Human Anatomy and Physiology

Eleventh Edition

Chapter 20

The Lymphatic System and

Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs
and Tissues
• Lymphatic system returns fluids leaked from blood vessels back to blood; consists of
three parts
1. Network of lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
2. Lymph: fluid in vessels
3. Lymph nodes: cleanse lymph

• Lymphoid organs and tissues provide structural basis of immune system by housing
phagocytic cells and lymphocytes
– Structures include spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, other lymphoid tissues
20.1 Lymphatic System
• Lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to blood via:
– Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics): elaborate network of drainage vessels
– Circulates ~ 3L interstitial fluid per day
– Once interstitial fluid enters lymphatics, it is called lymph
Distribution and Structure of Lymphatic
Vessels
• Lymphatic vessels offer a one-way system, ensuring lymph flows only toward heart

• Lymph vessels (lymphatics) include lymphatic capillaries and larger lymphatic vessels

• Lymphatic capillaries
– Blind-ended vessels that weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries
§ Absent from bones, teeth, and bone marrow
§ Once thought to be absent from CNS, but now found to be present but limited
to locations in meninges where they help to drain interstitial fluid and CSF.
– Similar to blood capillaries, but more permeable
– Can take up larger molecules and particles that blood capillaries cannot
§ Example: proteins, cell debris, pathogens, and cancer cells
§ Can act as route for pathogens or cancer cells to travel throughout body
Distribution and Special Features of
Lymphatic Capillaries

Figure 20.1 Distribution and special features of lymphatic capillaries.

 Distribution and Structure of Lymphatic
Vessels
• Lymphatic capillaries (continued)
– Increased permeability due to two specialized structures
1. Endothelial cells overlap loosely to form one-way minivalves
2. Minivalves are anchored by collagen filaments to matrix, so increases in
ECF volume opens minivalves even more
– Decreases in ECF cause minivalves to close
– Lacteals: specialized lymph capillaries present in intestinal mucosa
§ Absorb digested fat and deliver fatty lymph (chyle) to the blood

• Larger lymphatic vessels

– Lymph capillaries drain into increasingly larger vessels called collecting
lymphatic vessels
– Consist of collecting vessels, trunks, and ducts
– Have structures and tunics similar to veins, except:
§ Have thinner walls, with more internal valves
§ Anastomose more frequently
– Collecting vessels in skin travel with superficial veins, but deep vessels travel with
arteries
Distribution and Structure of Lymphatic
Vessels
• Larger lymphatic vessels (cont.)
– Lymphatic trunks, which are formed by union of largest collecting vessels, drain
large areas of body
§ Named for regions of body they drain:
– Paired lumbar
– Paired bronchomediastinal
– Paired subclavian
– Paired jugular trunks
– Single intestinal trunk

• Lymph is delivered from trunks into one of two large lymphatic ducts
– Right lymphatic duct drains right upper arm and right side of head and thorax
– Thoracic duct drains rest of body
§ In about half of individuals, starts out as an enlarged sac, cisterna chyli

• Each empties lymph into venous circulation at junction of internal jugular and subclavian
veins on its own side of body
Major Lymphatic Trunks and Ducts

Figure 20.2 Major lymphatic trunks and ducts.

The Lymphatic System

Figure 20.3 The lymphatic system. Figure 20.5 Lymphoid organs.

Lymph Transport
• Lymph system is a low-pressure system like venous system

• Lymph is propelled by same mechanisms:

– Milking action of skeletal muscle
– Pressure changes in thorax during breathing
– Valves to prevent backflow
– Pulsations of nearby arteries
– Contractions of smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

