quick Study Notes 191 Chapter | Chemical Reactions and Equations 1, Chemical Reactions «A chemical reaction is a change in which one or more substances) or reactant(s) react to form new substance(s) with entirely different properties, « The reecting species are known as reactants and the new species formed as a result of the reaction are called products. + A chemical reaction can be identified either by (i) change in state or colour Ci) evolution of gas (ii) change in temperature Civ) formation of a precipitate. 2. Chemical Equation 4 chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction. Symbols and formulae of the reactants and products are used for the same. eg, CH,@)+20,0) —*> €0,() + 2H,0G) athe. Orpen Corbon donde ater 3, Balanced Chemical Equation + The number of atoms of each element remains the same, before and after a chemical reaction, In order to satisfy the law of conservation of mass, a chemical eqotion should be balanced, 4. Types of Chemical Reactions Different types of chemical reactions are as follows @ Combination Reaction + A reaction in which two or more reactants react together to form a single product, is called a combination reaction + Example, When calcium oxide (quick lime) is dissolved in water, it forms calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). The reaction is highly exothermic. Ca0(s) + H,00) —» CaCOW),Cog) ick Tim © eter Slated fm © Gi) Decomposition Reaction 4 reaction in which a single reactant breaks down to form two or more products, is knowm as decomposition reaction. On the basis of the form of energy required for the reaction, these reactions are of three types (a) Thermal Decomposition These reactions use the energy in the form of heat for decomposition of the reactant. e.9., Caco,(s) M8, Cad (s) + €0,Cg) aku carbonate Calin ide Caan donde (b) Electrolysis These reactions involve the use of electrical energy required for the decomposition of the reactant molecules. eg 24,0) ater etic eet, 24 Cy) +0, Cg) Hydrogen Orggen © Photolysis or Photochemical Decomposition These reactions involve the use of light energy for the purpose of decomposition. eg. 2Agcl(s) wth, 2Ag(s) + Cl,Cg) ‘iver eerie iver chlorine Gi) Displacement Reaction This reaction is of two types (@) Single Displacement Reaction A reaction in which a more reactive element displaces 0 less reactive element from the solution of its compound, is called single displacement or displacement reaction, €.9., 2n(s) + CuSO,Cag) — 2nS0,(aq) + CuCs) Bin metal capper 2ine slate CoPPer Go os SM eae meta ‘solution Cblue) colourless) Crew) &) Double Displacement Reaction The reaction in which two different ions in the reactant molecules are displaced by each other, is called double ‘displacement reaction, €.9., Na,S0,(oq)+ Bacl,(aq)—+ Baso, Sim Berm Barium Sulphate Cherde Sulphate White poe) +2NaCi(ag) Sodom Chloride192 (iv) Neutralisation Reaction The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base, is called neutralisation reaction. e.9. NaOH(ag) + HNO (aq) —> NaNO,(aq) ‘Sim Mir ot Sed tie +H,00) ater ) Oxidation and Reduction Reactions + Oxidation The process in which oxygen is added to 0 substance. Or The process in which hydrogen is removed from a substance. 4No + 0, —» 2No,0 Sedhom Oren Seam exide CH,CH,OH —@» CH,CHO+H, aio =¢ + Reduction The process in which hydrogen is added to a substance. Or The process in which oxygen is removed from a substance. 2Na + HW, —> 2NaH Sediom ——Hyiogen ce ydnide 2n0+€—> 2n+CO + Redox Reactions Those reactions in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously are colled redox reactions. 29. Reduction py uo + Hz —+ tu + H20 conver We Terisoee Copper bate oxide ie se et Onidation In this reaction, the copper (il) oxide is losing oxygen and is being reduced, The Chapter 2 Acids, Bases and Salts L Acids + Acids are those chemical substances which have a ‘sour taste and turn blue litrnus solution red, «© According to Arrhenius concept, Substances that furnish H” ions in an aqueous solution are called acids, eg.H,50,—> 2H* + SOj- iSucceed Science Class 10 hydrogen is gaining oxygen and is being oxidised. (i) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions + Exothermic reactions The reactions which ‘are accomponied by the evolution of heat, are called exothermic reactions. €.9 CHG) + 20,G) —> C0 ,(@) + 2H,0() Methone Oxygen Carbon divide ater + Heat + Endothermic reactions The reactions wihich occur by the absorption of heat/energy are called endothermic reactions. 9. 2Hg0(s) + Heat —> 2H9(I) +0, Cg) Merci erary Ooggen nde 5. Corrosion and Rancidity * The phenomenon due to which ynetals are slowly eaten away by the reaction of oir, water and chemicals present in atmosphere, is called corrosion. « Rusting of iron Corrosion of iron is called rusting. tron forms hydrated iron oxide Crust) when kept open in moist ar 4Fe +30, + xH,0—> 2Fe,0,- x0 ae Pan IMydrated ion oxide Cast) © Corrosion is a wasteful processs in most of cases. Every year, a lot of tones of various metals especially iron get wasted in the country, Hence, it is quite necessary to prevent corrosion. © Rancidity It is the process of slow oxidation of oil and fat present in the food materials resulting in the production of foul odour and taste in them. © Antioxidants ore added to foods containing fats and oil in order to prevent their oxidation, 2, Bases Substances that furnish hydroxide ions (OH) in ‘aqueous solution are called bases. e.g., caustic soda or sodium hydroxide NaOH. 3, Chemical Properties of Acids * Reaction with Metals Dilute acids (eg, HCI and H,,S0,, not HNO.) react with certain active metals— quick Study Notes like zinc (2n), iron (Fe), ete to for an 0 form salt ond evolve 2n(s) + Dil H,S0, aie n(s ia = 1, (aq) 2080, Coo) . sulphate +4,@) Reaction with Metal 0; sah « Reaction fetal Oxides Acids react with cert metal oxides (basic oxides) to form salt and a eg. Ca0(s) + 2HCICoq) ——+ CaCl,(ag) Calcium Hydrachyorie: Oxide Coletwm chlonde + H,0) Boater « Reaction with Metal Carbonate Acids react with ‘metal corbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas. €9. CaCO, (s) + 2HCICag) —_, L Seek eek ene) cim ; ctbonate cid Sorce +H,0 + ©0,G) aver Corban doxide 4. Chemical Properties of Bases © Reaction with Metals Strong boses react with active ‘metals to produce hydrogen gas. eg. 2n(s) + 2Na0H(ag) ——~ Na,2n0,Caq) ‘Zine as sae Sodlum zincate + HG) ngdrogen « Reaction with Non-metallic Oxide Bases react with non-metallic oxides Cacidie oxides) to produce salt ‘and water. This reaction proves that non-metallic oxides ore acidic in nature. e.g. €0,() + Ca(OH), (ag) » Cac0,(s) +H,00). eter © Reaction Between Acids and Bases Acids react with bases to produce salt and water. In this reaction, acid neutralise 0 base, ie, reduce its effect or vice-versa, thus the reaction is known as neutralisation reaction. + In general, neutralisation reaction can be written as Base + Acid—> Salt +Water eg.NaQH(ag) + HCIag) ——> ‘sodium Hydrochloric roxtde cid o Naci(ag) + 1,00 ‘Sodium Bator chioride 193 ‘© Dilution Mixing of an acid or bose with water is called dilution, t results in decrease in the concentration of ions CH,0” /OH”) per unit volume ‘and the acid or base is said to be diluted. © The process of diluting an acid or base is a highly exothermic process. The acid must be added slowly to water with constant stirring. «© If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out ond cause bums. S. Indicators © Indicators are substances that change their colour or odour if they are added to an acid or alkaline solution. Litmus, turmeric and China rose extract, etc., are natural indicators. # Synthetic Indicators Those chemical substances which change their colour in acids and bases are called synthetic indicators. They are also called synthetic acid base indicators. e.g., methyl orange © Olfactory indicators Those substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic medio are called olfactory indicators. e.g. varilla, 6. Strength of an Acid or Base + Strength of an acid or base depends on the number of 1 ions or OW~ ions produced by them respectively. Larger the mumber of H~ ions produced by an acid, “stronger is the acid. Similarly, larger the number the OH” ions produced by a base, stronger is the base. Measurement of Relative Acidity or Alkalinity of a Solution The pi scale is a scale used for measuring hydrogen ion concentration, The p in the pH stands for potene which means power in Genman. It has values zero (very acidic) to fourteen (very alkaline). © pit is.a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a solution. @ If pl > 7, solution is basic. Gd If pl < 2, solution is acidic. Gil) If pH = 2, solution is neutral. 