: Passengers, baggage, and cargo undergo
rigorous security screening to detect and prevent the carriage of prohibited
items, including weapons and explosives.
• Access Control: Airport facilities restrict access to authorized personnel only,
preventing unauthorized entry to sensitive areas like runways, aprons, and
secure terminals.
• Security Personnel: Trained security personnel are deployed to monitor and
manage security measures, respond to threats, and handle emergencies.
• Threat Assessment and Intelligence: Aviation security agencies collaborate
with intelligence agencies to assess potential threats and take preemptive
measures to counter them.
• Crisis Management: Airports have contingency plans and crisis management
protocols in place to handle emergencies and security incidents effectively.
• International Cooperation: Aviation security is a global concern. International
organizations, such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), work
to establish global security standards and guidelines.
• Technology and Innovation: Advanced technologies, such as biometric
identification, explosive detection systems, and secure communication
networks, are used to enhance aviation security.
AIRCRAFT OPERATOR’S SECURITY PROGRAM
An Aircraft Operator's Security Program (AOSP) is a comprehensive plan developed by an
airline or aircraft operator to ensure the security of their operations, personnel,
passengers, and aircraft. The AOSP is designed to meet international and national security
regulations and standards while addressing specific security risks associated with aviation
operations. It outlines the procedures, policies, and protocols that the operator will follow to
mitigate security threats and ensure the safety of flights.
Key components of an Aircraft Operator's Security Program typically include:
1. Security Policies and Objectives: The AOSP outlines the operator's overarching
security policies and objectives. These policies set the tone for the security culture
within the organization and define the commitment to maintaining a secure aviation
environment.
2. Threat Assessment and Risk Management: The program assesses potential security
threats and risks specific to the operator's routes, destinations, and operations. It
details how the operator will identify, analyze, and mitigate these risks.
 3. Access Control: Procedures for controlling access to aircraft, facilities, and critical
areas of airports are outlined in the AOSP. This includes measures to prevent
unauthorized personnel from gaining access to aircraft and sensitive areas.
4. Passenger and Baggage Screening: The AOSP describes procedures for screening
passengers, their carry-on items, and checked baggage to detect prohibited items
and potential threats.
5. Cargo and Mail Security: Procedures for screening and securing cargo and mail
transported on the aircraft are defined in the program. This includes measures to
prevent the carriage of dangerous or prohibited items.
6. Crew and Personnel Security: The program outlines measures to ensure the security
of flight crew, ground personnel, and other staff. This may include background
checks, training, and access control protocols.
7. Security Training and Awareness: Training requirements for personnel to ensure
they are aware of security threats, procedures, and their responsibilities are detailed
in the AOSP.
8. Emergency Response and Incident Management: Procedures for responding to
security incidents, emergencies, and threats are outlined. This includes coordination
with relevant authorities and communication protocols.
9. Communication and Reporting: The AOSP defines how the operator will
communicate security information internally and externally, as well as how they will
report security incidents to relevant authorities.
10. Technology and Equipment: The program may address the use of security
technologies such as access control systems, surveillance cameras, explosive
detection systems, and other equipment.
11. International Cooperation: For international operations, the AOSP may outline how
the operator will collaborate with foreign governments, airports, and regulatory
bodies to ensure consistent security measures.
12. Continuous Improvement: The AOSP is a dynamic document that should be regularly
reviewed and updated to adapt to changing security threats and regulations.
SECURITY V/S FACILITATION
Aviation Security: Aviation security refers to the measures and procedures put in place to
protect passengers, aircraft, crew, and airport facilities from security threats and potential
acts of unlawful interference. The primary goal of aviation security is to prevent acts of
terrorism, sabotage, hijacking, and other criminal activities that could endanger aviation
safety.
Aviation Facilitation: Aviation facilitation, on the other hand, focuses on streamlining and
improving the passenger experience by reducing delays, enhancing operational efficiency,
and providing better services. The goal of aviation facilitation is to ensure smooth and
hassle-free travel for passengers, while maintaining security measures.
ICAO SECURITY MANUAL
The ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) has produced several security-related
documents, including manuals, guidelines, and standards to enhance aviation security
worldwide. One of the prominent documents is the "ICAO Security Manual" which provides
guidance on aviation security practices and procedures.
Title: ICAO Security Manual (officially known as "ICAO Security Manual: Risk-Based Approach
to Civil Aviation Security")
Purpose: The manual is designed to assist ICAO Member States in implementing effective
aviation security measures in accordance with international standards and best practices.
Content:
1. Introduction: Overview of the purpose and scope of the manual, emphasizing the
importance of a risk-based approach to aviation security.
2. Basic Concepts and Definitions: Definitions of key terms related to aviation security,
ensuring a common understanding among all stakeholders.
3. Legal and Regulatory Framework: Information on the international legal framework
for aviation security, including the Chicago Convention and relevant Security
Annexes.
4. Aviation Security Management: Guidance on establishing a robust aviation security
management system that integrates risk assessment, planning, implementation, and
evaluation.
5. Threat and Risk Assessment: Details on how to conduct threat and risk assessments
to identify potential security threats and vulnerabilities.