• Physical activity increases flow of lymph; immobilization of area keeps needed

inflammatory material in area for faster healing
20.2 Lymphoid Cells, Tissues, and Organs
• Lymphoid cells consist of (1) immune system cells found in lymphoid tissue and (2)
supporting cells that form lymphoid tissue structures
1. Immune system cells
§ Lymphocytes: cells of the adaptive immune system; mature into one of two
main types
– T cells (T lymphocytes)
– B cells (B lymphocytes)
2. Immune system cells
§ T cells and B cells protect against antigens (anything the body perceives as
foreign)
– Examples: bacteria, toxins, viruses, mismatched RBCs, cancer cells
§ T cells: manage immune response, and some also attack and destroy infected
cells
§ B cells: produce plasma cells, which secrete antibodies
– Antibodies mark antigens for destruction by phagocytosis or other means
Lymphoid Cells
1. Immune system cells (cont.)
§ Other lymphoid immune cells
– Macrophages phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells
– Dendritic cells capture antigens and deliver them to lymph nodes; also
help activate T cells
2. Supporting lymphoid cell
§ Reticular cells produce reticular fibers called stroma in lymphoid organs
– Stroma: network-like support that acts as scaffolding for immune cells

• Figure 20.4 Reticular connective tissue in a

human lymph node.
Lymphoid Tissue
• Main functions of lymphoid tissue
– Houses and provides proliferation sites for lymphocytes
– Offers surveillance vantage points for lymphocytes and macrophages as they filter
through lymph

• Largely composed of reticular connective tissue, a type of loose connective tissue

– Macrophages live on reticular fibers
– Spaces between fibers offer a place for lymphocytes to occupy when they return
from patrolling body
 Lymphoid Organs
• Two main types of lymphoid tissues
– Diffuse lymphoid tissue: loose arrangement of lymphoid cells and some reticular fibers
§ Found in virtually every body organ
§ Larger collections in lamina propria of mucous membranes

• Two main types of lymphoid tissues (cont.)

– Lymphoid follicles (nodules): solid, spherical bodies consisting of tightly packed
lymphoid cells and reticular fibers
§ Contain germinal centers of proliferating B cells
§ May form part of larger lymphoid organs (nodes)
§ Isolated aggregations of Peyer’s patches and in appendix

• Lymphoid organs are grouped into two functional categories

– Primary lymphoid organs: areas where T and B cells mature—red bone marrow and
thymus
§ T and B cells originate in bone marrow, but only B cells matures there; T cells
mature in thymus
– Secondary lymphoid organs: areas where mature lymphocytes first encounter their
antigen and become activated
§ Nodes, spleen, MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) and diffuse lymphoid
tissues
20.3 Lymph Nodes
• Lymph nodes: principal secondary lymphoid organs of body

• Hundreds of nodes are found throughout body

– Most are embedded deep in connective tissue in clusters along lymphatic vessels
– Some are nearer to body surface in inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions of body
where collecting vessels converge into trunks

• Two main functions of lymph nodes

1. Cleansing the lymph: act as lymph “filters”
§ Macrophages remove and destroy microorganisms and debris that enter
lymph
– Prevent unwanted substances from being delivered to blood
2. Immune system activation: offer a place for lymphocytes to become activated and
mount an attack against antigens
 Structure of a Lymph Node
• Vary in shape and size, but most are bean shaped - small, less than 2.5 cm (~1 inch)

• Surrounded by external fibrous capsule

• Capsule fibers extend inward as trabeculae that divide node into compartments

• Two histologically distinct regions of node (cortex, medulla)

1. Cortex
– Superficial area of cortex contains follicles with germinal centers that are heavy with
dividing B cells
– Deep cortex houses T cells in transit
§ T cells circulate continuously among blood, lymph nodes, and lymph
– Abundant numbers of dendritic cells are closely associated with both T and B cells
§ Play a role in activating both lymphocytes

2. Medulla
– Medullary cords extend inward from cortex and contain B cells, T cells, and plasma cells

• Lymph sinuses are found throughout node

– Consist of large lymphatic capillaries spanned by crisscrossing reticular fibers
– Macrophages reside on fibers, checking for and phagocytizing any foreign matter
Lymph Node

Figure 20.6 Lymph node.

