C --- No.

of bits that can be received in a sec

( so that lesser number of errors are there in the
received bits.)

log (x) x ..
C = B log (1 + SNR )
2
==> C SNR

Link budget is another parameter that affects the design of communication system. We have
to design the following parameters in order for the receiver to receive the signal with the
suggested BER :: a) power to be transmitted, b) Band width of the signal to be Xtted, c) Gains
of antennas, d) which type of equipment to be used so that equipment generates min. amount
b) of noise, etc. This is because :: a) Amount of power Xtted is proportional to distance in
between Tx & Rx. Similarly, b) B.W. is increased means more no. of bits can be transmitted.

ht = height of Transmitting antenna, hr = height of Receiving antenna,

Transmitter is transmitting the signal with Pt amount of Power. From Transmitter
to the Transmitting antenna, cable (or Transmission line) is connected. Similarly, from
Receiving antenna, received signal goes to the Receiver by means of Cable (or Transmission
line). For Ex., In Cable TV, parabolic antenna placed in
Cable operator's site receives satellite signal. From this parabolic antenna, cable is
connected to the operator/customer's premises.
Transmission line

= distance between Tx & Rx.

Receiver.

Gt = gain of Transmitting antenna & Gr = Gain of the receiving antenna.

If area (or breadth) of the receiving antenna is more, then it receives more signal.
Lp is path loss between Transmitter & Receiver (or Amount of attenuation happened to the signal in between Transmitter & Receiver).
 As Fq. increases, signal is
attenuated in more
amounts. Ex : Bluetooth
If the terrain in between uses 2.4GHz but travels
Tx & Rx is city area, then function only for smaller distances.
more no. of buildings in Cellular signal travelling on
b/w Tx & Rx. ==> 900MHz fq. will reach upto
More absorption for the signal. > 2Km distance.

If it is village area, then more As distance b/w Tx & Rx

open space is there in b/w Tx & increases, signal
Rx. => lesser attenuation for signal. attenuation becomes
more.
If in b/w TX & Rx, forest area is there.
==> more trees scatter the received
signal. ==> Because of this scattering
only, GPS signal is not received properly Path log (x) x
in the forests.

C = B log (1 + SNR)
==> C SNR
(There are no obstructions in between Tx & Rx in Line of Sight (LOS).
(or) There is Line of Sight in between Tx & Rx.

Power transmitted from transmitting antenna (Pt)

Pt -- power received by the receiving antenna (Pr)
Path loss
(in Decibels)
Pr

2
------- (1)
Pt Gt Gr .
Pr = ----------------------
2
( 4 pi r )

Friis equation.
2
==> Pr ==> received signal
= ------------
Pt 2 power becomes small
( 4 pi d )

(for the normalized

antenna gains
Gt = Gr = 1).

In the above, Pr & Pt

are in Watts.
Pt
==> 10 log (-------) =
Pr

Pt (in db) - Pr (in db)

= path loss (Lp in db)

==> received signal

power becomes more.

Line of sight means

Transmitting antenna
& Receiving antenna
LOS is Line of sight path. can see each other,
w/o having any
obstruction b/w them.
 Path-loss or

If more buildings are there (as in city), then Receiver receives the
Attenuation happening because of buildings : : direct signal (from Tx) along with the reflected signals (from
buildings).
Direct signal & reflected signal take different paths to travel. ==>
Path lengths & directions are different for both direct and
reflected signals. ==> Rx receives them at different timings. =>
They will be received with different phase angles.

Ex:: Directly received signal power = P.with 0 degrees

Direct phase. If reflected signal is received with 270 degrees phase
signal difference, then receiver gets : P cos( 0 ) + P cos( 270 )
= P power.
If reflected signal is received with 180 degrees phase
difference, then receiver gets : P cos (0) + P cos(180)
= 0 power.
i.e. Rx gets different powers at different points of time. This
is called fading.

Attenuation in case of forest area :

Only the
scattered signal
in the direction
of Rx. will reach
to the Rx.
Incident Signal
Scattered signal

Because of obstructions in between Tx & Rx, ==> there will be more attenuation in case of non-LOS.