6. Access Control: Recommendations for controlling access to sensitive areas of airports
and aircraft to prevent unauthorized access.
7. Cargo and Mail Security: Guidelines for enhancing the security of air cargo and mail,
including screening and handling procedures.
8. Passenger and Baggage Security: Best practices for passenger and baggage
screening, as well as procedures for handling prohibited items.
9. Security Training and Human Resources Development: Information on the
importance of training and developing skilled security personnel.
10. Crisis Management and Contingency Planning: Guidance on developing effective
crisis management and contingency plans to respond to security incidents.
11. Quality Control and Quality Assurance: Recommendations for establishing
mechanisms to ensure the effectiveness and reliability of security measures.
 12. Cooperation and Coordination: Emphasis on the importance of collaboration among
various stakeholders, including governments, industry, and law enforcement.
13. Emerging Security Issues: Addressing evolving threats and challenges in aviation
security, such as cybersecurity and new technologies.
14. Annexes: Additional information, tools, and resources to support the implementation
of security measures.
TRAINING AND AWARENESS IN AIRLINE
Training and awareness programs are crucial components of aviation security within airlines.
These programs ensure that airline staff are well-informed about security procedures,
regulations, and best practices, helping to maintain a high level of security across all aspects
of airline operations.
The following are some key points to consider regarding training and awareness in airlines:
1. Security Training for Staff: Airlines provide security training for various staff
members, including cabin crew, ground staff, pilots, and maintenance personnel. This
training covers topics such as recognizing suspicious behavior, handling potential
security threats, responding to emergencies, and properly implementing security
measures.
2. Initial and Ongoing Training: New employees receive initial security training as part
of their orientation process. However, security threats and regulations can change
over time, so ongoing training is essential to keep employees up-to-date with the
latest security procedures and developments.
3. Security Awareness Programs: Airlines often conduct security awareness programs
to educate employees about the importance of security measures and their role in
maintaining a safe and secure aviation environment. These programs help foster a
security-conscious culture throughout the organization.
4. Crisis Management Training: Employees are trained to respond effectively to security
incidents or crises. This includes drills for handling various scenarios such as bomb
threats, hijacking attempts, and other emergencies.
5. Passenger Interaction and Profiling: Cabin crew and ground staff receive training on
interacting with passengers and identifying potential security risks or suspicious
behavior. Profiling techniques help them recognize individuals who might pose a
security threat.
6. Baggage and Cargo Security: Training for baggage and cargo handling personnel
covers proper screening procedures, handling of prohibited items, and recognizing
signs of tampering or suspicious packages.
7. Technology and Equipment Training: Employees using security screening equipment,
such as X-ray machines and metal detectors, undergo specialized training to ensure
accurate operation and interpretation of results.
 8. Cybersecurity Awareness: As aviation systems become more digitized, airline staff
need to be aware of cybersecurity risks and preventive measures to protect critical
systems from cyber threats.
9. Coordination with Authorities: Airlines collaborate with law enforcement and
security agencies to ensure their employees are familiar with reporting procedures
and actions to take in case of security-related incidents.
10. Passenger Communication: Airlines train staff in effective communication strategies
to inform passengers about security procedures and promote compliance.
11. Language and Cultural Sensitivity: Training programs emphasize cultural sensitivity
and language skills to effectively handle diverse passengers and situations.
12. Documentation and Record Keeping: Airlines maintain records of training sessions
and assessments to demonstrate compliance with regulations and standards.
13. Feedback and Improvement: Regular feedback from employees can help improve
training programs. Airlines can use this feedback to update and enhance training
content based on real-world experiences.
RESCUE AND FIRE FIGHTING
Aircraft rescue and firefighting (ARFF) is a type of firefighting that involves the emergency
response, mitigation, evacuation, and rescue of passengers and crew of aircraft involved
in aviation accidents and incidents.
Airports with scheduled passenger flights are obliged to have firefighters and firefighting
apparatus on location ready for duty any time aircraft operate. Airports may have regulatory
oversight by an arm of their individual national governments or voluntarily under standards
of the International Civil Aviation Organization.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
The following are some of the key issues and challenges faced by ARFF teams:
1. Time-Critical Responses: ARFF personnel must respond to emergencies within strict
timeframes to prevent fires from spreading and to assist with evacuations. Achieving
rapid response times requires well-coordinated communication, equipment
readiness, and personnel availability.
2. Aircraft Type Variation: Different aircraft types have varying fuel loads, layouts, and
structural components. ARFF personnel need to be familiar with a wide range of
aircraft to effectively address emergencies involving various models.
3. Changing Aircraft Technology: As aircraft technology evolves, challenges arise in
dealing with new materials, fuel systems, and potential hazards. ARFF teams must
stay updated on advancements to effectively respond to emerging risks.
4. Training and Skill Maintenance: Comprehensive training is essential for ARFF
personnel, but keeping skills current can be challenging. Regular training,
simulations, and exercises are required to ensure readiness.