7, Salts « Salts are produced by the neutralisation reaction between acid and bese, Acid + Base—> Salt + Water HX + MOH—>» MX + HOH sale Here X is non-metal and M is metal.194 sof strong acid and strong base are neutrol (pH=7). Salts of strong acid and weak base are acidic [pH < 7) and salts of strong base and weak acid are basie in nature (pH > 7). © Common Salt (Sodium Chloride) Common solt is formed by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution. It 's the salt that we use in food. * Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide [NoOH]) When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called the chlor-alkali process. 2NaCl(ag) +2H,0 Eecwccment, 2NaQH(ag) ‘Sodium Water Sodium chloride hydroxide +¢1,@) + H,@) Chlorine Huaragen © Bleaching Powder (Calcium Oxychloride [ca0C) 1) It is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime, Ca(OH), + Slated line a, — Ca0¢l, Chlorine Bleaching powder + H,0 Deter + Baking Soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate or Sodium Bicarbonate [NaHCO ,}) The soda commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pokoras is baking soda, It is the major constituent of baking powder. It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials, Chapter 3 Metals and Non-Metals 1. Metals Elements that are eleetropositive in nature are called metals. e.g. copper. 2. Physical Properties of Metals © Malleability It is the property of metal due to which it can be beaten into thin sheets, Most of the metals are molleable, © Ductility it is the property due to which a metal can be drawn into wires. Metals are generally ductile. Gold is the most ductile metal. © Hardness Most of the metals are hard, But some alkali metals like sodium and potassium are so soft thot they can be cut easily with knife, {Succeed Science Class 10 Manufacture of baking soda is shown in reaction below Nach + H,0+ €O, + NH, Brine Carbon hmmenie dioxide NH,CI +. NaHCO, Ammonium Sedum chloride hnuchogen carbonete Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate [Na,CO, 10H ,04) Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda; recrystallisation of ssodiamn carbonate gives washing soda, It is also a bosie salt. Na,CO, +10H,0—» Na,CO,10H 0 Plaster of Paris (Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate [CaSO V2 H ,0]) It is obtained by heating gypsum) (6aS0,-2H,0) at 373 K. At this temperature, gypsum loses water molecules and forms plaster paris. €aS0,.2H,0 22 , “Gapsum Wa ! eG 050, -5H,0 + 15H, Paster of Pr's Water of Crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt. e.g. hydrated copper sulphate, CuSO, - SH,0. Metallic Lustre Metals in their pure state have bright shining surfaces, This property is called metallic lustre. Electrical Conductivity Most of the metals are good conductors of electricity. Thermal Conductivity Generally metals are good conductors of heat, except lead and mercury, which are poor conductors of heat. The best conductors of heat ore copper and silver among all metals. Melting and Boiling Points Metals generally have high melting and boiling point, except mercury, gallium and alkali metals, Tungsten has the highest ‘melting point among metals while mercury has the lowest.Quick Study Notes « Sonority When metals are struck with o hard substance, they produce sound. This property is called sonority and the metals are said to be sonorous, Bells are mode up of metals due to this property 3, Chemical Properties of Metals Most of the chemical properties of metals are due to their electropositive nature. It means that a metal atom loses electrons to form cations, ig sin Sin anal Cotetalctom) ay 4, Reactions of Metals with Oxygen uming in Air or Formation of oxides) @ Almost all the metals react with oxygen Cor air) to form metal oxides. Metal + Oxygen —» Metal Oxide eg. when copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper (Il) oxide, a black oxide, 2tu + 0, —» 2tud opoer oxygen Cooper) exide) Order of Reactivity with Oxygen Different ‘metals react with oxygen at different rates. €9. sodium (Na) and potassium (K) catch Fire, when placed in the open. w Hence, these are most reactive metals. The order of reactivity of metals with oxygen is K > Na > Mg > 2n > Fe > Cu>Ag 4, Reactions of Metals with Water Metals react with water and produce a metal oxide and yérogen gos. Metal + Water —> Metal oxide + Hydrogen Metal oxide + Water —> Metal Hydroxide eg. 2K (s) + 2H,0 () —> 2KOH (aq) Paassiom Coa Sydise ae. +H, G) + Heat yrogen Co (s) + 2H,0 WY —> acon naka Gla) Calo), (ag) + 130) Calciom Hydrogen Inydrode (sees vient) 195 S. Reactions of Metals with different Acids (@) Reaction of Metals with Dilute HCI and Dilute 1,50, Except 0 fow less reactive metals (Cu, Hg, Ag, Au, Pt, etc) all metals react with dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid to produce salt and hydrogen gas. €.9. 2n + 2H¢l —» 2ncl,+ H, 7 2ine (Bite) Zinc, Hydrogen chloride Gil) Reaction of Metals with Dilute HNO., Except ‘magnesium and manganese, metals do not react with dilute nitric acid. This is due to the oxidising nature of nitric acid. Metal + dil, HNO, —> Salt + NO, /N,OT + H,0 Exceptional Case (for Mn and Mg only) Metal (Mn/Mo) + dil. HNO, —> Salt + H, t 6. Reaction of Metals with Solution of other Metal Salts A reactive metel can displace a comporatively less reactive metol from their compounds in aqueous solution or in molten state. General equotion is ACs) + BC Cag) —> Reade. Salt of imetcl metal B AC (aq) + BCs) ‘Soot Wass reactive metal ® met! 2g. Culs) + 2hgN0,(og) —> ore “iver merte CuCNO,),(aq) + 2AgCs) opie mate Siler 7, Non-metals Elements that are electronegative in nature are called ‘non-metal. It means non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions. €.9,, iodine 8, Physical Properties of Non-metals Brittleness Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile but they are brittle in nature. © Physical State Most of the non-metals are soft Gf solid). Only diamond, a form of carbon is the hardest known substance, Other non-metals are ‘gases except bromine which is a liquid.196 © Metallic Lustre The non-metals do not have lustre, /.€., shining surface, However, diamond (a form of carbon), iodine and graphite (carbon) have lustre, even they are non-metals, * Electrical and Thermal Conductivity Non-metals are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity. © Melting and Boiling Points Generally, non-metals shave low melting and boiling points. But non-metals that are solids have comparatively higher boiling points (eg., B, Si, C, etc). 