CONTROL AND COORDINATION # Neuron or Nerve Cells:

# Some Important Terms: It is the structural and functional unit of nervous system. It is the longest cell
1) Stimulus or stimuli: Changes in surrounding environment are called stimuli. found in human body with length approx. 90 to 100 micrometre.
Examples of external stimuli are light, heat, cold, sound, smell, touch, pressure, Structure of Neuron and Function:
Pain and water. 1) Cell body or Cyton: cell body comprises a centrally dense nucleus that is
2) Response: The reaction generated in our body due to a given stimulus is called surrounded by granular cytoplasm. Different cell organelles are present in
response. cytoplasm to carry out specific metabolic activities. Centrosomes is not found in
3) Nerve Impulse: Electrical signals travelling along a neuron is called nerve cell body since nerve cells do not undergoes cell division. Cell body receives nerve
impulse. impulses from dendrites and transmit them to axon.
4) Receptors or Sensory Organs: Cells or organs which receives the stimulus and
sets up nerve impulses is called receptor.
a) Photoreceptor: eye receives light 2) Dendrites: The tree like fine branched extensions of cell body are called
b) Phonoreceptor: ears receives sound dendrites. Dendrites receives chemical signal from sense organs and convert
c) Olfactory receptors: nose receives smell them into electrical signals send it to cell body.
d) Gustatory receptor: tongue receives taste 3) Axons: Longest single extension of cell body is called Axon. It is coated by
e) Thermo or thigmoreceptor: skin receives temperature or touch multi-layer fatty substances called myelin sheath provide insulation to electrical
5) Effectors: A muscles or gland which upon receiving stimulus contracts or signals. Axons carries nerves impulses from cell body to the next neurons.
secrete substances is called effectors.
# Need for Control and Coordination: Synapse: the gap between the end of axon of one neuron and tip of the dendrite
All the living organisms respond to stimuli and such respond involve many organs of another neuron is called synapse.
of their body. Therefore, it is necessary that all involved manner to produce At nerve ending, axons releases molecules of chemicals of chemical messengers
proper response. That is why we need control and coordination system. (called neurotransmitters) into the synapse and finally received by receptors
# Co-ordination in Animals: membrane of dendrite of another neuron, the dendrite converts the chemical
Coordination in animals involves nervous system and Endocrine system. Nervous signals into electrical signals.
system coordinates through the electrical impulses whereas endocrine systems
coordinates by generating the chemical known as Hormones. Neuromuscular junctions: it is a point where muscles fibre comes into contact
Nervous System: Nervous system comprises of network of nervous or neurons. with the axon of the motor neuron. Axon releases the neurotransmitter to
muscles fibre and muscles contract or relax according to it.
Need or functions of nervous systems: Functional Classification of Neurons:
1) It regulates voluntary and involuntary movements of human body. 1) Sensory or Afferent Neurons: It transmits information’s from receptor to
2) It enables us to remember things. Central Nervous System (CNS)
3) With the help of sense organs, we are informed about outside worlds. 2) Motor or Efferent Neurons: It transmits information from CNS to effectors.
4) It helps us in thinking and reasoning. 3) Connector or Relay Neurons: It interconnects the sensory and motor neurons
5) It also controls the reflex actions of the human body. and commonly found in brain and spinal cords.
Parts of Nervous System: In human beings nervous system is divided into CNS and (c) Diencephalon: it connects forebrain to mid brain and divide into two parts.
PNS. (i) Thalamus: its main function is relaying motor and sensory signals to
Nervous cerebrum.
system (ii) Hypothalamus: it links nervous system to endocrine system and control
pituitary gland. It also control centre of hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature,
sweating etc.
Central
Peripheral (2) Mid Brain: it connects forebrain to hind brain.
Nervous
system System
It is responsible for, visual and auditory processing.
It controls movements of eye muscles, change in pupil size and opening or
Somatic Autonomic closing eye lens.
spinal cord Brain Nervous nervous (3) Hind Brain: it consists of:
system system
(a) Cerebellum: it is the second largest part of brain.
Functions: it controls voluntary movements. It controls body posture, balance
# Central Nervous System: and equilibrium.
CNS consists of the Brain and The Spinal cord. It is also responsible for accuracy and precision.
Brain (b)Pons: it present between mid-brain and Medulla oblongata. It controls
Brain in the human beings is the largest and the most developed among all others respiration function.
animals. It is situated in a bony box called cranium or skull which protects the (c) Medulla Oblongata: it is posterior most part of brain.
brain form the mechanical injuries. It is surrounded by three membrane called Function: it control involuntary activities such as breathing, swallowing,
meninges. The space between the meninges are filled with clear and colourless peristaltic movement etc. it is also coughing, sneezing and vomiting etc. it is
fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. The major functions of this fluids are: also control centre of heart.
 Protects brain form the mechanical injuries Spinal Cord
 Supplies nutrients to nervous system Spinal cord is a long and thin tube like structure made up of bunch of nerve