5. Personnel Safety: ARFF operations are inherently dangerous due to the presence of
fire, hazardous materials, and potential explosions. Ensuring the safety of ARFF
personnel while they work in high-risk environments is a top priority.
6. Human Factors: Stress, fatigue, and psychological impact are significant concerns for
ARFF personnel who often face traumatic and high-pressure situations. Managing
stress and maintaining mental well-being is crucial.
7. Resource Constraints: Adequate resources, such as specialized equipment and
firefighting agents, are necessary for effective ARFF operations. Budget limitations
can impact the availability of these resources.
8. Mutual Aid and Collaboration: In cases of major incidents, effective collaboration
with other emergency response agencies and mutual aid partners is crucial.
Communication and coordination challenges can arise when multiple agencies are
involved.
9. Environmental Concerns: Firefighting agents, such as foam and water, can have
environmental impacts. Proper containment and cleanup are necessary to minimize
harm to the environment.
10. Night Operations: Responding to emergencies at night presents additional challenges
due to reduced visibility. ARFF personnel must be proficient in using night-vision
equipment and coordinating efforts effectively in the dark.
11. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: ARFF operations are subject to strict international
and national regulations. Staying compliant with these standards while managing
emergencies requires constant attention to detail.
12. Technology Integration: As aviation technology advances, ARFF teams need to
integrate new tools and equipment into their operations seamlessly. This includes
using advanced communication systems, thermal imaging cameras, and remote-
controlled firefighting equipment.
13. Language and Cultural Diversity: Airports serve a diverse range of passengers and
crews from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Effective communication and
coordination with different parties can be a challenge.
14. Infrastructure Limitations: Some airports, especially in remote or developing regions,
might have limited ARFF infrastructure. This can hinder response capabilities and
require creative solutions.
AIRLINE REGULATIONS
Airline regulations are a set of rules created and maintained by aviation authorities. These
regulations keep air travel safe and simple for all travelers, so these important rules must be
followed by airlines. The regulations take precedence over an airline’s policy, explaining how
airlines should approach key areas like tickets, baggage regulations, and more.
A variety of formal bodies regulate air travel and the landscape is complex. The International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a special agency of the United Nations. The ICAO helps
its 191 Member States to create shared international standards. These standards then
provide the basis for national regulations, which are maintained by a Civil Aviation Authority
(CAA).
In the US, air travel and air traffic is regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
The European Aviation Safety Agency has the same role in Europe, drafting important safety
regulations that determine how airlines should operate.
The Ministry of Civil Aviation (“MoCA”) is the nodal Ministry responsible for the formulation
of policy and regulation of civil aviation in India. The MoCA oversees the planning and
implementation of schemes for the growth and expansion of civil air transport, airport
facilities, air traffic services and the carriage of passengers and goods by air.
AIRLINE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Finding the way from one place to another is called navigation.
Air navigation is defined as “the process of determining the geographic position and
maintaining the desired direction of an aircraft relative to the surface of the earth.”
The science and technology of determining the position of an aircraft with respect to the
surface of the earth and accurately maintaining a desired course.
Main navigation methods are:
(I) Pilotage or Piloting (based on visual landmarks)
⦁ In this most common method of navigation, the pilot keeps on course by following
a series of landmarks on the ground.
⦁ Before take-off, the pilot prepares a plan and draws a line on an aeronautical map
to indicate the desired flight course and note various landmarks such as buildings,
roads, rivers, bridges etc.
⦁ As the aircraft flies over each of the landmarks, the pilot checks it off on the chart
or map.
⦁ If the aircraft does not fly directly over the landmark, the pilot will know that he has
to correct the course.
(II) Dead Reckoning
⦁ Dead reckoning is navigating the aircraft completely by means of computations
based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction.
 ⦁ The products derived from these variables, when adjusted by wind speed and
velocity provide direction and ground speed.
⦁ The direction which is being predicted tends to take the aircraft along the intended
path and the ground speed establishes or produces the time to arrive at each
checkpoint and the destination with respect to each other.
⦁ Dead reckoning is not always a successful method of navigation due to changing
wind direction. It was used in the early days of aviation.

(III) Radio navigation

⦁ Radio navigation is used in almost all aircraft by the pilots. These pilots have the
potential to find out from an aeronautical chart what and which radio station they
should tune to in a particular area or region.
⦁ They can then tune their radio navigation to a signal from this station. A needle on
the navigation equipment tells the pilot where they are flying and whether they are
on course or not.
(IV) Celestial navigation
⦁ Based on navigational reference to heavenly bodies like Sun, Moon, planets, stars
etc.
(V) Satellite navigation
⦁ Navigation through use of data broadcast by a satellite-based transmitter.
(VI) There are special methods for navigating aircraft across oceans. The commonly used
methods are
⦁ Inertial Navigation System (INS)
INS is a self-contained navigation system that uses accelerometers and gyroscopes to
calculate an aircraft's position, velocity, and attitude. It provides navigation
information, especially when GPS signals are unavailable or disrupted, such as in
remote areas or during certain flight phases.

⦁ Global Positioning System (GPS)

The GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time
information in all weather and climatic conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.