4. Chemical Properties of Non-metals © Reaction with Oxygen Non-metals react with oxygen to form oxides. These oxides are generally acidic. Only some of the non-metallic oxides are neutral, © Acidic oxides are CO, S0,, P,0,, etc. eg. €0,@) + H,0 1) —+ H,CO, (aq) carbon diée ——taater Coronie aad ‘© Reaction with Water Non-metals do not react with water or steam to evolve hydrogen gas. This is because non-metals cannot give electrons to hydrogen in woter therefore, hydrogen gas cannot be released. © Reaction with Acids Non-metals do not react with acids to release hydrogen gas. Reason is being that a non-metal is an electron acceptor, it cannot supply electrons to the H” fons of acids to reduce them to hydrogen gas. « Displacement Reaction Non-metals also show displacement reaction like metals. e.g Cl, + 2NaBr —+ 2Nacl + Br, 2g Sodium Sodan chloride” Bro wane bromide «Ionic Compounds are the compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal. Na — Nat+e OC se —s> oy? &** ak oan hee no's] 22 x) Chlorine © The strong electrostatic forces of attractions which helps to bind Na’ and Cl” ions together is called ‘onic bond or electrovalent bond. 10, Properties of lonic Compounds © Physical Nature onic compounds are solids due to the presence of strong forces of attraction between iSueceed Science Classi) the positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle ‘« Melting ond Bolling Points lonic compounds have high melting and boiling points because a large ‘amount of energy is required to break the strong inter-ionie attraction. «© Solubility lonic compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in solvents like petrol, kerosene. '» Conduction of Electricity lonic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state only because the electrostatic forces of attraction between the ‘oppositely charged ions are overcome due to heat and thus, the ions move freely and conduct electricity, They does not conduct electricity in the solid state due to the absence of free ions. Il. Steps Involved in Extraction of Metals @) Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series Low in activity series) + These metals, being less reactive, can be obtained by reducing their oxides to ‘metals by heating alone. + Cinnabar (Hg5) is on ore of mercury, when heated in air, it first changes into its oxide and then into mercury metal. eg. 2HgS (5) + 30, Gg) Conmabar Grom ai) 2Hg0Cs) + 250, G) Mercury Sopher ode al Copper glance (Cu,S) when heated in air, partially oxidised and the oxidised product reacts with the remaining copper glance to give copper metal. e. 2tu,5(s) + 30, () Copper dance From Air) 2tu,0 (s)+ 250, () Conper Sulphur cnide ——doide Gi) Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series + The metals in the middle of the activity series are usually present as sulphides of carbonates in nature, These sulphides of carbonates are first converted into oxides. S. We \ Se. ers F B&BS ge 2Z227 4,Quick Study Notes Chemical reactions involved in the extraction of zine are as follows Roasting 22ns(s) e330; Gye eran “ulphide one 22n0 (5) + 250, (@) oS ey Calcination ‘ dlorae 2nCO,(s) test, 2ine carbonate 2n0 (s) + €0, G) a carbon Reduction 7 nace 2006) + €(s) , + BORA" EQ— 2x60) + Coe smoveride Git) Extracting Metals Towards the Top in Activity Series + These metallic compounds cannot be reduced by carbon or ony other reducing agent due to their high affinity with oxygen Therefore, electrolytic reduction is employed for these metals e.g., Na, Mg, Ca, ete. 197 + Electrolytic reduction The salts of these ‘metals as chlorides in molten form are electrolysed, Metal is deposited ot the cathode and chlorine is liberated at the anode. The reactions are At cathode M* +e —» M At anode 2c —> Gl, + 2 + Refining of Metals It is the process of purification of the metal obtained after reduction, Various methods for refining are employed, but the ‘most common is the electrolytic refining. 12, Corrosion « It is the process of slow eating away of metols by the reaction of atmospheric air and moisture. egntusting of iron. «© Prevention of Corrosion Rusting of iron is prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome plating, anodising and by making alloys. © Galvanisation The process of coating iron and steel objects with a thin lager of zinc is called galvanisation, © Alloying It is the method of improving the properties of a metal by mixing two or more metals. Chapter 4 Carbon and Its Compounds 1. Covalent Bonding in Carbon Compounds © The bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between the atoms (either same or different atoms) are known as covalent bonds. ‘© Atomic number of carbon (C) is 6. ‘© There are 4 electrons in its outermost shell and so to complete its octet, either it need to gain 4 more electron or loose 4 electron, But the gaining or losing of four electrons require a lot of energy. So, it preferably shares its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of other elements. ‘© These shared electrons belong to the outermost shells of both atoms and in this way, both atoms attain the nearest noble gas configuration. * This type of bonding is called covalent Londing, * Compounds having covalent bond are called covalent compounds, these are generally poor conductor of electricity. 2, Allotropes of Carbon Some chemical elements can exist in two or more different forms, which differ in arrangement of atoms ‘and in number of atoms but are chemically same These are knovm as allotropes and the phenomenon is known as ellotropism. Carbon exists in several allotropic forms like diamond, graphite, buckminister fullerene, 3. Versatile Nature of Carbon ‘* Carbon can form millions of compounds due to its tetravalent nature and the property of catenation, Due to its small size carbon has a strong tendency to form multiple bonds. 4. Isomerism + Organic compounds with same molecular formula but different chemical and physical properties are called isomers. This phenomenon is colled isomerism,198 * The difference in properties of these compounds is due to the difference in their structures, These compounds have identical molecular formula but different structures. Hence, they are called structural isomers and phenomenon is called structural isomerism. e.g. Two structural isomers are possible for butane (C,H). Aahaa haere I H-€—€-C—C_H n—e—ec oH VS ode iNew Straight chain structure Branched choin structure S. Functional Groups The functional group is an atom or group of atoms that defines the structure of organic compounds, The important functional groups are alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids. 5, Homologous Series A series of similarly constituted compounds in which the members present have the same functional group and similar chemical properties and any two successive ‘members in a particular series differ in their molecular formula by a —CH,— unit, s called a homologous series.e.g.CH,, CH, CHy, C,hy» are the members of alkane Family. 7. IUPAC System for Nomenclature of Organic Compounds IUPAC Cintemational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) Word Root This indicates number of carbon atoms in the chain. C,-meth, C,-eth, C ,-prop, C,,-but, ete. « Prefix This indicates number and position of the substituents which hove been substituted in the main hydrocarbon chain and olso number and position oF branched chains in the carbon chain. —CH, (methyl group), —Br (bromo), etc. « Suffix This indicates presence of alkane, alkene, alkyne or other functional group. 8. Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds Some of the important chemical properties of carbon compounds are as Follows @ Combustion All the carbon compounds including its allotropic forms also) burn in axygen to give carbon dioxide and water vapours. ESueceed Science (lass 10 Heat and light are also released during this process. This reaction is called 0s combustion, eg.C+0,—> CO, +Heat + Light Gi) Oxidation It is the reaction involving the addition of oxygen and removal of hydrogen, Alcohols con be oxidised to carboxylic acid by heating them either in presence of oxidising agents like alkaline KMnO, (potassium permanganate) or acidified K,Cr,0, (potassium dichromate). eg. ° cH, C—OH eet acid (Ethonoie ocid) Alling KMn0.,+ Heat er coiled KE, Hest CHCH OH Ethano! Substances that are capable of adding oxygen to other substances are called oxidising agents. In general, Alcohol £24 Aldehyde 102, Carboxylic acid Addition Reactions The reaction in which a reagent completely add to a reactant without the removal of small molecules are called addition reactions, Gi) eg. BN = ef meni ae Cg | Hy 2t0re* (Qnstaedbyhcabn) (Saturated bydrocabon) Gu) Substitution Reactions The reactions in which 4 reagent replaces an atom or a group of atoms from the reactant (substrate) are called substitution reactions. These are generally shown by saturated compounds. 