 Remove waste generated during metabolism process in the brain. cells and enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column. It arises from
The weight of the adult brain is approx. 1400 grams. It has about 100 billion of medulla oblongata. Spinal cord also covered with meninges that filled with
neurons. cerebrospinal fluid.
Brain is divided into three main regions: The core of spinal cord consists of grey matter (cell bodies and dendrites) and
(1) Forebrain: it is the anterior region of the brain. It has three main parts: white matter (axon of nerve cells).
(a) Cerebrum: it is largest and most important part of the brain. It is divided Functions: it conducts sensory and motor impulses to and from the brain.
into right and left cerebral hemisphere. It acts as a centre from the reflex actions.
Function: It is centre of mental activities like thinking, learning, reasoning, Reflex Actions: a reflex action is an automatic and rapid response to a stimulus.
memorising and intelligence. It protects the body from damage and does not controlled by brain. This is
It also controls will, emotions, speech, taste, sense of sight, touch, pain and because it may take time for brain to instruct muscles. Example: removal of
temperature. hands after touching hot objects.
(b) Olfactory Lobes: it receives impulses from olfactory receptor and process Reflex Arc: the pathways by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc.
them.
 Response thyroid hormone
Stimulus Spinal cord LH Promote ovulation
Prolactin Milk production
Oxytocin Increase uterine
sense motor contraction
organs neuron Thyroid Neck Thyroxine Regulate Goitre:
metabolism(iodine increase in
sensory controles) body weight
effectors Parathyroid Neck Calcitonin Regulate calcium
neurons
intake in blood
Endocrine System: Another type of system which co-ordinately by releasing Pancreas Below Insulin Decrease blood Low insulin
chemicals known as hormones. stomach sugar by increasing cause
Characteristics of hormones: the uptake of diabeties
i. They are secreted by endocrine glands in animals. glucose by cell
ii. They poured directly into blood streams. Glucagon Increase blood
iii. They act only on specific organs known as target organs. sugar by
iv. They generally secreted in small amount breakdown of
The coordination which involve hormones known as chemical coordination. It is glycogen in liver
Pineal gland Brain Melatonin Control sleep cycle
generally slower than nervous system.
Adrenal gland Above Adrenaline Stimulate fight or
Need for chemical coordination or Endocrine system:
kidneys flight response
To control the various activity in the human body, these activities need to be
Testis Lower Testosterone Regulate sperm
tightly regulated therefore the endocrine comes in action.
abdome production and
Endocrine glands: these are ductless glands which release their secretions directly n secondary sexual
into blood for transport to target organs. character in male
Gland Position Hormone Function Disease Ovary Lower Oestrogen Egg maturation
release abdome and secondary
Hypothalamus Present GhRH Regulate the n sexual character
in brain secretion of Progesterone Prepare uterus to
pituitary gland receive fertilised
Pituitary Base of GH Regulate Gigantism: egg
brain development large human
stature FEEDBACK MECAHANISM:
Dwarfism: The timing and amount of hormone released in our body is controlled by a
stunted
mechanism is called feedback mechanism. It keeps the secretion in control and
growth
precise quantity.
TSH Regulate the
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
secretion of the
Plants do not have nervous system, muscles and sense organs still they respond conversion of a flower into fruit, the growth of a pollen tube down the style
to external stimulus by using hormones. Thus plants have only chemical during fertilization, movement of tentacles in Drosera, etc.
coordination.
Plant Movements: Thigmotropism:
Plants move is broadly classified into two types: The growing or developing movements made through plants in response to
contact with a solid object are called thigmotropism. These type of movements
Nastic Movements Trophic Movements
are usually seen in tendrils and twines.
Doesn’t involve any growth Does involve growth to show
movement
Hydrotropism:
Direction of movement id not fixed Direction of response is fixed i.e.,
The movement or the growth of a plant in relation to the stimulus of water is
either towards or away from the
called hydrotropic movements and the equivalent response to the stimulus of
stimulus.
water is called hydrotropism. In this type of movement, roots show the positive
Eg: Movement of leaves in “Touch me Eg: bending of stem towards light. hydrotropic response, as they move and grow towards the water.
not plant”/mimosa/chui-mui.
Thermo tropism:
It is the form of a tropic movement in which a plant or a part of the plant
Movement in Mimosa Plant: opening and closing of the plants' leaflets and the responds to the changing atmospheric temperature.
entire leaf are controlled by fluid-filled sac-like structures found at the base of the
compound leaf and each leaflet. When the plant is touched, electrical signals are
flashed by the cells. The cells respond to this signal by flushing out potassium and
water. With the massive loss of water, the leaf stalk bends over and the leaflets
fold.
TROPHIC MOVEMENTS:
Phototropism:
Plants grow towards or away from the light, the type of tropism in the response
to light is called phototropism. In general, the stems usually show positive
phototropism, while roots show negative phototropism. Leaves also positively
respond toward the source of light.