Circulation in the Lymph Nodes
• Lymph enters convex side of node via afferent lymphatic vessels

• Travels through large subcapsular sinus and then into smaller sinuses found throughout
cortex and medulla

• Lymph then enters medullary sinuses

• Finally exits concave side at hilum via efferent lymphatic vessels

– Presence of fewer efferent vessels causes flow to somewhat stagnate; allows
lymphocytes and macrophages time to function
– Lymph travels through several nodes
 20.4 Spleen
• Blood-rich organ about size of fist, located in left side of abdominal cavity, just below stomach

• Largest lymphoid organ (encased by fibrous capsule and also has trabeculae)

• Served by splenic artery and vein, which enter and exit at the hilum

• Functions
– Site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance and response
– Cleanses blood of aged blood cells and platelets; macrophages remove debris

• Three additional functions of spleen:

1. Stores breakdown products of RBCs (e.g., iron) for later reuse
2. Stores blood platelets and monocytes for release into blood when needed
3. May be site of fetal erythrocyte production

• Histologically, consists of two components

1. White pulp: site where immune function occurs
§ Contains mostly lymphocytes on reticular fibers
§ White pulp clusters are found around central arteries; appear as islands of white in a
sea of red pulp
2. Red pulp: site where old blood cells and bloodborne pathogens are destroyed
§ Rich in RBCs and macrophages that engulf them
§ Composed of splenic cords (reticular tissue) that separate blood-filled splenic
sinusoids (venous sinuses)
 The Spleen

Figure 20.7a-b The spleen.

 The Spleen

Figure 20.7c-d The spleen.

20.5 MALT
• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
– Lymphoid tissues in mucous membranes throughout body

• Protects from pathogens trying to enter body

• Found in mucosa of respiratory tract, genitourinary organs, and digestive tract; largest
collections of MALT found in
– Tonsils
– Peyer’s patches
– Appendix
Tonsils
• Simplest lymphoid organs

• Form ring of lymphatic tissue around pharynx; appear as swellings of mucosa

• Named according to location

– Palatine tonsils: at posterior end of oral cavity
§ Largest of tonsils and most often infected
– Lingual tonsil: lumpy collection of follicles at base of tongue
– Pharyngeal tonsil: also called adenoids; located in posterior wall of nasopharynx
– Tubal tonsils: surround openings of auditory tubes into pharynx

• Tonsils function is to gather and remove pathogens in food or air

• Contain follicles with germinal centers and scattered lymphocytes

• Are not fully encapsulated

• Overlying epithelium invaginates, forming tonsillar crypts

– Bacteria or particulate matter enters crypts, where they are trapped and destroyed
§ Risky to lure bacteria into tissues, but allows immune cells to become activated
and build memory cells against these potential pathogens
Histology of the Palatine Tonsil

Figure 20.8 Histology of the palatine tonsil.

Peyer’s Patch (Aggregated Lymphoid Nodules)

Figure 20.9 Peyer’s patch

Peyer’s patches: clusters of lymphoid follicles in wall of distal portion of small intestine
Also called aggregated lymphoid nodules
Structurally similar to tonsils
Location aids in functions
1. Destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching intestinal wall
2. Generate “memory” lymphocytes
 Appendix
• Appendix: offshoot of first part of large
intestine

• Contains a large number of lymphoid

follicles

• Location aids in functions (like Peyer’s

patches)
1. Destroy bacteria, preventing them
from breaching intestinal wall
2. Generate “memory” lymphocytes
 20.6 Thymus
• Thymus: bilobed lymphoid organ found in inferior neck, extends into mediastinum

• Functions as lymphoid organ where T cells mature

– Most active and largest in size during childhood
– Stops growing during adolescence, then gradually atrophies
– Still produces immunocompetent cells, though more slowly

• Thymus is broken into lobules that contain outer cortex and inner medulla
– Cortex contains rapidly dividing lymphocytes and scattered macrophages
– Medulla contains fewer lymphocytes and thymic corpuscles
§ Thymic corpuscles are where regulatory T cells develop
– Regulatory T cells: type of T cell that helps to prevent autoimmunity

• Thymus differs from other lymphoid organs in important ways

1. Has no follicles because it lacks B cells
2. Does not directly fight antigens
§ Functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation
– Contains blood thymus barrier: keeps immature T lymphocytes isolated from
any antigens to prevent premature activation
3. Stroma is made up of epithelial cells, not reticular fibers
§ Provide environment in which T lymphocytes become immunocompetent
The Thymus

Figure 20.10 The thymus.

Table 20.1 Summary of Lymphoid Organs
and Tissues

Table 20.1 Summary of Lymphoid Organs and Tissues.