49, Some Important Carbon Compounds Ethanol : Its common name is ethyl alcoho! and formula is €,H,OH or CH HOH 10.Chemical Properties oO Reaction with Sodium Ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium metal leading to the evolution ofQuick Study Notes 2.Excretion in Plants « Plants give off gaseous waste and photosynthesis, respectively, « Plants get rid of excess water such as resins and gums, ‘« Some plants store waste subste 4. deciduous plants, While so 205 s like carbon dioxide and oxygen through stomata and lenticels, during respiration by the process of transpiration and can store waste substances in old xylem tances in the cell vacuoles and get rid of them by dropping off their leaves. me plants also excrete some solid waste substances into the soil around them. Chapter 6 Control and Coordination + The working together of varius organs of living thing ina systematic, controlled and efficient way to produce proper response to the various stimali is Jnown as coordination, «Plants do not have nervous system, but coordinate their behoviour against environmental changes by the hormones whereas animals have nervous system and hormones to control and coordinate their body activities, * In animals including humans, control and coordination is provided by nervous system which consists of neurons, nerves and neural organs. It links, coordinate ‘and control the activities of different organs in the body. It is the system of conducting tissues 1. Neurons : Unit of Nervous System © All the information from environment is detected by nen cells ie. neurons (known as the structural and functional unit of the nervous system), specialised for conducting the information through electrical impulses from one part to another port of the body. © A typical neuron consists of a cell body or cyton (a broad rounded part of the neuron that has central nucleus, cytoplasm and various cell organelles), dendrites .e. dendron (meant to receive and tronsmit stimulus), axon (a long fibre-like ‘cytoplasmic process that conducts impulses away from the cell body) and nerve ending (fine branch like terminations of neurons). + All information from our environment is detected by the specialised tips of nerve cells. This information acquired is then transmitted in the form of electrical impulse due to chemical reaction occuring at dentritic tip. This electrical impulse travels from the dendrite to cell body and then along axon to its end. At end of the axon some chemicals are released. They cross the gap/synapse (small gap between the nerve endings and dendrites of next neuron) and transmit impulse to dendrite of next nerve cell. Finally following same process impulse travel from neuron to ‘muscles cells or gland. «# Reflex action is a sudden action in response to environmentol situations without thinking obout it and we do not have contro) over them. eg. coughing,sneezing, blinking of eyes etc. « It is meant to protect the body from damoge without ‘involving any conscious thought. + The process of detecting the signal or the input and responding to it by an output action constitute a connection, commonly called as reflex arc. ‘© Reflex arc is formed in the spinal cord itself, although the information input. also goes on to reach the brain. It is the route of an electrical impulse in a reflex action. + Reflex arc involves sense organ, sensory (afferent) neurons of a spinal nerve, spinal cord, motor efferent) neurons of a spinal nerve and an effectors or mascles. (2.Brain © The main coordinating centre of the body that enables an organism to think and take decisions on the basis of that thinking, which involves more complex mechanisms and neural connections is onowm as brain, ‘© There are three main regions in the brain, ie. fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-brain, @ Fore-brain is the main thinking part of the brain meant to receive sensory impulse from various receptors. It is specialised for functions like, hearing, smelling, sight, hunger, etc, Gi) Mid-brain is the connection between the fore-brain and hind-brain. It controls the ‘movement of head to locate sounds and visual reflexes involved in Focussing on objects.206 Gil) Hind-brain is the brain stem that provides the connection between the spinal cord and rest of the brain, «© Hind-broin consists of three parts which are given below @ Cerebellum controls and coordinates some voluntary action, ie, muscular actions that. maintains ‘equilibrium of the body during various activities such as walking, drinking, catching, etc Gi) Pons lies above the medulla and take part in respiration, Gil) Medulla oblongata is continuous with the spinal cord and controls involuntary actions and regulates reflex responses. It controls blood pressure, salivation and vomiting * Spinal cord is made up of nerves that supply and recieve information to and from the brain. © Central nervous system is mainly constituted by two main parts of the body, i.e. brain and spinal cord, * The communication between the Central Nervous System (CNS) and other parts of the body is facilitated by the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). 3. Action of Nervous Tissue © Nervous tissue collects information from body, process it, makes decision and convey that decision to ‘muscles for action. So, muscles do the final work. 4. Coordination in Plants « Unlike animels plants does not have nervous system ‘and muscle tissue. Instead they use chemical means 40 convey the information from one cell to the other. Sensitivity of a plant is the ability of a plant to detect change and respond to that change. ‘s Some plont cells change their shape by changing the Incident rN) aver Denser Refracted rey ‘amount of water in them, resulting in either swelling or shrinking. ‘* lahen the stimulus has a particular direction and ‘movement of plant occurs in the direction of the stimulus Ceither towards the stimulus or to the opposite direction), the movement is called as trople ESucceed Science Class 40 movement. (For this types of movement plants, needs environmental triggers such as light or grdvity « The movernent of the parts of the plant in response to light is called phototropic movement and the phenomenon involved is called phototropism. # If the shoot grows towards light, it 1s known as positive phototropism. On the other hand growth of 2 root way from the light shows negative phototropism. « The movement of ports of plant in response to gravity js colled geotropic movernent and the phenomenon involved is called geotropism «# lahen the tip of the stem grows away from the eorth’s gravitational force, it is known as negative geotropism and when the root tips grow towards the gravity, it is known as positive geotropism. « The growth of the plant in response to water is called hydrotropism, The growth of the plant in response to the chemical stimulus is called chemotropism. S. Chemical or Hormonal Communication in Plants and Animals © As cells cannot continuously create and transmit, electrical impulses so, most multicellular organisms ‘use another means of communication known as chemical communication that occurs by means of hormones. © Hormones are synthesised at places away from the sition they act and simply diffuse to the area of action. + Plant hormones or phytohormones are the chemical ‘substances that are naturally produced in plant and ‘are capable of regulating process of plants. ‘© Auxin is synthesised in the young tip of roots and shoots helps in promoting cell elongation and division ‘and also plays an important role for the formation of root, and seedless fruits, © Gibberellins help in the growth of the stem and flower’ and in germination of seed. ‘+ Cytokinins are meant to promote cell division and delay leaf ageing, © Abscisie acid acts as a growth-inhibitor hormone that reverses the growth-promoting effects of owtins ‘and gibberellins, # Ethylene (Ethene) is a gaseous hormone that acts at trace levels throughout the life of the plant and 's essential for ripening of fruits.jek Study Notes + Infrnimols, endocrine glands are the du strom. « The include pituitary gland, thyra «Ania! hormones are the means glonds. 