===>

Exact amount of
path-loss can't be
predicted
measured accurately Lee model
by any model. The reason
is that all of Hyderabad,
chennai, bangalore are ( Out door model : measuring path-loss
cities. But, we can't say in out-door environment. )
that no. of buildings & no. of Lee model is out-door model.
trees in all these cities are same.
Once no. of obstructions in b/w
Tx & Rx are different in different
places, then path-loss will be
different in different places.
 Path-loss in sub-urban
region as per Lee model Received power is 'Pr'. Path loss
= Lp = Pt (in db) - Pr (in db). is inversely proportional to the
Received power.
1
Pr
alpha
Pt d
Signal
Path-loss exponent is 'alpha'.
on f fq.
In free-space, path-loss is less.
Pr
ht ==> 'alpha' in free space is 2.

hr In cities, path loss is very high

because of having many
----------------
f = fq. of the transmitted signal. obstructions (or buildings). ==>
d 'alpha' = 4 in cities.

In villages, path loss is relatively

smaller when compared to the cities
because of lesser no. of
obstructions. ==> 'alpha' is 3 in
villages.

Because of furniture in the indoor environment, we

Ex: Edge of the bench has sharp corner. don't get proper signal for our cell phone inside the
building.

Incident wave

(affects the design of communication system)

Transmit

Modulated wave
Transmit at IF fq. RF fq.
-----

Digital transmit sub system upconverter --> Mixer changing fq. from IF to RF fq.
or DSP processor
As single local oscillator can't produce the stable higher fq., we use more than
1 mixer (with each local oscillator producing the stable lower frequency
oscillations).
-----

(Path loss)

Transmitted power (in Db) = Pt in Db + lt in db + Gt in Db

from the transmitting antenna

G
Rx1

RF Fq.
RF fq.
---------

Mixer 1

IF fq.
------------

Mixer 2

(or DSP processor)

P
G
o/p = PG watts
(or) P in Db +
G in db.

( in db )

(in db)

No > Ni ==> o/p SNR <=

I/p SNR in most of the Rx
parts.
(because of the Rx adding its own noise).
 Amplifier 1
Amplifier2

Na1 = noise produced by the amplifier I/p noise gets amplified by G2

(Thermal noise) on its own. I/P noise gets factor. Also, amplifier is
amplified by G1 factor in the amplifier. producing its own noise Na2.
Amplifier is also electronic device. When any electronic device gets heated,
that device generates thermal noise. Amplifier also generates thermal noise.

Amplifies both the i/p signal as well as i/p noise. Amplifier

Amp.
Signal +
noise Total noise
Amplifier added by the
amplifier
Amplifier1 is generating
Total
noise. noise
power
O/P
I/p noise
I/p noise is amplified.
Noise i/p
System gain

ADC

To
digital
receive
sub-system
Fn is noise figure of nth sub-system.
Combined signal and noise is attenuated by

That is, noise generated in Tx is also facing attenuation in channel.

Tx

only ;
 (for designing Receiver, what are the things that we
have to look after)

Receiver
(Rx)

If received signal
power > noise power,
then there won't be
any errors in
decoding the
received signal.

Noise power in Rx =
1 nano Watt.
(Rx sensitivity :: How much amount of received signal is to be received so that Rx does not get more If received signal
no. of errors). power < noise power,
then there will be
more no. of errors
while decoding the
received signal.
(Rx receives actual signal to be decoded by Rx + Interference)

(lesser no. of errors in the Receiver after decoding the received signal)
Received signal =

Receiver receives both

lesser interference received signal + interference.
Even though interference is coming,
Received signal = receiver should be able to decode the
BER is very high. received signal with lesser no. of
errors. Like that, how much
interference can be tolerated by the
receiver so that Rx can decode the
More received signal properly is this dynamic range.
Dynamic range is the amount of interference that can be beared by the Rx and RX should be
able to demodulate the received signal with lesser BER.