Gravitropism:
It is a type of tropism where plants show some growth in response to gravity.
Stems are negative to the gravitropism while roots are positive to the
gravitropism.

Chemotropism:
When plants grow in response to certain chemicals, this type of response is
known as chemotropism. Few examples of chemotropic movements are the
 1. Law of Dominance: hybrid offspring will only inherit the dominant trait in the
phenotype. The alleles that are suppressed are called the recessive traits while
HEREDITY the alleles that determine the trait are known as the dominant traits.
Genetic: branch of science that deals with the heredity and variation. 2. Law of Segregation: During the formation of gamete, each gene separates from
Heredity: it means the transmission of the features or characteristics or traits each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.
form one generation to another.
3. Law of Independent Assortment: during a dihybrid cross (crossing of two pairs
Dominant trait: The character which expresses itself in a (F1) generation is of traits), an assortment of each pair of traits is independent of the other.
dominant trait. Example: Tallness is a dominant character in pea plant.
Recessive trait: The character which does not express itself but is present in a
Monohybrid cross
generation is recessive trait. Ex. dwarfism in the pea plant.
He took pure tall (genotype TT) and pure dwarf (genotype tt) pea plants and cross
Homozygous: A condition in which both the genes of same type are present for pollinated them to obtain first generation or first filial (F1) generation. In this
example; an organism has both the genes for tallness it is expressed as [TT] and figuration (F1 generation) he obtained only tall plants. This meant that only one of
genes for dwarfness are written as [tt]. the parental traits was seen, not the mixture of the two. The plants of F
Heterozygous: A condition in which both the genes are of different types for generation or progeny are then self-pollinated to obtain F2 generation or
example; an organism has genes [Tt] it means it has a gene for tallness and the progeny. Now all plants were not tall. He obtained 75% tall plants and 25% dwarf
other for dwarfness only tall character is expressed. plants i.e. the phenotypic ratio was 3:1. This indicates that in the F, generation
both tall and dwarf traits were inherited but tallness expressed itself. Tallness is a
Genotype: It is genetic make-up of an individual for example; a pure tall plant is
dominant trait and dwarfness is a recessive trait. F2 generation has a genotypic
expressed as [TT] and hybrid tall as [Tt].
ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of three types of plants represented by TT, Tt and tt as shown in
Phenotype: It is external appearance of the organism for example; a plant having the cross.
[Tt] composition will appear tall although it has gene for dwarfness.

Mendel Experiments:
Plant: Pea
Scientific name: Pisum sativum
He studied on seven characteristics.
 Pea shape (round or wrinkled)
 Pea colour (green or yellow)
 Pod shape (constricted or inflated)
 Pod colour (green or yellow)
 Flower colour (purple or white)
 Plant size (tall or dwarf)
 Position of flowers (axial or terminal)
He stated the three laws of heredity:
 DIHYBRID CROSS
Mendel also carried out experiments to observe inheritance of two pairs of
contrasting characters, which is called dihybrid cross. He cross breed pea plants
bearing round green seed with plants bearing wrinkled and yellow seeds. In the Phenotypic ratio: yellow round: yellow wrinkled: green round: green wrinkled
F1 generation he obtained all round and yellow seeds it means round and yellow 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
traits of seeds are dominant features while wrinkled and green are recessive. He Genotypic ratio: YYRR: YYRr: YYrr: YyRR: YyRr: Yyrr: yyRR: yyRr: yyrr
self-pollinated the plants of F: generation to obtain F2 generation, he obtained 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
four different types of seeds round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow and
Sex Determination in Human Beings:
wrinkled green in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. He concluded that traits are
independently inherited In human beings, all chromosomes are not paired. 22 chromosomes are paired
but one pair called sex chromosome is odd in not having a perfect pair in males.
Females have a perfect pair both represented by XX. On the other hand males
have a normal sized X but the other is short called Y so it is shown as XY. All
gametes or ova formed by the homogametic female are similar i.e. have X
chromosome. Male’s heterogenetic form two types of sperms i.e. half with X
chromosome and the other half with Y chromosome. Sex of the baby will depend
on fertilization. There are two possibilities:
 There are different types of red blood cells such as A, B, AB and O with or without
the Rh factor. The difference is in the antigen present on the red blood
cell surface which determines the specific blood group in an organism.

Co-Dominance in Blood:
Co-dominance is the type of dominance where the offspring show similarity to
both the parents and it is due to the blending of alleles.
When the F1 generation exhibits both the parental characters, this is called co-
dominance. The offspring will be a combination of both the parent. The
ABO blood group system is one of the best examples of co-dominance.