207 ctless glands which pour their secretions (hormones) into the blood id gland, endocrine part of the pancreas, adrenal gland, gonads, etc, to transfer the information in the organisms and are secreted by endocrine Chapter 7 How do Organisms Reproduce? ‘ Reprodiction is a biological process of producing new indvidues oF the same species by existing organisms or porents. It ensures the continuity of life ‘The process of reproduction is not essential to ‘maintain the life of on organism, like other life processes, but it is vital For the survival of a species. « Reproducing organisms ereate new individuals that Jook very much similar to themselves, # The basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use chemical reactions to build capies of their DNA which provides information for protein synthesis, © The process of DNA copying is not accurate, resulting in variations arising during reproduction vohich is the basis for evolution, * Variations may or may not be beneficial for the individual, but help in the survivel of the species during adverse conditions. * The modes of reproduction may be different depending on the body design of the living organisms. 1k can be broadly divided os asexuel reproduction and sexual reproduction. I. Mode of Reproduction used by Single Organisms ‘* The various modes of asexual reproduction are as follows @ Fission occurs in unicellular organisms like bacteria and Protozoa through simple cell division. Depending on the number of individuals formed, fission may be binary or multiple fission. e.g Amoebo, Plamodivm, etc Gi). Fragmentation occurs in some multicellular ‘organisms with simple body makeup, €:9. Spirogyra, whose body on maturation simply breaks up into smeller fragments; each of which develops into new individual. « Artificial vegetetive Gi Allplants preduced are genetical Gi) Regeneration is found in completely differentiated, simple organisms, like Hydra and Planaria, in such organism body splits into several parts and most of these parts develop into complete organisms. The process of regeneration involves specialised totipotent cells which proliferate and differentiate to form the complete body, Gv) Budding is the way of reproduction found in organisms like Hydra, yeast. It produces buds on their body surface which mature into new individuals ond separate out from the parent body. W) Spore formation is found in some simple ‘multicellular organisms like Rhizopus. The thick walled spores have the capacity to develop into new individuals on the availability of suitable conditions, (i) Vegetative propagation occurs naturally in plants by roots, stems or leaves of parent plant under appropriate conditions. For example, the buds produced in the notches along the leaf ‘margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop into new plants. Propagation is performed by layering, cutting, grafting and tissue culture, * The advantages of vegetative propagotion are © The propagation of plants like banana, orange, rose and jasmine can be done, which have Inct the capacity to produce seeds. similar enough to the parent plant to have all ite = characteristies, Sexual Reproduction © It requires both male and female individuals to Produce the new offspring. t creates a large number of novel variations. Thus, the combining variations from two or more individuals weuld create new combinations of variants, ae ee208 * In comporison to the non-reproductive body cells, the germ cells contain only half the chromosome number. When the offspring is produced by the union of the ‘male and female germ cells, its specific chromosome number and DNA content is re-established. * In very simple organisms, the two germ cells ore not very different from one another or may even be similar. But, in complex organisms, the germ cells are specialised. In such cases, the male gamete is seller and motile, whereas, the female gamete is larger and stores food, @ Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants © In plants like angiosperms, flower is the site of sexual reproduction. It consists of stamen, the male productive part of flower made up of anther and filament and earpel, the female reproductive part composed of stigma, style and ovary. Unisexual flowers contain either stamens or carpels as reproductive organs, e.g. papaya and watermelon, while the bisexual flowers contain both stamens ond carpels, e.g. mustard and Hibiscus, © Stamens produce pollen grains which are present in the anther. The ovary contains ovules and each ovule bears an egg cell inside embryo sac. © Pollination is the phenomenon of transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma. It can be either self-pollination or cross-pollination. The transfer of pollen grains from one flower to another is carried out by agents like wind, water or animals, © Pollen tube carries the male gamete from stigma to the female gamete in ovary. © Fertilisation of haploid male and female gametes produces the diploid zygote, which then forms the embryo. Following fertilisation, the ovule develops into seed, whereas, the ovary forms the fruit. ‘¢ The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable conditions. This process is called germination. Gi) Reproduction in Human Beings © Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction. © Puberty is the time between age of |) to 19 years old when the body of a child starts maturing sexually. Before puberty, the body resources are used mainly to grow and develop the organism to its adult size, Once, this is achieved, puberty sets in, iSucceed Science Cla © Some changes occurring during puberty are cornmon to boys and girls, whereas, some other changes are specific to boys and girls. ‘© Changes such as appearance of pimples on fade, growth of thick hair in armpits and genital areas ‘occur in both boys and girls. } «© In girls, increase in breast size, darkening of nipples ‘and occurrence of menstruation are puberty/related changes. In boys, facial hair growth, cracking of voice and occasional enlargement and erection of penis occur during puberty. © Changes associated with puberty are slow and gradual and does not occur uniformly in everyone. The changes taking place during puberty signal the occumence of sexual maturation in an individual to other members of the same population. ‘© Male reproductive system in humans is composed of 4 pair of testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra and a penis. @ Testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum, because sperm formation requires a lower temperature (normally 2-2.5°C) than the normal body temperature, The testes produce sperms and secrete male sex hormone known as testosterone, © Sperm or spermatozoa has a small head containing the genetic material and a long tail, which helps in ‘motility. Vas deferens and urethra are the thin tubes through which sperms are transported from testes to ‘outside, The sperms are nourished by the fluid secreted by the seminal vesicle and prostate gland. © Female reproductive system is made up of ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina. © Ovaries are responsible for the production of ovalegg as well as for secreting the femole sex hormones, ‘estrogen and progesterone. « The ovaries of a girl already contain thousands of immature eggs before puberty. © On reaching puberty, one of the ovaries releases @ ‘mature egg every month. This is called ovulation. This ‘mature egg is carried by the fallopian tube. © The sperms enter through the vaginal passage into the vagina of females during sexual intercourse. They travel upwards and reach the oviduct or Fallopian tube where they may encounter the egg, resulting in fertilisation,_ Quick Study Notes # The zygote gets implanted in the uterus and develops inte the embryo. « Placenta is a disc like structure which is embedded in the uterine wall. The embryo gets nourishment and oxygen from the mother's blood with the help of placenta. It also removes the waste materials being generated by the developing embryo. + The development of child inside mother’s body takes about rine months in humans. This is called gestation period. After this, the child is bom due to rhythmic uterine contractions. « In case Fertilisation does not occur, the released 99 along with the thickened lining of the uterus is shed out through the vagina, This cycle occurs every month in human females and is called menstruation or menstrual cycle Reproductive Health «© The unprotected sexual act can cause pregnancy as well as spreading of several Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) like gonorrhoea, syphilis and AIDS. © There are several contraceptive methods to avoid unwanted pregnancies. The major methods involve ‘mechanical borvers, oral contraceptives, surgical blocking, abortions, ete. Chapter 3 Heredity + Voriations arising during the process of reproduction can be inherited. Even in asexual reproduction, a Few variations can occur, but many more in sexual reproduction. © During asexual reproduction, the minor variations occur by slight inaccuracies in DNA copying. In sexual reproduction, variations ore mainly coused by crossing cover process of cell division, iz. meiosis ond recombination of genes of two different individuals, ive. parents. +s Different individuals have different kind of ‘advantages. Beneficial variations help the species to ‘survive better in the environment and forms the basis of evolution on natural basis. « Heredity rules determine the process by which traits ‘and characteristics are inherited. «© Reproduction produces offsprings of similar designs of the parents. However, they are not exactly identical, 209 ‘© The mechanical barrier methods, such as condom, prevents. sperms from reaching the egg. It also prevents transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. « Oral contraceptive pills used by human females alter the hormonal balance, thereby preventing the 49 from being released. « Surgical blocking of vas deferens in moles is known ‘as vasectomy and surgical blocking of oviducts Géite of fertilization) in femoles is known as tubectomy. These procedures prevent pregnancy permanently. + Abortions can be done to remove unwanted pregnancies. But, this method is being misused in ‘our country to carry out female foeticide. This is leading to on imbalance in female-male sex ratio. Although this prenatal sex determination is baned in India, But due to reckless female foeticides this, child sex ratio is declining in alarming rate. «© Contraceptive methods play an important role in ‘maintaining the size of a human population. The expanding population makes it harder to improve the standard of living, It is the main reason of poor living standords of o country they show a great deol of variation from their parents. ‘« In humans, father and mother contribute equal ‘amount of genetic material to the child. It means thot each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA. Thus, for each trait, humans have two versions of genes, called alleles. 1, Mendel’s Contributions © Gregor Johann Mendel carried out several experiments on pea plants. He carried out large ‘number of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using ‘many contrasting characteristics and put Forward several important conclusions. ‘¢ In monohybrid cross, with pure variety of plants, the phenotypic ratio obtained in F,-generation is 3: @ In case of dihybrid cross with two pairs of contrasting characters, the phenotypic ratio obtained in F generation is 93:3210 © From his experiments, Mendel concluded that out of ‘any pair of contrasting characters, one is dominant and the other one is recessive, The homozygous dominant trait is denoted by two capital letters, ie, TT, whereas the homozygous recessive trait is denoted by two small letters, i, tt. © During gamete formation, the genes controlling a particular trait separate from each other. So, the gamete contains pure character as far as contrasting characters are considered, © lahen two or more traits are involved in crossing, their genes essort independently, inespective of the combinations present in the parents, © Each gene set is present os separate independent pieces, called as a chromosome. Thus, each cell will have two copies of each chromosome, ane each from the male and female parents. Every germ cell wil take one chromasome from each pair and these may be either from mother or from father. © Genes cony the information for producing proteins, which in turn control the various body characteristics © The male and female germ cells combine during fertilization and produce a diploid 2ygote. Thus, the LSucceed Science Class normal diploid number of chromosomes in the offspring is restored. Sex-Determination © The process by which the sex of a newborn indlvidual is determined is called sex-determination, There are different strategies by which sex is determined in different species. © In some species, environmental factors are important in determining the sex of the developing individuel. In few reptiles, the temperature at which the fertilised eggs are kept, determines the sex of the offspring. # In human beings the determination of sex occurs largely by genetic control. In human beings, there ore 23 pairs of chromosomes, out of which 22 pairs are autosomes and one pair is sex-chromosomes. ‘© Females have a perfect poir of sex chromosomes, ie. X Ghomogametic). While males have a mismatched pair Cheterogametic) in which one is X (normal sized) and the other is Y-chromosome (short in size). ‘* Hence, an egg fertilised by sperm carrying X-chromesome results in a zygote with XX, which becomes a female and if an egg is fertilised by sperm, carrying Y-chromosome it results in a XY zygote that becomes male. Chapter 9 Light : Reflection and Refraction 1. Light is a form of energy that enables us to see, An object reflects the light rays that fall on it 2. Reflection of Light ‘+ The phenomenon of bouncing back of light rays In the some medium on striking a smooth surface is called reflection of light. Neral angeot } Tangle ot incidence |/S106 9 ‘Smooth surface Point of incidence 3, Laws of Reflection There are two laws of reflection: @ Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection ie. Zi = Zr GW) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. 4. Concave Mirror The spherical mirror with inward curved reffecting surface, Uses of Concave Mirrors + Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights ond vehicle's, headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light. + Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see larger image of the face, Dentists Use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients. + Large concave mirrors are used to converge Sunrays on a point to produce large amount of concentrated heat in a solar furnace.Jt A AS Quick Study Notes S. Convex Mirror The spherical mirror with outword curved reflecting surface. Uses of Convex Mirrors + Convex mirrors are commonly used os rear view mirrors in vehicles because they always give an erect image and have wider field of view as they are curved outward, + Big convex mirrors are used as shop security mirrors, the shop owner can keep an eye on the customers to look for thieves and shoplifters among them. 4. Mirror formula is given by! +1 = 1 vig f where, u = distane of image from the pole of the mirror v =distane of image from the pole of the mirror and f = focol length of mirror. Linear magnification, Height of image Ch,) m= = Height of object Ch) w If m is positive, image is virtual and if m is negative image is real. 2, Refraction of Light + “Change in path of a light ray as it passes from one transporent medium to ‘another transparent medium is colled refraction of light.” Incident Denser Refracted ray 8. Laws of Refraction Refraction of light occurs according to the following laws (i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. Gi) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for light of given colour is constant for a m given pair of media (Snell's law). It Is expressed as in | Stl = = constant Cy or ») sin This constant is known as refractive index Cu). 9. Refractive Index (Ww) It is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to that of in the medium and written as speed the vacuum Ree “speed of light in the materiol 10. Lens It is transparent medium bounded by two surfaces. Lenses are of two types @ Convex or converging Gil) Concave or diverging I. Lens Formula The lens formula js expressed as via The lens Formula is valid in all situations #27 any spherical lens. 12, Magnification by Lenses Magnification, or 13, Power of Lens + The ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is known os power of Jens, It is denoted by P. + The SI unit of power is digpotre (>) ecpar ps eer OT Focal length F Gn em) 14, Power of Combination of Lenses + Power of combination of lenses is given22 iSucceed Science (lass 10 Chapter 10 Human Eye and the Colourful World 1, The Human Eye The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs in the human body. it enables us to see the wonderful world and colours around us, It is like a camera, its lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called retina, 2, Structure of Human Eye © Cornea It is the transparent spherical membrane covering the front of the eye. It provides 67 percent of eye's focussing power. © Crystalline Lens It is the central part of the eye that facilitates the image formation. © Iris It is the dark muscular diaphragm between comea and lens. It controls the size of the pupil. + Pupil It is a small hole between the iris through which light enters the eye, © Ciliary muscles They held the lens in position and help in modifying the curvature of the lens. © Retina It is the light sensitive surfoce of eye on which image is formed. It coptures the light rays formed by the lens and sends impulses to the brain via optic nerves. © Optic nerve It transmits the visual information from retina to the brain, ‘© Sclera It is an outer layer which protects the eye. ‘© Blind spot It is the point insensitive to light at which the optic nene leaves the eye. © Agueous humour it is a aqueous and present between the comea and maintains introocular pressure. © Vitreous humour The space between the eye lens and retina is filled with another liquid known as vitreous unmours. © Accommodation It is the ability or the property of the eye lens to focus both near and distant objects by adjusting its focal length, * Power of accommodation it is the maximum variation in power of eye lens for focussing neor by or far objects, clearly at retina, © Distant vision The minimum distance, at which an object can be seen most distinctly without any strain is called least distance of distant vision. 3, Defect of Vision The main defects of vision are © Myopia Due to this defect a person can see nearby objects cleorly but connot see distant objects clearly, This can be corrected by using concave lens of ‘appropriate power. Hypermetropia Due to this defect a person con see distance objects clearly but cannot see the nearby objects clearly. This can be conected by using convex lens of appropriate power. «© Presbyopia is found in old age people and in this defect, one cannot read comfortably and cleanly, This can be conect by using bifocal lenses. 4. Refraction of Light through a Prism Prise is o transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two lateral surfaces, inclined to each other at ‘a certain angle, It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. The angle between two lateral surfaces is called angle of prism (A). Refraction of light through a triangular glecs prism S. Angle of Deviation (D) The angle which the emergent ray makes with the incident ray is known as angle of deviation (D). LD=Li+ Le LA 4. Dispersion © The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent colours, when it passes through a prism is called dispersion, « This bond of seven colours so obtained, the VIBGYOR (V = violet, ! = indigo, B = biue, 6 = green, Y = yellow, 0 = orange and R = red) is called spectrum, © Red light has maximum wavelength and violet light has the minimum wavelength,Quick Study Notes 7. Atmospheric Refraction The refraction of light due to the layers present in the atmosphere is known as atomaspheric refraction. 8. Phenomena based on Atmospheric Refraction « Twinkling of stars, « The stars seem higher than they actually ore. ‘© Advance sunrise and delayed sunset. Chapter I! Electricity |. Electricity Charge A charge is a physical entity which is defined by excess or deficiency of electrons on a body. A body is said to be negotively charged, if it gains electrons, A body is «0id to be positive charged, if it loses electrons, ‘unit of charge is coulomb (C). Charge on one electron, e = — 16 x10" €. 2, Electric Current It is the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a conductor. Charge. G@) = ne. Time (t) ot where, n = number of electrons flowing through the conductor. ‘Si unit of electric current is ampere CA). Vode yg. | 1 Second a 3. Electric Potential It is the amount of work done when a unit positive charge is moved from infinity to a point in an electric. field. Electric Current (1) = = ne] | 1 ampere = Work done (w) Ny) = on ere Electrical potential (V) charge) Si unit of electric potential is volt CV). 4, Electric Potential Difference It is defined as the work done per unit charge in moving ‘2 unit positive charge from one point to other point. $. Electric Circuit A closed and continuous path through which electric current flows is known as electric circuit m3 4, Scattering of Light ‘The reflection of light from an object in oll direction is ‘called scattering of light. The colour of scattered light depends on the size of scattering particles and wavelength of light 10. Phenomena based on Scattering of Light Tyndol effect ‘© Blue colour of the sky. © Colour of Sun at sunrise and sunset. 6, Ohms Law ‘According to this low, the electric current flowing through @ conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, providing the physical conditions remoin unchanged. vel or, VER Ris the constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor at a given temperature. 7. Resistance It oppose the flow of charge through the conductors. Potential difference (V) Electric current (1) ‘Sl unit of resistance is ohm CQ). 8. Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends @ Length of the conductor Rel Resistance = i). Area of cross-section of the conductor 1 Rae A Gil) Nature of the material of the conductor R= a or Rape A 49. Resistivity It is defined os the resistance of a conductor of unit, length and unit area of cross-section ‘SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Q. — m).24 10, Resistors in Series When two or more resistors are connected end to end to each other, then they are said to be connected in series. Se Ry ay iy TY ‘Series Combination of Resistors R=R +R, +R, N, Resistors in Parallel When two or more resistors are connected ‘simultaneously between two points to each other, then they are said to be connected in parallel combination, iSucceed Science Class 10 Ay wire i “yh -+ >> hy i Calculation of Heat generated in a conductor W = IPRE 12, Electric Power The amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit per unit time. Pp =W/t orP = VI ‘Sl unit of electrie power is watt (0). Chapter 12 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 1, Magnetic Field The space around a magnet, in which its effect can be experienced, jee. its force can be detected, is called ‘magnetic field, Magnetic field is 0 vector quantity. The Sl unit of magnetic field is Tesla, 2, Magnetic Field Lines pe The imaginary lines representing magnetic field re re known around a magnet a1 eh eet as magnetic field lines. nebeigies 3, Magnitude of magnetic field in a current carrying straight conductor. @ Directly proportional to the current | passing through the wire. Bal Gi) Inversely proportional to the distance r from the current carrying conductor. Biss r 4, The magnetic field produced by current carrying circular wire at a given point depends on the following factors @) Directly proportional to the current | passing through the wire ie. B | Gi) Directly proportional to the number of turns (N) of the wire, ie. B = N 5. Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid A solenoid is defined as 0 col! consisting of a large number of circular tums of insulated copper wire. These tums are wropped closely to form a cylinder. current cerrying solenoid The strength of magnetic field produced by a current ‘carrying solenoid depends on the following factors : @ The number of turns of Solenoid CB « N) GW The strength of current CB < 1) Gil) The nature of core material used to make solenoid,"gy foe eT Quick Study Notes 6,An electromagnet is a solenoid coil that gets magnetised, ie. it becomes a magnet due te flow of current. panes 7. Fleming’s left Hand Rule ie states that, if the rei forefinger, thumb and middle \ finger of left hand are eceeten stretched mutually - Ss perpendicular to each other," ¥ con such thot the forefinger points along the direction of Fleming's left hand rule external magnetic field, middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb points towards the direction of force acting on the conductor. 8. Domestic Electric Circuits The domestic supply circuit consists of three types of wires, namely (i) line wire having red insulation, Ci) natural wire having black insulation (ii) Earth wire having green insulation. Chapter 13 Our Environment # Everything around us whether living or non-living is included in our environment. These factors are air, temperature, water, soil, plants, animals, microorganisms, etc. All these factors influence our ives everydoy. ‘* Human beings influence the natural environment by their activities like need of food, water, clothes, housing, transport, etc. 1 The wastes generated by various human activities can he divided into two main categories as biodegradable waste and non-biodegrodable waste. © The enzymes present in the body of decomposers are capable of breaking down the biodegradable substances, but not the non-biodegradable materials. # The non-biodegradable materials like plastic and synthetic pesticides persist in the environment for a Jong duration and may harm its biotic factors. 1. Ecosystem # An ecosystem is.a functional unit of environment that consists of living and non-living factors. Among the members of an ecosystem, transfer of energy continuously occurs. 1s An ecosystem Is mode up of two main components 25 4. Some terms related to domestic Electric Circuits ‘© IF the live wire and neutral wire come in contact either directly or via conducting wire, then the situation is called short circuiting. « IF many electrical appliances of high power rating ‘are switched on at the same time, then they draw large current from the circut. This is called overloading © Fuse is the most important safety device used in domestic power supply circuits which prevents the possible damage coused by overloading and short circuting 10.Safety in Domestic Electric Circuit For the safety in domestic Electric circuit, we uses the Earth wire to avoid risk of Electrical shock. Fuse is a ‘safety device which is used to prevent the possible damage coused by ony electrical faults @ Biotie or living components (plants, animals, humans and microbes). Gil) Abiotic or non-living components Cair, water, soil, temperature, etc). ‘« Inan ecosystem, the biotic and abiotic factors interact to form a stable unit. 'e The size of an ecosystem ranges in size from as ‘small as a pond or a backyard garden to as large as ‘an entire rain forest. « Forests, ponds, lokes, ete, are natural ecosystems, while garden, crop fields and aquarium are ‘man-made or artificial ecosystems. © The biotic factors in an ecosystem, may be classified as producers, consumers and decomposers depending on their mode of nutrition. © Producers or autotrophs (green plants) are capable of producing food with the help of inorganic substances like CO, and water and solar energy, i.e, photosynthesis. By this way, they help in the transfer of sun's energy to the consumers present In the ecosystem, © Consumers or heterotrephs are the organisms which are present. in an ecosystem. These can be216 herbivores, camivores, omnivores, decomposers and parasites, © Decomposers are the organisms which breakdown the deed bodies of ell living organisms and help in nutrient recycling in the environment. ‘© Food chain is a sequence in which a particular organism eats another organism. It depends on ‘who eats whom relationship’. Food chains are present in every ecosystem, © Each food chain is composed of three to five trophic levels. @ First trophic level Autotrophs/producers Gi) Second trophic level Herbivores/primary consumers i) Third trophic level Small carnivores/secondary consumers Fourth trophic level Large camivoresitertiary consumers. © In an ecosystem, there is flow of energy between various trophic levels. © Producers or autotrophs convert solar energy into chemical energy, which is then utilised by the ‘consumers and decomposers as food. © About 1% of solar energy falling on leaves is utilised by the plants in photosynthesis to produce food. A large amount of energy loss occurs when the ‘organisms of the higher trophic level feeds on the lower trophic level organisms. © There is only 10% flow of energy from one trophic level to the next higher level, Due to this energy loss, only 4 or S trophic levels are present in each food chain. ‘© The number of individuals in a trophic level decreases as we go up in the food chain. « Food webs, consisting of several interconnected food chains, are more common in nature. In a food web, each organism is generally eaten by two or more ‘ther kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other organisms. So, the food web consists of 1 series of branching lines instead of straight line food chains. «= The flow of eneray is unidirectional in the ecosystem. «« Sometimes, the non-biodegradable chemicals like pesticides ond insecticides enter the food chains of land and aquatic ecosystems and then accumulate graduclly at each trophic. level. This is known as iological magnification. ww) USucceed Science Class 10 ‘¢ Human beings occupy top level in any food chain, the ‘maximum concentration of these chemicals get accumulated in our bodies, The food ites ike cereals, vegetables, fruits and even meat contain ‘some varying amount of pesticide residues. They connot always. be removed by weshing or other ‘means. ‘¢ Humans are an integral part of the environment, Many of theit activities cause several environmental problems like ozone layer depletion and waste disposal, 2. Ozone Layer and its Importance «¢ The layer of atmosphere in which most of the atmosphere’s ozone is concentrated is called ozone layer. « Ozone (0,), is composed of three oxygen atoms. It isa toxic chemical formed by the combination of free oxygen atom with molecular oxygen. 0, Wo + 0 eC O, Ozone «It shields the surface of the earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiations of the sun. ‘= These radiations are highly damaging to organisms. They can cause skin cancer in human beings, damage eyes (cause disease colled cataract), decrease crop yield, disturb global rainfall, etc. 3. Depletion of Ozone Layer + Due to environmental pollution, ozone layer has began to deplete in the 1980s. This was mainly dve to the increasing use synthetic chemicals lke Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These are used in refrigerants as coolant and in fire extinguishers. * CFCs are very stable, These are found to persist in the atmosphere, Being stable, they do not degrade easily and rise high up in the atmosphere, In the atmosphere, UV radiations breakdown CFCs molecules and release chlorine atom. These atoms on reacting with ozone, dissociates ozone molecules into oxuger. « Thus, decreasing amount of ozone results in the depletion of ozone layer. An example of ozone layer depletion can be observed in Antarctica, ‘« The United Nations Environment Programme CUNEP) succeeded in forming an agreement to freeze CFCS production at 1986 levels,